Module 4 Information

pemmican

Among the early examples of processed convenience food was ___________________, strips of dried buffalo meat mixed with fat and berries that could be eaten "on the go" by First Nations peoples of the Great Plains.

shelf lives, nutrients, textures

Food manufacturers process foods and raw ingredients to add value to their products, in the form of longer _________ _________, added dietary _________________, appealing _______________ and other features.

two-thirds

Food packaging accounts for roughly _______-__________ of total packaging waste in the United States.

25

From 1966 to 1999, the amount of time U.S. adults ages 25 to 54 spent cooking meals decreased by ______ percent.

local

The term _______ is not strictly defined but often describes food that was produced within the geographic region where the consumer lives, or food that is sold directly from a farmer to a consumer or nearby retailer.

plant-growing

There's reason to believe aquaponics boosts the efficiency of the ________-____________ process.

farmers, natural resources, well-being

We want to support markets that provide a fair price to ___________, encourage stewardship of _____________ _______________, and promote community _______-___________ all over the world.

nutrients, heavy metals, antibiotics, hormones

When animal waste is sprayed on fields, it can contaminate nearby waterways with excess ______________, _________ __________, ____________________ and ______________.

ecosystems, organic matter

When managed properly, animals that graze or forage outdoors can improve farm ____________________; this is partly because their manure is a form of ______________ ___________ that helps build fertile soil.

mixing, baking, frying, curing, smoking, vitamins, minerals

Highly processed foods are made using techniques like __________, __________, _________, ___________, ____________ and the addition of _______________ and ______________.

Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act

In 1938 Congress passed the federal ________, ________, ______ _________________ _______, which allowed the FDA to issue specific food safety standards.

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)

In 1993 an outbreak of E. coli occurred in ground beef, causing hundreds of people to fall ill and four to die; in response, a new approach to food safety regulation, ___________ ______________ _______ ______________ ___________ __________, was implemented -- this focused on the prevention and reduction of microbial pathogens on products, rather than testing after the fact.

quality, value

In general, the more processing that's needed, the higher the ____________ and the _________ of the energy.

distribution, equipment, purity

Liquid fuels for transportation energy must also conform to their intended ___________________________ and ___________________ systems and meet specific ___________ standards.

scale of production

Local food can also be associated with ________ ____ ___________________________.

producer, buyer, Internet sales, mail order

Local food is associated with direct-to-consumer retail sales because ________________ and __________ proximity is required when products are purchased directly from farms, with the exception of _______________ ________ and _______ _________.

unprocessed, minimally

Some nutritionists recommend diets based primarily on ______________________ and ___________________ processed foods.

harvested, stored, prepared

Factors such as when the produce was __________________, how long it had been ____________ and how it will be __________________ determine whether the fresh, frozen or canned version of a food is the most nutritious choice.

moral responsibility, regulatory compliance, marketing, fear of litigation

Farms and food processors have at least four reasons to be concerned with food safety -- _________ ____________________________, _________________ ______________________, __________________, and _________ _____ _____________________.

E. coli

Feeding large amounts of grain to cattle may increase the food safety risks from animal waste by altering the animals' digestive systems in ways that promote larger populations of a disease-causing strain of ____ _______.

grain, grass, forages

Feedlot cattle are fed a predominantly _________ diet, even though their digestive systems are meant to process their natural diet of _________ and other _______________; this can cause painful liver abscesses.

cultural norms, common sense, food producers

For thousands of years, people had three tools for ensuring the safety of their food: __________________ _________, ___________ __________, and direct relationships with ________ __________________.

nutrient deficiencies, iodine, iodine

Fortification was designed to prevent ______________ ___________________________ in the general population; in the 1830s, French chemist Jean Boussingault advocated adding ___________ to table salt to prevent goiter, a condition frequently caused by ____________ deficiency.

high-value, non-perishable, lower, shorter

From an energy-use perspective, long-distance transportation of food is generally best suited to _______-_________, ______-_______________________ products, while it makes sense to produce food with _________ value and/or ______________ shelf life closer to its markets.

wash their hands, temperature, wildlife, trace-back, how, when

GAPs address a wide range of management activities, including training employees how to ________ _________ ________, tracking the _______________________ of refrigerators, checking fields daily for the presence of ________________, and instituting _________-________ procedures so specific products can be quickly identified and recalled if necessary; GAPs also limit ______ and ________ manure can be applied to fields.

55

Global demand for meat is expected to rise by more than ______ percent between 1997 and 2020, with most of the increase occurring in developing countries.

passive system

Has no moving parts and uses no mechanical energy in hydroponic growing.

smoked, canned, salted, cured, nuggets, hot dogs, sausages, burgers

Highly processed animal products include ___________, ___________, ___________ and __________ meats and products made from extruded remnants of meat, such as _____________, _______ ________ and some ________________ and _____________.

portable, anywhere, preparation

Highly processed foods are made from combinations of unprocessed food, minimally processed and processed food ingredients; they are often ________________, can be eaten __________________ and require little or no ____________________________.

cereal bars, biscuits, chips, cakes, pastries, ice cream, soft drinks, breads, pasta, breakfast cereals, infant formula

Highly processed foods include snacks and desserts, such as ___________ _______, ______________, ________, ________ and _____________, ______ __________ and ________ ___________; as well as ___________, __________, ____________________ ______________ and ___________ ______________.

spoiling

Historically, the most important reason to process or prepare foods has been to make them last longer before ________________.

untreated manure, slaughter, processing

Humans can be exposed to pathogens and chemical contaminants in animal waste through produce that was fertilized with _________________ _____________; meat can also become contaminated with waste-borne contaminants during ______________ and __________________.

corn, soy, overproduction, environmental

IFAP industries benefit from inexpensive and widely available ________ and _______ crops, made possible in part by government policies that encourage _______________________________; they also benefit from weak enforcement of _____________________________ regulations by government agencies.

carbon dioxide

IFAP operations are also a significant source of _________ ____________ because they depend on fossil fuels, particularly in the production of feed crops.

J. H. Kellogg

In 1860, Dr. ___ ___ ____________ invented a form of granola-like cereal designed to fit the austere diets of Seventh Day Adventists; he and his brother later founded the company that bears his name.

Abraham Lincoln

In 1862 ________________ ____________ established the USDA, which included a division of chemistry that eventually became the FDA.

Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs)

In 1998, in response to elevated concerns about the safety of fresh produce, the government developed _________ __________________________ _______________, a voluntary set of guidelines for growers to follow to reduce the risk of contamination from a variety of sources.

Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA)

In 2011 the ________ ____________ ______________________________ _______ was signed into law; it is the first food safety law to directly regulate fresh-produce farms.

nutrition, purify

In an aquaponic system, animal waste provides plants with __________________; the plants, in turn, ___________ the water by absorbing and using the waste.

heat, diesel, gasoline, electricity

In general, but with many exceptions, solid biomass is used to provide ________, liquid biofuels are used in place of __________ or __________________, and biogas is used to generate ___________________________.

active system

In general, heating or cooling systems that rely on mechanical means to produce energy or, to be more specific, a hydroponic growing system that features moving parts and/or mechanics.

animal welfare, voluntary

In response to consumer demand, certain retailers have called for minimal ___________ _____________ standards in the industry; these standards are largely _________________, and only minimal legislation exists to protect food animals from these and other harms.

hunting, gathering, grow, harvest, process, package, deliver

In simple food systems, such as ___________ and _________________, very little additional energy is needed to convert the sun's energy to food energy in one's stomach; in complex food systems, lots of energy is used in a large number of processes required to ________, ______________, ____________, ____________, and _____________ the end product to consumers.

local, regional

In some areas, the addition of more ________ and _______________ food processors may help "loosen" the bottleneck between producers and consumers by offering farmers more options on where to process their goods.

manure lagoons, fertilizer

In some cases, IFAP waste is stored as a slurry in outdoor cesspits called ____________ ______________; it is also sprayed on fields as ______________________.

Napoleon Bonaparte, Nicolas Appert

In the 1790s, __________________ ____________________ offered a prize to the scientist who could best develop ways to preserve foods for the armies of France; the competition prompted the discovery of safe canning practices by _______________ _____________.

marketed, four hundred, state

In the 2008 Farm Bill, the federal government's key agriculture and food policy tool, Congress defined locally produced agricultural food products as those that are "raised, produced, and distributed in the locality or region in which the final product is ________________, so that the total distance the product is transported is less than _______ _____________ miles from the origin of the product, or within the same _________ where the product is produced."

grass, forages, outdoor feedlots

In the IFAP system, beef cattle spend most of their lives on pasture eating ________ and other ___________; before slaughter, the animals are shipped to _____________ ______________ where they gain additional weight on largely grain-based diets.

specialized, grain

In the IFAP system, large numbers of animals are raised in confined facilities where they are fed ____________________, largely _________-based diets.

vertically

In the hog and poultry industries, large companies are often _______________ integrated, controlling successive stages along the supply chain for a particular product.

peak oil, climate change

Increasing attention is being given to the consequences of transporting large volumes of food over great distances; among other concerns are ________ ______ and ____________ __________.

growers

Integrators enter into contracts with ____________, people who own indoor facilities in which they raise hogs and chickens until they are ready for slaughter.

own, feed, housed, maintained, autonomy, waste, carcasses, environmental, health

Integrators typically ______ the animals, supply specially formulated _______ and specify how animals will be ___________ and ___________________; growers have little or no _________________ over how animals are raised, but bear responsibility for handling concentrated animal _________ and the __________________ of animals that die during production -- along with the _________________________ and __________ risks associated with these materials.

poverty, corporations, community

It is estimated that most poultry growers earn wages that put them below the _____________ level; profits are transferred to _________________________ and do not stay in the _____________________.

concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs)

Larger IFAP facilities are sometimes called ____________________ _________ __________ ________________.

value chains

Local (and regional) food is also associated with "________ ___________" that aggregate food from multiple farms in order to deliver a large volume of food to nearby wholesale buyers or to support a processing enterprise.

energy, environmental, local economies, fresher, tastier, nutritional, community

Local food is credited with conserving __________, making better use of ___________________________ resources, contributing to ________ _________________, being ____________ and ____________ than other food, providing greater _______________________ value, and building ____________________.

taxpayer

Local governments may also prefer to buy local products, including food, to reinvest __________________ dollars in their own economies.

cattle belching, animal manure, synthetic fertilizers

Major sources of GHGs from the production of animal products include _________ ___________, __________ __________ and the application of _________________ _________________ in growing feed crops.

consolidated

Many facilities in the food animal production industry became ________________________, or larger and fewer in number.

circuitously

Many foods do not travel a single direct route but move _______________________ and take many complex steps along the supply chain from field to plate.

pathogens, antibiotics, hormones

Many risks stem from the practice of confining large numbers of animals in IFAP facilities, where they produce enormous quantities of concentrated waste that harbors ___________________, ____________________, _______________ and other contaminants.

washing, peeling, slicing, juicing, inedible, freezing, drying, fermenting

Minimal forms of processing include ____________, ____________, ____________, ____________ and removing ________________ parts; some nutritionists also characterize ________________, ___________ and ________________________ as minimal forms of processing.

value, processing, cost

Not only does the processing of an energy form add _________ for end users, but external energy inputs are required to conduct the __________________, and these two factors tend to increase its ________.

biofuels, geothermal, hydro, solar, wind

On-farm sources may be carbon-based (________________) or non-carbon-based (_______________________, __________, __________, or ________-generated).

microgreens

One of the most popular crops grown in indoor farms and vertical farming facilities; very young greens that are harvested after they sprout as shoots; the seedlings of edible vegetables and herbs.

open ocean aquaculture (OOA)

One type of aquaculture is called ________ _________ _______________________, which means raising fish in offshore pens or cages that are free-floating, secured to a structure, anchored to the ocean floor or towed by a boat.

USDA, state, nonprofits

Organic food labeling is regulated on a national basis by the __________, but certification is carried out by accredited certification agencies, which may be ________-based organizations or _____________________.

freshness, local economy, source

People value ___________________, supporting their ________ ______________, and knowing the __________ of the products they buy.

refrigerating, freezing, fermenting, drying, salt, sugar

Preservation techniques such as __________________________, ______________, ____________________, ___________ and adding ________ or __________ can slow or stop the growth of pathogens.

nutrient-poor

Processed food ingredients tend to be ______________-________, meaning they are high in calories relative to the amount of vitamins, minerals and other key dietary nutrients.

minimally, ingredients, highly

Processed foods are classified in three categories: __________________ processed food, processed food ____________________________, and ____________ processed food.

distribution

Proximity also typifies certain markets where farms are separated from the consumer by just one ___________________________ step, such as food sales to restaurants, general stores and food co-ops, or institutions like hospitals and schools.

energy, ignite, clinker

Shell corn has a high ___________ content, and corn production and handling equipment is widely available; however, corn is harder to ____________ than some other fuels, and when combusted it leaves behind a solid form of ash called a _____________.

advertising, financing, packaging, storage, transportation

Shifting to local purchases can also increase the circulation of dollars in the local economy if additional functions such as ___________________, _______________, _______________, ____________, and ____________________________ are localized.

conservation, efficiency, diet, renewable energy, complimentary, fossil fuels, GHG emissions

Significant energy improvements can be achieved by adopting practices that increase energy __________________________ and __________________, shifting to a _________ that is less energy-intensive, and adopting __________________ __________ sources in place of fossil fuels; the three approaches are _______________________________, and their combination is essential for making meaningful progress in reducing both dependency on ___________ _________ and _______ _______________ generated by food systems.

170, 30, cheaper, healthier

Since 1970, U.S. poultry production increased by nearly ________ percent while beef production declined by nearly _______ percent; this may reflect a growing consumer preference for poultry, likely due to _____________ prices per pound than other meats and consumers' perception of chicken as a ________________ option.

tainted meats

Since Lincoln's time, the federal government has become increasingly involved in the regulation of food in order to promote its safety, starting in the late 1800s with laws that prohibited the sale of _______________ __________.

waste, localized

Since fish are concentrated in a small area, their ________ is also concentrated; if the surrounding water have slow currents, domesticated fish pens can contribute to a ______________ pollution problem.

light-emitting diode (LED)

Small, electroluminescent lights that are energy efficient, boast a very long lifespan, and emit little to no heat.

plant leaves, sugars, starches

Solar energy drives the harvest of atmospheric CO2 by ________ ___________ and its transformation into more complex carbon chains, like __________ and ______________.

grasses, shell corn, wood, biodiesel, ethanol, vegetable oils

Solid biomass fuels include __________, ________ _______, and ________; liquid biomass fuels include __________________, ______________, and ______________________ ________.

size, shape, moisture, ash

Solid fuels combusted for heating energy must be of the right _______ and __________, with an optimal ________________ and _______ content for the furnace they'll be put in.

freezing, canning

Some forms of preservation can also maintain nutrient levels in certain foods; _______________ or _____________ can preserve levels of certain nutrients.

sustainable, food supply, variety, economic returns

Some researchers suggest the optimal scale is one that best supports ____________________________ production, provides an adequate ________ ___________, offers a _____________ of food options and keeps _____________________ ___________ within an area.

cardiovascular disease, diabetes, sexual dysfunction, cancers, immune

Studies have found links between BPA exposure and ________________________ ____________, ____________, male ____________ ___________________, certain _____________ and changes to ___________ function.

socially conscious

Surveys indicate younger people are more willing to patronize businesses with ____________ __________________ values.

cover crops, intensive pasture management, farmers' markets, community, food hubs, farm-to-institution

The SARE program funds research on and education about practices like using _________ _______ in place of fertilizers to provide nutrients and maintain soil organic matter, ________________ ___________ __________________________ to produce livestock at lower cost without having to till the land for row crops, and a range of market approaches that build ties between farmers and the communities, such as ____________ ____________, ___________________-supported agriculture, ________ ________, and ________-_____-________________________ programs.

type

The _______ of food eaten by consumers appears to have a more significant influence on energy use and GHG emissions than whether food is local or not.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

The _________ ______ ________ ____________________________, an organization responsible for ensuring the safety of our food supply, has been criticized for inadequately inspecting food processing facilities.

USDA, FDA

The __________ and the ________ are responsible for developing a variety of food safety regulations and guidelines.

political, economic

The ______________ and ___________________ conditions of a place may also be factors in attracting certain forms of food production.

breeding, feeds

The animals themselves also became more specialized, as advanced ______________ techniques -- coupled with diets of specially formulated _________ -- decreased the time it took for them to reach market weight.

hidden, externalized

The benefits of IFAP came alongside public health, environmental, social and animal welfare costs; because these costs are not reflected in the price of food, they are said to be ____________ or _________________________.

purchasing, eat

The eating public can support lower fossil-energy consumption through their _________________ behaviors; people can also reduce the amount of energy used to produce their food by changing what they _______.

civic agriculture

The embedding of local agriculture and food production in the community has been termed "________ ________________________" by Thomas Lyson.

vegetables, seafood, environmental

The fact that aquaponic systems yield healthy fish means they have power to offer consumers affordable _________________________ and _____________ while limiting their _____________________________ impact.

energy needs, availability, cost, grants, tax policy, public opinion, technical support

The type of energy system that a farmer may be interested in depends on the __________ ________ of the farm (heat, liquid fuel, or electricity), the ______________________ and _______ of energy feedstocks on or near the farm (grass, manure, oilseeds, shell corn, solar, wind, wood), and the incentives or disincentives in the form of _________, ______ ___________, ___________ _______________, and _________________ ____________.

climate, topography, soil

The types of crop and food animal production best suited for a region depend on its ___________, ________________________, ________ and other factors.

positive relationships among people

The underlying value of a local food system has a lot to do with ___________ _______________________ __________ ____________.

industrial food animal production (IFAP)

The way the United States raises animals for food has changed dramatically in recent decades with the development of ________________ _______ __________ _____________________, an outgrowth of the overall industrialization of the nation's agriculture.

infections, meat, produce, soil, air, water

The widespread use of antibiotics has been shown to cause bacterial pathogens to become resistant to many antibiotics, ultimately eroding the ability of these drugs to treat ________________ in humans; people can be exposed to antibiotic-resistant organisms by consuming ________ or ____________ that carry these bacteria or through contact with contaminated ________, ______ and ___________.

integrators

There are companies who are referred to as ___________________ -- they own the rights to raise a particular breed, oversee how the animals are raised, slaughter them, process their meat and market the finished products.

quality, availability, consumption

There are two ways that local food can improve human nutrition and health: by improving the __________ of food that people are already consuming and/or by increasing the ________________________ and thus the _______________________ of healthier food.

small, local, 275

Three years after the 2008 Farm Bill, Congress used a slightly different definition when it enacted food safety legislation that included an exemption for ________, ________ producers, which were defined as those selling the majority of their food directly to consumers, restaurants, or retail food establishments located in the same state or not more than ________ miles from the farm.

economies of scale, lower prices

To get the best deal, large-scale distributors and processors seek out producers from outside regional, state and national boundaries; they generally buy from large-scale producers that benefit from ________________ _____ _________ and can sell their products at _________ __________.

Cooperative Extension, commercial grower associations, state agencies of agriculture

To meet the needs of small-scale producers and the smaller markets they typically supply, __________________ ___________________, _________________ ___________ ________________________, and ________ _____________ _____ ____________________________ offer practical food safety training and in some cases a certification program that covers the core principles of GAPs but without all the detailed procedures that create a need for expensive recordkeeping.

Low Input Sustainable Agriculture, LISA, SARE, Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education

To promote sustainable agriculture, Congress created the ______ ________ ______________________ ____________________ program, or _________, in the 1980s; after several years, it was renamed ________, for ______________________ ____________________ _____________ ______ ______________.

processed, packaged, commodity animal

To the extent that local food systems promote dietary shifts to less __________________ and ________________ food, they may lower energy use; local foods may also lower energy use to the extent that they lower the consumption of _____________________ ____________ products, which tend to be energy-intensive to produce.

11

Transportation accounts for roughly _____ percent of the GHG emissions from the U.S food supply chain.

antibiotics, animal waste, animals

Under the IFAP system, animal feed may contain _________________, ___________ ________ and ground up parts of _____________.

treated

Unlike human waste, there is no requirement that animal waste be _____________ before it is applied to cropland or otherwise disposed of.

83, 11, 4

Using life-cycle analysis, Weber and Matthews found that ______ percent of the average U.S. householder's annual GHG emissions associated with food came from its production, transporting food accounted for only ______ percent of their GHG emissions, and final delivery from producer to retail contributed only ____ percent.

pollution, soil erosion, rotational grazing

Well-managed pasture systems keep animals away from waterways to avoid ________________ and limit the number of animals grazing in any one area to prevent ________ _____________; practices such as ___________________ ____________ help to further prevent erosion, promote pasture growth and spread manure evenly over land.

nutrition, food safety, worker justice, local economies, environment

While food processing can offer many benefits to businesses and consumers, certain aspects of the industry raise concerns over ___________________, ________ ______________, ____________ ______________, _________ ____________________ and the __________________________.

dry plant material

While wood is commonly used for combustion, any ______ ________ _________________ can serve as a combustion feedstock.

densely populated, variety, capitalize

Within the United States, foods are transported over long distances for several reasons: to feed ____________ __________________ areas that could not otherwise acquire enough food locally, to provide consumers with great ____________ and to _____________________ on the advantages of places in producing certain foods.

health risks, working conditions, labor violations

Workers in U.S. meat and poultry processing plants often suffer _________ ________, poor _____________ __________________ and _________ ___________________.

airborne, soil, gases

Workers in animal houses, slaughterhouses and crop fields can also be exposed to waste-borne contaminants through ______________ particles or contact with ________ where manure was applied; _________ emanating from concentrated animal waste can cause serious illness or death among IFAP workers and animals that are exposed to it.

free trade policies, growing consumer demand

_______ ________ ________________ and ___________ _______________ ___________ have added to the amount of food imported by the United States.

food processing

_______ _________________ is defined as the practices used by food and beverage industries to transform raw plant and animal materials, such as grains, produce, meat and dairy, into products for consumers.

food miles, local, regional

________ ________ -- the distance food travels from where it is grown or raised to where it is purchased by a consumer -- have come under considerable scrutiny; _________ and ________________ have become the qualities sought out by conscientious eaters.

flour milling, soybean processing, dairy processing, livestock slaughter

________ ___________, _______________ _________________, _________ __________________, and ________________ ______________ are among the processing industries that have grown more concentrated under the control of a small number of companies.

Louis Pasteur

________ _____________, working with beer and wine, would later discover pasteurization, a process that uses controlled amounts of heat to extend the shelf life of milk, juice and other products.

food distributors

________ _____________________ are the middlemen responsible for getting food from field to retail.

fruit, vegetables, legumes, nuts, meat, milk

________, _____________________, ______________, _______, ________ and _________ are often sold in minimally processed forms; foods sold as such are not substantially changed from their raw, unprocessed form and retain most of their nutritional properties.

industry concentration, horizontal integration

____________ ___________________________ often results when large corporations takeover or merge with other businesses competing in the same type of enterprise -- this is called ______________________ _____________________.

ethanol

_____________ is grain alcohol that's commonly made from corn; since it combusts easily and cleanly, U.S. production has been targeted by government policies and subsidies for supplementing gasoline supplies.

regional, geographic, cultural, political

______________ food systems generally represent a broader area that encompasses many scales of distribution, including local; it can be defined by _____________________, _________________, or __________________ boundaries.

biogas

______________ is fuel produced by the bacterial decomposition of organic material.

distance, food type, mode of production

______________, ________ ________ and ________ ____ ___________________ are all important considerations in reducing the harms associated with food choices.

biomass combustion

_______________ _______________________ is simply fire, which occurs when some low-moisture biomass and oxygen are combined at high temperatures, forming CO2, water vapor, and heat.

Bisphenol A (BPA)

_________________ ____ is a chemical commonly used in the linings of metal cans and in the manufacture of hard plastics, such as some bottles and food storage containers.

enrichment, fortification

____________________ and _______________________ are two of the ways that processing can restore or raise nutrient levels in food.

sustainable

____________________ seafood has been defined as being caught in ways that can be practiced for years to come without compromising aquatic ecosystems or putting any species in danger of extinction.

enrichment, fortification

_______________________ means the restoration of some of the nutrients that are lost during certain forms of processing; ____________________________ goes a step further by adding certain nutrients above the levels that naturally occur in food.

biodiesel

___________________ is a diesel fuel substitute that can be made from a variety of vegetable oils or fats.

anaerobic digestion

_____________________ ___________________ is most commonly used on large dairy and hog farms, where there is often more manure than is needed to maintain soil fertility.

Buy Local

"_____ ________" campaigns that promote local and regional food programs are also geographically based, but they tend to have flexible boundaries; such programs often focus on building consumer awareness of an area's food system and increasing demand for food products from that area to promote farm viability and economic development.

organic agriculture

A broad term that refers to growing crops without using certain synthetic pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, or genetically modified seeds; can also involve the adoption of particular farming practices.

aquaponics

A combination of aquaculture and traditional hydroponics; a type of indoor growing system in which crops are grown in conjunction with the raising of healthy fish and other marine animals.

conservation, efficiency

A payback more rapid than that achieved with any renewable energy system used to replace fossil energy is one that comes from increasing energy __________________________ and/or energy ___________________.

rooftop farms

A popular type of urban farm in which growing facilities are located on the otherwise unused rooftops of city buildings.

payback period, depreciation, maintenance

A standard calculation for evaluating the economics of a new energy system is the _______________ ___________, which is based on a predicted market price for energy and must account for __________________________ and _________________________ of the energy system.

agritecture

A term that evokes the fusion of agriculture and architecture; used today to describe the increasingly common practice of infusing agriculture into a built environment; the goal is to help improve urban sustainability by putting neglected or underutilized built spaces to work as places to grow food.

vertical farming

A type of controlled-environment agriculture where crops are cultivated in a closed environment on vertically stacked levels; most contemporary versions rely entirely on artificial light and sophisticated technology to optimize growing conditions and maximize yield.

hydroponics

A type of indoor growing system in which plants are grown directly in water containing mineral nutrients rather than in soil.

aeroponics

A type of indoor growing system that involves suspending plants in the air, usually on vertically oriented growing frames or towers, and nourishing them by spraying their root structures with a nutrient and water solution.

biomass, solar, wind

A wide range of renewable energy systems is being used on farms, and it includes many different energy sources as well as many different technologies for using those sources -- the energy sources include ______________, ________, and ________.

identity

Across the nation, interest in local food with an "_________________" is evidenced by the recent boom in direct-from-the-farm markets.

public health, environmental, social

Although IFAP has some economic benefits, much of the burden of producing animal products is an industrialized system is externalized in the form of _________ _________, _________________________ and __________ costs.

fossil energy inputs, analyses

Although in theory EROI is a valuable concept, it's not that easy to use for two reasons: first, the same kind of energy can be produced in different ways, with different amounts of _________ _________ ___________; second, assumptions vary with different EROI ________________.

energy, freshwater

Although it is efficient in some respects, the IFAP system can be particularly resource-intensive in terms of __________ and ______________________ use.

greenhouse

An outdoor structure that houses growing plants; can vary significantly in terms of size, design, and structure; provide an insulated environment that can extend the growing season by sheltering plants as they grow.

greenhouse gases, red meat, dairy

Another waste product from IFAP -- and animal agriculture in general -- is ____________________ _________, which contribute to climate change; the production of _______ _________ and _________ accounts for almost half of the total emissions from the field to retail portion of the U.S. food system.

energy return on investment, EROI

Another way to compare forms of energy is to calculate the amount of energy it takes to make a fuel relative to the final amount of usable energy obtained from it; this ratio is called the __________ __________ _____ _________________________, or ___________.

controlled-environment agriculture (CEA)

Any process in which plants are grown inside a closed environment; allows the grower to regulate all aspects of the growing environment -- including light, temperature, and humidity -- to produce crops of a consistent quality all year round.

organic

Aquaponics represents an _____________ approach to growing vegetables and other types of plant life.

digester, methane, heat, electricity

At the heart of anaerobic digestion is the _______________, a giant tank that is sealed from outside air to keep out oxygen; it's filled with manure that bacteria feed on, releasing biogas, which is mostly _______________; the biogas can be combusted to make ________, but more often it's used to run generators that make ______________________ for sale to the grid.

job-related injuries

Compared to all other job categories, the food processing industry as a whole ranks among the highest for _______-____________ _______________.

cooking, health food, organic, environment, health

Data found that the strongest factors associated with buying local food were enjoyment of __________, shopping at _________ ________ stores, and purchasing _____________ food; attitudes or behaviors related to the _________________________ and __________ were not much of a factor.

China, India, Brazil

Despite the harms associated with it, the IFAP model is being exported to many parts of the world, including _________, _________ and ___________.

animal bedding, soil amendment

Digested dairy manure solids may either be used for ___________ _____________ in place of a purchased input like sawdust or sold as _________ __________________________, generating revenue.

landfills, combusting

Discarding packaging materials in ________________ has the potential to pollute air and water, while ___________________ them for energy can emit greenhouse gases, dioxins and other pollutants that are harmful to health and the environment.

lifespan, feed

Diversified farms gave way to operations that handled a single species of animal during a particular period of its _________________; these facilities were usually distinct from the farms that grew crops for their _______.

aquaculture

During the 1980s and early 1990s, there were dramatic increases in the production of seafood via _______________________, which refers to the commercial farming of aquatic organisms for food, using tanks, constructed ponds or enclosures where their living conditions and feeding are controlled.

beer, leavened bread, salted pork, ham, bacon

Early Egyptians brewed ________ and discovered how to bake __________________ __________, and the ancient Greeks made ____________ _______, a precursor to _______ and __________.

procurement, biosecurity, pest control, cleaning, disinfection

Egg safety begins with industry programs that promote food safety practices on the farm; these practices include the _____________________________ of Salmonella-free chicks, _____________________, ________ ____________, and _______________ and ________________________________ of poultry houses.

transmission lines, equipment

Electricity, too, has stringent quality requirements: it must be suitable for _________________________ ________ and specialized _______________________.

15

Energy use in the overall U.S. food system has been calculated to account for about ______ percent of the entire U.S. energy budget.

transportation, household food storage, preparation

Energy used for _______________________________ is only a small portion of overall food system energy use, although it becomes more significant if one does not include energy used for _____________________ ________ _____________ and _________________________ in the calculations.

primary production

The sunlight-driven manufacture of living tissue by plants is called ___________ ______________________.

internal habits, distribution, supply, price

Barriers identified by all institutional and industry personnel were ______________ _________, ______________________, __________, and _________.

vegetable oil, methanol, glycerin

Biodiesel is made by the reaction of _____________________ _______ and an alcohol like __________________, and the use of a catalyst to remove ________________ from the vegetable oil.

refined grains

Breads and snack foods are often made with _______________ _________ -- grains that have been processed to remove the bran and germ, which contain important nutrients like B-vitamins, iron and fiber.

farm, business, production practices

Buying local food entails knowing something about the _______ that produced it, the _______________ that processed it, and the ___________________ _____________ that were used along the way.

2000

By _________ HACCP was implemented in all federal- and state-inspected meat and poultry slaughter and processing facilities.

profits, region, economy

By dealing with fewer middlemen, farmers can retain a larger share of ___________, keep money within their own ___________ and strengthen its ________________.

economies of scale

By raising more animals, large-scale operations achieved __________________ ______ __________, lowering their cost per unit of production.

urban agriculture

The general practice of growing food in urban areas.

virgin, canola, soybean, sunflower

The highest-quality biodiesel is made from __________ vegetable oils that are extracted from ____________, _______________, _____________________, and some other seeds.

1950s, 1970s

The industrialization of the cattle and poultry industries began in the __________, with swine production following in the ___________.

fewer, more, fewer

The industrialization trend in animal agriculture has been toward __________ operations, _______ animals raised on each one and _________ corporations controlling most aspects of the supply chain -- from breeding to feed production to slaughter in the marketing of meat, milk and eggs.

infrastructure

The lack of an efficient local transportation _________________________________ suggests that local foods use a relatively large amount of transportation energy per unit of food compared with the commodity food system.

Pure Food and Drug Act, Federal Meat Inspection Act

The modern era of food safety regulation arguably started in 1906 with passage of the ________ ________ ______ _________ _______ and the ______________ ________ __________________ _______.

indoor farming

The practice of growing crops or plants entirely indoors; often practiced on a very large scale using growing methods and tools such as hydroponics and artificial lighting systems.

flours, oils, fats, sugars, sweeteners, starches, high fructose corn syrup, margarine, vegetable oil

The processed food ingredients group includes __________, ________, _______, ____________, _______________________, _____________ and other ingredients; _______ _______________ ________ _________, __________________ and _____________________ ______ are common examples.

hogs, 1930s

The slaughtering of _______ was the first stage of the meat supply chain to undergo industrialization; by the __________, the industry came to resemble a mechanized assembly line.

conventional agriculture

The standard, or traditional, way that crops have been grown for millennia -- that is, outside, on soil-based farms; usually employs the use of tools like synthetic pesticides and fertilizers.