Motivation, Emotion, and Stress Ch 11 and 12

the desire to perform well and be successful. In this sense, the term often is used synonymously with need for achievement. 2. the desire to overcome obstacles and master difficult challenges. High scorers in achievement motivation are likely to set higher standards and work with greater perseverance than equally gifted low scorers. David McClelland found a significant relationship between high achievement motivation and early independence in childhood

Achievement motivation

acquired immune deficiency syndrome: a clinical condition in which the immune system is so severely damaged from infection with human immunodeficiency virus (see HIV) as to allow serious opportunistic infections and diseases.

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome AIDS

stability through change. Allostasis refers particularly to the idea that parameters of most physiological regulatory systems change to accommodate environmental demands. Although allostatic processes are critical for adaptive functioning, chronic or repeated activation of physiological systems in response to life's challenges is hypothesized to exact a toll on such systems.

Allostasis

Techniques for decreasing or restraining displays of anger.

Anger management training

n. an emotion characterized by apprehension and somatic symptoms of tension in which an individual anticipates impending danger, catastrophe, or misfortune. The body often mobilizes itself to meet the perceived threat: Muscles become tense, breathing is faster, and the heart beats more rapidly. Anxiety may be distinguished from fear both conceptually and physiologically, although the two terms are often used interchangeably. Anxiety is considered a future-oriented, long-acting response broadly focused on a diffuse threat, whereas fear is an appropriate, present-oriented, and short-lived response to a clearly identifiable and specific threat

Anxiety

the theory that the physical environment can affect arousal levels by stimulation and by stress created when psychological or physical needs are not met. Arousal increases when personal space is diminished (see crowding) or when people are subjected to noise, traffic congestion, or other adverse conditions

Arousal theory

the portion of the nervous system innervating smooth muscle and glands, including the circulatory, digestive, respiratory, and reproductive organs. It is divided into the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system. Autonomic responses typically involve changes in involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, salivation, digestion, perspiration, pupil size, hormone secretion, and bladder contraction. The system is called autonomic because it was once thought to function independently of the central nervous system.

Autonomic nervous system

Barbara Fredrickson's (2001) hypothesis of positive emotions; a happy mood increases your readiness to explore new ideas and opportunities. You explore new possibilities, think creatively, notice details in the background and increase your chance for good new experiences.

Broaden-and-build hypothesis

an eating disorder involving recurrent episodes of binge eating (i.e., discrete periods of uncontrolled consumption of abnormally large quantities of food) followed by inappropriate compensatory behaviors (e.g., self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, fasting, excessive exercise). Compare binge-eating disorder.

Bulimia nervosa

the theory that emotional states result from the influence of lower brain centers (the hypothalamus and thalamus) on higher ones (the cortex), rather than from sensory feedback to the brain produced by peripheral internal organs and voluntary musculature. According to this theory, the thalamus controls the experience of emotion, and the hypothalamus controls the expression of emotion, both of which occur simultaneously

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

an emotion characterized by negative regard for anything or anybody considered to be inferior, vile, or worthless. —contemptuous adj.

Contempt

a corticosteroid hormone whose glucocorticoid activity increases blood sugar levels. Blood levels of cortisol in humans vary according to sleep-wake cycles (generally being highest around 9:00 a.m. and lowest around midnight) and other factors; for example, they increase with lack of sleep and during pregnancy but decrease with diseases of the liver and kidneys. Cortisol is considered the primary stress hormone: In response to stress or injury, blood cortisol levels, and therefore glucose levels, increase, as does blood pressure, whereas activity of the immune system decreases and release of inflammatory substances in the body is contained. Cortisol thus improves the body's ability to manage stress and to repair itself

Cortisol

a strong aversion, for example, to the taste, smell, or touch of something deemed revolting, or toward a person or behavior deemed morally repugnant

Disgust

a socially learned standard that regulates the expression of emotion. Display rules vary by culture; for example, the expression of anger may be considered appropriate in some cultures but not in others. [coined in 1972 by U.S. psychologist Paul Ekman

Display rules

a generalized state of readiness precipitating or motivating an activity or course of action. Drive is hypothetical in nature, usually created by deprivation of a needed substance (e.g., food), the presence of negative stimuli (e.g., pain, cold), or the occurrence of negative events. Drive is said to be necessary for stimuli or events to serve as reinforcers.

Drive

a theory of learning in which the goal of motivated behavior is a reduction of a drive state. It is assumed that all motivated behavior arises from drives, stemming from a disruption in homeostasis, and that responses that lead to reduction of those drives tend to be reinforced or strengthened.

Drive reduction theory

a smile characterized by bilaterally symmetrical upturning of the lips and activation of the orbicularis oculi muscles surrounding the eyes, which creates a crow's-foot effect at the corners of the eyes. Duchenne smiles are believed to be authentic smiles, as opposed to posed, voluntary non-Duchenne smiles that lack the orbicularis oculi component.

Duchenne smile

self-conscious emotion in which a person feels awkward or flustered in other people's company or because of the attention of others, as, for example, when being observed engaging in actions that are subject to mild disapproval from others. It often has an element of self-deprecating humor and is typically characterized by nervous laughter, a shy smile, or blushing.

Embarrassment

a complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral, and physiological elements, by which an individual attempts to deal with a personally significant matter or event. The specific quality of the emotion (e.g., fear, shame) is determined by the specific significance of the event. For example, if the significance involves threat, fear is likely to be generated; if the significance involves disapproval from another, shame is likely to be generated. Emotion typically involves feeling but differs from feeling in having an overt or implicit engagement with the world

Emotion

a stress-management strategy in which a person focuses on regulating his or her negative emotional reactions to a stressor. Rather than taking actions to change the stressor itself, the individual tries to control feelings using a variety of cognitive and behavioral tools, including meditation and other relaxation techniques, prayer, positive reframing, wishful thinking and other avoidance techniques, self-blame, seeking social support (or conversely engaging in social withdrawal), and talking with others (including mental health care professionals). It has been proposed that emotion-focused coping is used primarily when a person appraises a stressor as beyond his or her capacity to change.

Emotion-focused coping

a type of intelligence that involves the ability to process emotional information and use it in reasoning and other cognitive activities, proposed by U.S. psychologists Peter Salovey (1958- ) and John D. Mayer (1953- ). According to Mayer and Salovey's 1997 model, it comprises four abilities: to perceive and appraise emotions accurately; to access and evoke emotions when they facilitate cognition; to comprehend emotional language and make use of emotional information; and to regulate one's own and others' emotions to promote growth and well-being.

Emotional intelligence

any of a class of steroid hormones that are produced mainly by the ovaries and act as the principal female sex hormones, inducing estrus in female mammals and secondary female sexual characteristics in humans

Estrogen

People who respond to external cues for hunger more than internal cues.

Externals

an external incentive to engage in a specific activity, especially motivation arising from the expectation of punishment or reward (e.g., completing a disliked chore in exchange for payment). Compare intrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic motivation

the hypothesis that sensory information provided to the brain from facial muscle movements is a major determinant of intrapsychic feeling states, such as fear, anger, joy, contempt, and so on

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

the theory, proposed in 1939 by John Dollard and colleagues, that (a) frustration always produces an aggressive urge and (b) aggression is always the result of prior frustrations. Neal E. Miller, one of the proponents of this theory, later noted that frustration can lead to several kinds of actions but maintained that the urge to aggression will become more dominant as the thwarting continues. In 1989, U.S. psychologist Leonard Berkowitz (1926- ) proposed that the frustration must be decidedly unpleasant to evoke an aggressive urge. Also called aggression-frustration hypothesis.

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

one's self-identification as male or female. Although the dominant approach in psychology for many years had been to regard gender identity as residing in individuals, the important influence of societal structures, cultural expectations, and personal interactions in its development is now recognized as well. Significant evidence now exists to support the conceptualization of gender identity as influenced by both environmental and biological factors

Gender identity

a soluble sugar, abundant in nature, that is a major source of energy for body tissues. The brain relies almost exclusively on glucose for its energy needs. Glucose is derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and—to a much lesser extent—fats. Its concentration in the bloodstream is tightly controlled by the opposing actions of the hormones insulin and glucagon. See also blood sugar.

Glucose

a form of lie detection in which knowledge about the details of a crime is tested. A polygraph examiner presents examinees with multiple-choice questions concerning the crime, to which only the guilty party should know the correct answers; it is assumed that innocent examinees will see all options as equally plausible. The polygraph examiner measures the examinees' physiological arousal as each option is presented and identifies which option produces the highest physiological response. Over a series of questions, if an individual consistently shows the greatest response to the correct option, the examiner may identify that person as untruthful in his or her denial of knowledge of the details of the crime.

Guilty-knowledge test

the subfield of psychology that focuses on (a) the examination of the relationships between behavioral, cognitive, psychophysiological, and social and environmental factors and the establishment, maintenance, and detriment of health; (b) the integration of psychological and biological research findings in the design of empirically based interventions for the prevention and treatment of illness; and (c) the evaluation of physical and psychological status before, during, and after medical and psychological treatment. Also called health care psychology.

Health psychology

the hierarchy of human motives, or needs, as described by Abraham Maslow, which he developed in part as a reaction against the determinism of the theories of Sigmund Freud and B. F. Skinner. Physiological needs (air, water, food, sleep, sex, etc.) are at the base; followed by safety and security (the safety needs); then love, affection, and gregariousness (the love needs); then prestige, competence, and power (the esteem needs); and, at the highest level, aesthetic needs, the need for knowing, and self-actualization (the metaneeds).

Hierarchy of needs

the regulation by an organism of all aspects of its internal environment, including body temperature, salt-water balance (see osmoregulation), acid-base balance (see hydrogen-ion concentration), and blood sugar level. This involves monitoring changes in the external and internal environments by means of receptors and adjusting bodily processes accordingly.

Homeostasis

Theory Y; believe employees like variety in their job, a sense of accomplishment, and a sense of responsibility

Human-relations approach

External stimuli that pull us toward certain actions

Incentive

Exposure to a small amount of stress producing events before being faced with a real such event. Prepares one to handle the event with less stress felt.

Inoculation

an innate, species-specific biological force that impels an organism to do something, particularly to perform a certain act or respond in a certain manner to specific stimuli.

Instinct

a hormone, secreted by the B cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, that facilitates the transfer of glucose molecules through cell membranes. Together with glucagon, it plays a key role in regulating blood sugar and carbohydrate metabolism. In the absence of sufficient concentrations of insulin, glucose accumulates in the blood and is excreted, as in diabetes mellitus (see also hyperglycemia). Excessive concentrations of insulin (resulting, e.g., from insulin overdosage or an insulin-secreting tumor) give rise to hypoglycemia.

Insulin

a modern and evolving term for hermaphroditism and pseudohermaphroditism, the condition of possessing the sexual characteristics of both sexes. Sometimes called intersexualism; intersexuality.

Intersexes

an incentive to engage in a specific activity that derives from pleasure in the activity itself (e.g., a genuine interest in a subject studied) rather than because of any external benefits that might be obtained (e.g., money, course credits). Compare extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation

the theory that different feeling states stem from the feedback from the viscera and voluntary musculature to the brain. This theory hypothesizes that there are as many physiological responses as there are different intrapsychic feelings and that each of these responses precedes rather than follows the feeling.

James-Lange theory

the region of the hypothalamus that may be involved in the regulation of eating. Lesions of the lateral hypothalamus in animals result in fasting and weight loss. Stimulation of that part of the brain increases food intake.

Lateral Hypothalamus

a protein and a hormone, manufactured and secreted by fat cells, that may communicate to the brain the amount of body fat stored and may help to regulate food intake. Leptin receptors have been found in the hypothalamus, and, when they are stimulated, food intake is reduced. Helps maintain set point.

Leptin

A very brief, involuntary expressions of fear, anger, or other emotions.

Microexpressions

the impetus that gives purpose or direction to behavior and operates in humans at a conscious or unconscious level (see unconscious motivation). Motives are frequently divided into (a) physiological, primary, or organic motives, such as hunger, thirst, and need for sleep; and (b) personal, social, or secondary motives, such as affiliation, competition, and individual interests and goals. An important distinction must also be drawn between internal motivating forces and external factors, such as rewards or punishments, that can encourage or discourage certain behaviors

Motivation

the condition of having excess body fat resulting in overweight, variously defined in terms of absolute weight, weight-height ratio (see body mass index), distribution of subcutaneous fat, and societal and aesthetic norms. The basic causes are genetic, environmental, behavioral, or some interaction of these. Overeating may have a psychological cause (see binge-eating disorder; food addiction; night-eating syndrome), but in some cases, it may be due to an organic disorder (see hyperphagia). Obesity predisposes one to heart disease, diabetes, and other serious medical conditions (see morbid obesity), and obese individuals may develop emotional and psychological problems relating to body image.

Obesity

a paradoxical effect in which rewarding (or offering to reward) a person for his or her performance can lead to lower, rather than higher, interest in the activity. It occurs when the introduction of an extrinsic reward weakens the strong intrinsic motivation that was the key to the person's original high performance.

Overjustification effect

one of two branches of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), the other being the sympathetic nervous system. Anatomically it comprises the portion of the ANS whose preganglionic fibers leave the central nervous system from the brainstem via the oculomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves and from the spinal cord via three sacral nerves (see spinal nerve). It is defined functionally as the system controlling rest, repair, enjoyment, eating, sleeping, sexual activity, and social dominance, among other functions. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates salivary secretions and digestive secretions in the stomach and produces pupillary constriction, decreases in heart rate, and increased blood flow to the genitalia during sexual excitement

Parasympathetic nervous system

a device that measures and records several physiological indicators of stress, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and galvanic skin response. The instrument has been widely used in the interrogation of criminal suspects and in employee screening to measure marked physiological reactions to questions about such issues as theft, sexual deviation, or untruthfulness. It has been colloquially referred to as a lie detector, although no one has ever documented a close relation between physiological patterns and deceptive behavior. The accuracy of polygraph examinations is controversial, and the results are not accepted as evidence in many U.S. courts of law

Polygraph

a field of psychological theory and research that focuses on the psychological states (e.g., contentment, joy), individual traits or character strengths (e.g., intimacy, integrity, altruism, wisdom), and social institutions that enhance subjective well-being and make life most worth living.

Positive psychology

in DSM-IV-TR, a disorder that may result when an individual lives through or witnesses an event in which he or she believes that there is a threat to life or physical integrity and safety and experiences fear, terror, or helplessness. The symptoms are characterized by (a) reexperiencing the trauma in painful recollections, flashbacks, or recurrent dreams or nightmares; (b) avoidance of activities or places that recall the traumatic event, as well as diminished responsiveness (emotional anesthesia or numbing), with disinterest in significant activities and with feelings of detachment and estrangement from others; and (c) chronic physiological arousal, leading to such symptoms as an exaggerated startle response, disturbed sleep, difficulty in concentrating or remembering, and guilt about surviving the trauma when others did not

Posttraumatic stress disorder PTSD

a stress-management strategy in which a person directly confronts a stressor in an attempt to decrease or eliminate it. This may involve generating possible solutions to a problem, confronting others who are responsible for or otherwise associated with the stressor, and other forms of instrumental action. For example, a student who is anxious about an upcoming examination might cope by studying more, attending every class, and attending special review sessions to ensure he or she fully understands the course material. It has been proposed that problem-focused coping is used primarily when a person appraises a stressor as within his or her capacity to change

Problem-focused coping

An uncommon condition with unknown cause, the autonomic nervous system stops regulating the organs.

Pure autonomic failure

the nonconsensual oral, anal, or vaginal penetration of an individual by another person with a part of the body or an object, using force or threats of bodily harm or taking advantage of the individual's inability to give or deny consent. U.S. laws defining rape vary by state, but the crime of rape is no longer limited to female victims, to vaginal penetration, or to forcible situations, and the exclusion of spouses as possible perpetrators of rape has been dropped.

Rape

Reinterpreting a situation to make it seem less threatening.

Reappraisal

the theory that experiencing and identifying emotional states are functions of both physiological arousal and cognitive interpretations of the physical state. Also called attribution of emotion; cognitive arousal theory of emotion; Schachter theory; two-factor theory of emotion.

Schacter and Singer's theory of emotions

Theory X; views most employees as lazy, indifferent, and uncreative.

Scientific-management approach

the desired value in a servomechanism, such as the level at which a thermostat is set to maintain a reasonably constant temperature. By extension to physiological and behavioral systems, set point refers to the preferred level of functioning of an organism or of a system within an organism. When a set point is exceeded (i.e., when physiological responses become higher than the set point), compensatory events take place to reduce functioning; when a set point is not reached, compensatory processes take place to help the organism or system reach the set point.

Set point

one's enduring sexual attraction to male partners, female partners, or both. Sexual orientation may be heterosexual, same sex (gay or lesbian), or bisexual

Sexual orientation

the physiological or psychological response to internal or external stressors. Stress involves changes affecting nearly every system of the body, influencing how people feel and behave. For example, it may be manifested by palpitations, sweating, dry mouth, shortness of breath, fidgeting, accelerated speech, augmentation of negative emotions (if already being experienced), and longer duration of stress fatigue. Severe stress is manifested by the general adaptation syndrome. By causing these mind-body changes, stress contributes directly to psychological and physiological disorder and disease and affects mental and physical health, reducing quality of life. See also chronic stress. [first described in the context of psychology around 1940 by Hungarian-born Canadian endocrinologist Hans Selye (1907-1982)]

Stress

one's appraisal of one's own level of happiness and life satisfaction. In self-report measures of subjective well-being, two components are examined: one's affective well-being, which refers to the presence of pleasant affect (e.g., feelings of happiness) versus the absence of unpleasant affect (e.g., depressed mood), and one's cognitive well-being, which refers to one's evaluation of life overall (i.e., global life satisfaction) and of specific life experiences (e.g., job satisfaction). These components differ in their stability and variability over time and in their relations with other variables. For instance, the association between income and affective well-being is weaker than that between income and cognitive well-being, as demonstrated by reports that unemployed persons had significantly less life satisfaction than employed persons but did not differ in their daily affective well-being.

Subjective well-being

one of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), the other being the parasympathetic nervous system. Anatomically it consists of preganglionic autonomic neurons whose fibers run from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord to the chains of sympathetic ganglia. From these arise the fibers of postganglionic autonomic neurons, which innervate organs ranging from the eyes to the reproductive organs. It is defined functionally in terms of its ability to act as an integrated whole in affecting a large number of smooth muscle systems simultaneously, usually in the service of enhancing the fight-or-flight response. Typical sympathetic changes include dilation of the pupils to facilitate vision, constriction of the peripheral arteries to supply more blood to the muscles and the brain,

Sympathetic nervous system

a male sex hormone and the most potent of the androgens produced by the testes. It stimulates the development of male reproductive organs, including the prostate gland, and secondary sex characteristics, such as beard, bone, and muscle growth. Women normally secrete small amounts of testosterone from the adrenal cortex and ovary.

Testosterone

a style of leadership in which the emphasis is on ensuring that followers accomplish tasks. Transactional leaders influence others through exchange relationships in which benefits are promised in return for compliance. Compare transformational leadership

Transactional leader

a charismatic, inspiring style of leading others that usually involves heightening followers' motivation, confidence, and satisfaction; uniting them in the pursuit of shared, challenging goals; and changing their beliefs, values, and needs. Compare transactional leadership.

Transformational leader

a personality pattern characterized by chronic competitiveness, high levels of achievement motivation, impatience and a distorted sense of time urgency, polyphasic activity (e.g., shaving or eating while reading a newspaper), and aggressiveness and hostility. The entire array of traits and behaviors characterizing Type A personality was believed at one time to be connected to the development of coronary heart disease. Epidemiological studies have failed to confirm that connection, but evidence does suggest that one Type A feature in particular—hostility—does contribute to the pathogenesis of heart disease.

Type A personality

a personality pattern characterized by low levels of competitiveness and frustration, an easygoing approach, and a lack of aggressiveness and hostility. Type B individuals typically do not feel the need to prove their superiority or abilities.

Type B personality

a region of the hypothalamus primarily associated with feelings of satiety. In studies in which the VMH is lesioned, animals overeat to the point of extreme obesity. The VMH also has a role in thermoregulation.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

a law stating that the relation between motivation (arousal) and performance can be represented by an inverted U-curve

Yerkes-Dodson Law