Mountain Geo
In the Colorado Front Range, what is the approximate elevation of Upper Treeline?
11,500 ft
What elevation is the approximate upper limit for permanent, sustainable, year-round human settlement?
15,000 feet.
According to the "composite definition" presented in the textbook and in class, approximately (i.e, within 3%) ______% of the Earth's surface is covered by mountains, and ______ % of the Earth's population lives in or near mountains.
24, 26
Under the definition of mountains proposed by the UN Environmental Program, what proportion of Earth's land area is covered by mountains?
25%
Above what elevation is human physiology affected by high altitude?
2500 meters.
Agro-Forestry advocates argue that community management is needed to maintain mountain forests. Why?
(all of these answers) - Because most mountain farmers would otherwise make more money by clearing forests.- Because intact forests provide many important and valuable resources.- Because forests provide important ecosystem services, and deforestation is harmful to downstream communities.
In many mountains worldwide, we find that mountain populations are poorer than lowland populations. What explains this disparity?
- Lowland people and firms trade for mountain resources on unequal terms. ////////////- Mountain areas have limited agricultural productivity; this leaves mountain economies stunted. ///////////- In some areas, mountain populations are actually better off than lowland populations. /////////- Governments based in lowland areas are uninterested in investing in infrastructure in mountain areas. (All of the above).
true or false: Shifting cultivation preserves natural biodiversity more than terraced agriculture.
t
The effects of slope aspect on mountain climates are most pronounced in which latitudes?
temperate
Which of the following terms describes the joint effects of environments and societies on one another?
the cultural landscape
Berdanier's article argues--among other things--that the upper treeline is not a single line, but a complex ecotone composed of three distinct vegetation transitions. Of the three lines Berdanier identifies, which is the LOWEST in elevation?
timberline
Which of the three main plate boundaries is least likely to be associated with mountain-building?
transform
In which agricultural system are livestock move between highlands in summer, and lowlands in winter, while most of the community remains settled in one place?
transhumance
In Lab 3, we examined the transition between forested and alpine ecological zones. Following Berdanier, we identified three lines comprising this transition. Of these lines, which was at the highest elevation?
tree species line
Mixed conifer forest is found in which life zone?
upper montane
While hiking through the Colorado Rockies, you notice that the trees around you are a mixture of Lodgepole Pine, Ponderosa Pine, and Quaking Aspen. What life zone are you most likely in?
upper montane
Lodgepole Pine forests occur in which two Colorado life zones?
upper montane and subalpine
Altitude Range Cheat-Sheet
•••••••• Upper Tree Line: ~11,500 ft. •••••••• Subalpine Zone: 9,000-11,500 ft. •••••••• Upper Montane: 7,500-9,500 ft. •••••••• Lower Montane: 6,000-8000 ft. •••••••• Lower Ecotone: 5,000-6,500 ft.
How does mixed farming differs from the other agricultural strategies presented in this module?
Mixed farming is based on growing and storing crops for feeding to livestock.
In comparison to other mountains (e.g., the Himalayas, Alps, and Canadian Rockies), the American Rockies are eroding...
More slowly than average.
In the first phase of her research, Monica Rother evaluated the post-fire recovery of forests by systematically looking for ponderosa pine seedlings in burned areas. Which of the following statements best summarizes her findings?
Most study plots in Monica's study had no seedlings at all; those that did were on north-facing slopes, and areas of low or moderate fire severity.
Why do many climate classifications assign mountain climates to a separate category?
Mountain climates are characterized by dramatic local variations due to the effects of altitude and topography.
Which of the following statements about the role of animals in mountain biogeography is FALSE?- In general, mountains environments have a lower diversity of species than lowland environments.- Many animal species migrate away from mountain areas during winters.- Mountain environments tend to be inhabited by specialist species, rather than generalists.- Ecologists have researched some mountain species extensively, while others remain poorly understood.
Mountain environments tend to be inhabited by specialist species, rather than generalists.
Which of the following most accurately describes a difference between mountain farmers and lowland farmers?
Mountain farmers often have less access to markets and capital investment than lowland farmers.
Ghalambor's review of Jantzen's hypothesis suggests several assumptions underlying Jantzen's argument. Which of the following is NOT an assumption questioned by Ghalambor?
Mountains are only barriers to species dispersal in tropical latitudes.
Mountainous areas are often (though not always) poorer than comparable lowland areas. Which of the following explanations for this poverty is FALSE?- Higher altitudes and steep slopes limit the agricultural productivity of many mountain areas.- Mountain areas often have limited infrastructure, hindering their trade with lowland areas.- Many governments are based in lowland areas, and pay little attention to mountain residents and their needs.- Mountains have few economically important natural resources.
Mountains have few economically important natural resources.
Which of the following is NOT an effect of elevation on mountain climates?
Mountains have higher atmospheric pressure than lowland areas.
Which of the following is NOT an effect of elevation on mountain climates?- Moisture evaporates more quickly at higher altitudes.- Solar radiation is more intense at high elevation.- Mountains have higher atmospheric pressure than lowland areas.- Mountains tend to be cooler than surrounding lowlands.
Mountains have higher atmospheric pressure than lowland areas.
Which of the following best characterizes the European attitudes to mountains during the Middle Ages?
Mountains were places apart from the order of Christian civilization, and were feared by most people.
In the Western United States, most high mountains contain both zones of forested vegetation and zones of non-forested vegetation. Which of the following best describes the spatial relationship between these zones?
Non-forested vegetation occurs both ABOVE and BELOW forested vegetation, if the mountain reaches a high enough altitude
Which of the following is NOT a consequence of compression forces?
Normal Fault.
In much of the Colorado Rockies, lodgepole pine forests have been decimated by the mountain pine beetle. What typically happens to a lodgepole pine forest in the aftermath of a beetle attack?
Other tree species, including quaking aspen and subalpine fir, colonize the damaged forest.
Why did we argue that the definition of mountains proposed by Peattie in 1936 is inadequate for our purposes?
Peattie's criteria are not measurable, and cannot be operationalized to form a globally applicable definition
In which environments/climates is aeolian (wind) erosion most prominent?
Arid and Semi-Arid
Which of the following processes is most responsible for the high rainfall experienced by many tropical mountains?
As equatorial solar heating causes warm air masses to rise, they cool, causing water to condense into clouds and precipitation.
The allocation of water in Colorado and other Western states is based on which of the following?
Assigning property rights to the earliest users of a water source.
Which of the following is true of the stages of a mountain pine beetle attack?
At the grey stage, most of the beetle-killed trees will have lost their needles.
Why are mountains corridors for north-south dispersal of species, but not east-west movement?
Because climates at higher altitudes mimic those found further toward the poles.
Why do some alpine plants grow as evergreen perennials?
Because evergreen plants can photosynthesize as soon as the snow melts, without having to grow new leaves.
In discussing the role of mountains as barriers to species movement, we discussed fish species as a particularly clear example. Why?
Because fish live only in water, and therefore cannot move across watershed boundaries.
Many alpine plants have roots that grow very deep. Why?
Because moisture is very limited in alpine climates, and deep roots are needed to access reliable water supplies.
Why are specialist species frequently more vulnerable to climate change than generalist species?
Because specialists rely on a narrow range of environments and food sources, while generalists have multiple, potentially redundant options.
Jantzen hypothesized that tropical mountains are more effective barriers to the movement of species than temperate mountains. What was the logic behind Jantzen's hypothesis?
Because species in tropical mountains experience a narrow range of temperatures during a year, while temperatures in temperate mountains vary seasonally.
The risk of destructive slab avalanches is greatest on slopes of what angle?
Between 45° and 30°.
Why does the Bolivian national soccer team enjoy one of the world's greatest home-field advantages?
Bolivian soccer players have acclimatized to living and playing in the high altitudes of La Paz; visiting teams struggle to perform at these altitudes.
In contrast to northern-hemisphere mountain forests, temperate forests in the southern hemisphere are composed of what type of trees?
Broad-Leaf Evergreen.
In which types of weathering are the minerals composing rock altered?
Chemical
Glaciers often form in shallow depressions in the side of a mountain, where windblown snow can collect. What is the name of this mountian landform?
Cirque.
In the Appalachians, the highest summits seldom exceed 6,000 feet in elevation. In Colorado, that elevation corresponds to the bases of mountains. This illustrates which key geographic concept?
Context.
Which of the following is NOT one of the aspects of agricultural modernization discussed in lecture?
Development assistance from wealthy countries.
In the Boulder floods of 2013, how did stream discharge at Orodell in Boulder canyon compare to discharge at the confluence of Boulder Creek and the St. Vrain River near Longmont?
Discharge at Orodell peaked sooner, but had a lower maximum.
Which two tree species are characteristic of the upper subalpine zone in Colorado's forests?
Englemann Spruce & subalpine fir
Which tree species are you most likely to find in the krummholz zone of Colorado?
Englemann spruce
Terraced farming and shifting cultivation are both responses to what environmental constraints?
Erosion and declining soil fertility.
In Cronon's The Trouble With Wilderness, the sublime is most associated with which of the following historical periods and intellectual movements?
European romanticism
Warming climates are thought to be responsible for which of the following elements of the bark beetle epidemic in the American West?
Exponential growth of beetle populations, as beetles reproduce multiple times per year.
The Basin-and-Range landscape of Nevada and western Utah exemplifies horst-and-graben mountains. Are these mountains the result of extension or compression forces?
Extension
Normal faults and horst-and-graben mountains are the result of what sort of forces?
Extension.
Permafrost occurs in arctic environments, and is not present in mid-latitude or temperate mountains.
False
True or False? Freeze-thaw cycles occur only during mountain winters?
False
True or False? Pikas have always lived among the highest mountains in North America.
False
Hot Spots, such as those understanding the Hawaiian Islands and Yellowstone, are typically located at plate boundaries.
False.
True or False? The 2013 Boulder Creek Floods were the highest and most destructive to be recorded at Boulder.
False.
Monica Rother's research on post-fire recovery suggests which of the following conclusions?
Following high-severity fires, ponderosa pine forests are likely to give way to grassland communities.
Kinetic metamorphism--in which ice crystals in a snowpack sublimate into water vapor--is responsible for which of the following changes?
Formation of depth hoar and other weak layers.
The formation of weak layers in the snowpack is generally associated with which of the following?
Gradients of temperature and humidity within the snowpack.
Which of the following adaptations is NOT generally used by plants growing in the Alpine Zone?
Growing tall woody stems and branches, so that leaves escape the shade of competing plants.
In Colorado, the forests of the lower montane zone are typically associated with what fire regime?
High frequency, low severity.
Although mountain streams have _____ erosive power, they carry relatively _____ quantities of sediment.
High/Low.
Our model of temperature change due to the Orographic Effect supports which of the following statements?
If base elevations are the same on both sides of a mountain, we can expect warmer temperatures on the leeward side than on the windward side.
Which of the following statements is TRUE?- In a glacier's ablation zone, ablation exceeds accumulation, and is only balanced by additional glacial mass flowing from above.- In a glacier's accumulation zone, accumulation must equal ablation.- The location of the firn line will remain constant during a year.- Glaciers tend to move small rocks quickly, while large boulders move more slowly.
In a glacier's ablation zone, ablation exceeds accumulation, and is only balanced by additional glacial mass flowing from above.
What is geologically unusual about the western third of the North American continent?
It contains a weak seam between the North American Craton, and material accreted from past plate collisions.
The Quaking Aspen grows in the Upper Montane and Subalpine Zones in Colorado. How is it different from the other trees we have studied?
It is deciduous, while other trees are evergreen.
How does the Moist Adiabatic Rate (MAR) compare to the Dry Adiabatic Rate (DAR)?
It is less, i.e., air cools more slowly at the MAR than the DAR.
The town of La Rinconada, Peru, is often identified as the highest permanent human settlement in the world. However...
La Rinconada is a mining camp, and relies on trade with lowland areas
In the northern hemisphere, south-facing slopes receive much more sun than north-facing slopes. (South of the Equator, it's the other way around!) This variation is most strongly influenced by which of the following controls on climate?
Latitude
Cornices can be significant triggers for avalanches. They tend to form on which side of ridges?
Leeward
Continental crust is _______ than oceanic crust.
Less dense and older.
In general, how will existing life zones change as mountain climates warm?
Life zones will exist at higher elevations than they did in the past.
Which species of tree is notable for serotinous cones, which only open up after forest fires?
Lodgepole pine
During the December Solstice, midlatitude mountains in the Southern Hemisphere would experience which of the following?
Long days and short nights.
The framework of political ecology is rooted in a Marxist economic analysis. This means that
Political ecology focuses on the divisions between labor and capital, and on how natural resources are managed as property.
You go for a walk in Chautauqua Park, a few blocks from the CU-Boulder Campus. As you climb uphill, you notice that the grasslands are giving way to open, parklike woodland. What tree species are you seeing?
Ponderosa pine
Mountain environments present numerous hazards for their inhabitants. People in less-developed settings are more likely to respond to these hazards through which of the following strategies?
Pursuing a wide variety of economic activities, so that if one activity fails, others might still succeed.
We concluded our discussion of key concepts in geography by referring to the Zen Buddhist metaphor of a finger pointing at the moon. In context of our class, what does this mean?
Rather than struggling to exhaustively define key concepts, it is more productive to see how they are applied.
Which of the following groups is most vulnerable to avalanches in the United States?
Recreational snowmobilers
Chemical Weathering (ex: Oxidation, Hydrolysis, Dissolution, Biological)
Regardless of type, refers to the decomposition of rock by chemical alteration of the original minerals (minerals in rock change)
Physical/Mechanical Weathering (ex: frost action, pressure release jointing, biological)
Regardless of type, refers to the mechanical forces that pry rocks apart or make their surfaces disintegrate (minerals in rock remain unchanged)
In Smethurst's critique of Mountain Geography research, what research focus did he identify as particularly lacking?
Research on mountain populations and how they live.
Diamond points out that half of the income of Montana's Bitterroot Valley is derived from outside sources. This means that
Residents of the Bitterroot Valley rely on a complex web of connections between highland and lowland areas.
The key processes responsible for plate tectonics are:
Sea-Floor Spreading and Subduction.
The second phase of Monica Rother's research examined when seedlings established themselves following a fire. Which of the following statements best reflects Monica's conclusions?
Seedling establishment came in pulses, during years in which rainfall was HIGHER than average.
The third phase of Monica Rother's research experimentally modified the conditions in which planted seedlings grew. Which of the following statements best characterized Monica's conclusions?
Seedlings were more successful when artificially watered.
Lodgepole pine forests typically burn infrequently, but the resulting fires kill most trees. After such fires, what typically happens next?
Serotinous cones, opened by the heat of the fire, sprout into new tree seedlings
Why does Nightingale identify her work on forest management in Nepal as feminist?
She argues that claims to knowledge are not universal, but situated in contexts of social and political power.
The UN Environmental Program study identified mountainous areas on the basis of elevation, and which two other criteria?
Slope and Local Relief.
Which of the following describes a slow and gradual downslope movement of dry material?
Soil Creep.
Geomorphologists classify mass movements primarily on the basis of
Speed and water saturation.
Alta, Utah, receives less total precipitation per year than Donner Summit, California, but receives a greater volume of snowfall. What explains this difference?
Storms absorb moisture as they pass over the Great Salt Lake; this moisture falls on the Wasatch Mountains as light snow.
At which latitudes do annual snowlines (i.e., the elevation of permanent snow) occur at the HIGHEST elevations?
Subtropical--Between 15° and 25° North/South
Which activity is most strongly associated with permanently settled mountain populations (that is, by people who live in the same place across multiple years)?
Terraced agriculture
According to Gadd's summary, which mountain range was formed most recently?
The American Rockies.
In Colorado forests, Lodgepole pines are found in the upper montane and subalpine zones. In which mountains are they extensively found at lower elevations?
The Interior Ranges of British Columbia.
What region of a glacier typically moves fastest?
The center of the glacier, near the top.
As equatorial solar heating causes warm air masses to rise, they cool, causing water to condense into clouds and precipitation.
The climate of Europe is moderatated by its proximity to the ocean, by a warm ocean current, and by the lack of mountain barrier effects.
Outside Boulder, CO, the Flatirons are made up of sedimentary rock, underlain by granite. How did this granite form? What is the source of this material?
The granite formed deep beneath the earth's surface, slowly cooled in place, and was later uplifted, tilting the sedimentary layers of the Flatirons.
Which of the following best summarizes the main argument of Cronon's The Trouble With Wilderness?
The idea of wilderness is not natural, but culturally produced, historically situated, and often contradictory.
Temperate mountains are often described as having young ecosystems. What does this mean?
The most recent ice age ended only 10,000 years ago, leaving little time for mountain species to evolve and specialize.
Climate change is thought to be a significant factor in the increase of beetle-kill in Colorado. What process links climate change to increased tree mortality?
The population of beetles is no longer held in check by cold winter temperatures. Drought-stressed trees are less able to respond to beetles by pitching.
Due to orographic uplift...
The windward side of mountains is generally cooler and wetter than the leeward side.
What future do geologists predict for the Colorado Rockies?
Their erosion will accelerate as rifting expands north from New Mexico.
The plate collision that uplifted the Colorado Rocky Mountains was unusual, because it occurred far inland from the Pacific Coast. Which of the following best explains this?
There was a weak spot between the North American Craton and the accreted remnants of the Farallon Plate.
In 1967, Daniel Jantzen proposed that mountain passes are "higher" in the tropics—i.e., that they are a more effective barrier to the dispersal of organisms than temperate-zone passes of the same altitude. Jantzen relied on a number of assumptions to support his hypothesis. Which of the following is one of the assumptions Jantzen made?
Tropical organisms can only tolerate a narrow range of temperatures
Which statement about upper and lower treelines is TRUE?
Upper tree line occurs because temperatures are too low to allow tree growth.
The oral interviews Nightingale conducted with Nepali villagers revealed which of the following patterns?
Villagers reported that village-managed forests were uniformly healthy.
The documentary video, How Wolves Change Rivers, linked the reintroduction of wolves to a series of ecological transformations in Yellowstone National Park. Which of these transformations resulted in alterations to the courses of Yellowstone's rivers?
Wolf predation reduced deer and elk populations, allowing streamside willows to recover.
Most glaciers advance slightly during the winter months, only to retreat again in the summer. This is because, during the summer,________ exceeds__________
ablation, accumulation
Despite this pattern, the climate data we analyzed showed Bend, Oregon to be significantly cooler, on average, than Eugene, Oregon. This is best explained by which of the primary controls on climate?
altitude/elevation
In which of the following countries does the majority of the population live in mountain areas?
armenia
Which of the following terms describes the idea that the structure of a society is an inevitable consequence of its surrounding environmental conditions?
environmental determinism
Forests in temperate mountains of the southern hemisphere are primarily composed of what type of trees?
evergreen broadleaf
Predictions from modeled climate change suggest that many mountains will...
experience particularly significant warming trends.
true or false: According to Monica Rother's research, warming climates are likely to cause an increase in survival rates of Ponderosa Pine seedlings.
f
true or false: Mountain environments tend to have a greater diversity of species than lowland environments, because only specialized species can live in harsh climates.
f
True or False? Mountain Pine Beetles are an invasive species, and were not historically present in much of Colorado.
false
true or false: Berdanier concluded that increased precipitation and the moderating effect of the ocean lead to treelines being higher on islands than they are on continental mountains.
false
true or false: Fully saturated soils have a steeper angle of repose than drier soils.
false
The Rocky Mountain National Park climate report identifies which ecosystem as being particularly prone to disruption by climate change?
lakes and wetlands
Which of the following tree species is often associated with low-frequency, high severity fires, producing dense forests of uniform age?
lodgepole pine
Which of the following life zones occupies the smallest area in Colorado's mountains?
lower montane
Which species is notable for migrating to higher elevations during mountain winters?
mountain caribou
Which of the following terms reflects the combination of environment in which an organism or species lives, and the role in which it interacts with other organisms?
niche
What type of faulting characterizes horst-and-graben mountains?
normal faulting
In the northern hemisphere, life zones tend to occur at lower elevations on which aspects?
north-facing
In the American West, life zones occur at lower elevations on _________slopes than on_________ slopes.
north-facing, south-facing
In contrast to plants, which exhibit only _____________ adaptations, mountain animals also exhibit ___________ adaptations.
physical, behavioral
Which of the following ecological communities is NOT found in the forests of the Colorado Front Range?
pinyon/juniper woodland
Which approach to cultural geography takes into account the function of social institutions, such as labor, capital, and property?
political ecology
Which of the following species is likely to have the slowest rate of dispersion to higher altitudes?
ponderosa pine
Which tree species is dominant in the lower montane zone of the Colorado Rockies?
ponderosa pine
Which of the following terms refers to the idea that all knowledge is partial and linked to the contexts in which it is created?
situated knowledges
In creating the "composite definition," Kapos et al. identified all areas over 2500 m elevation as mountains, but also used two additional criteria to identify lower-altitude mountain areas. Name them.
slope and local relief
The documentary episode Planet Earth: Mountains highlighted the Giant Panda, a species whose diet is entirely composed of bamboo. What sort of niche does the Panda occupy?
specialist
Mount St. Helens, located in the Cascade Mountains of the Pacific Northwest, is an example of which type of volcano?
stratovolcano
Although mountain areas are often considered less developed than lowlands, the Himalayan regions of Pakistan and India have lower poverty rates than some of their lowland counterparts.
t
In which species do adults remain active year-round, despite the harshness of mountain winters?
American Pika
What is the difference between active and passive strategies for mitigating avalanche hazards?
Active mitigation strategies reduce potentially dangerous snowpack conditions through deliberately triggering avalanches, while passive mitigation seeks to limit the damage avalanches can cause.
Which of the following statements is FALSE?- The equilibrium line is visible year round, and is indicated by the presence or absence of firn.- Snow may fall on the ablation zone of a glacier, but it melts away within a year, and does not add to the glacial mass balance.- Crevasses form when sun-heated rocks melt their way into glacial ice.- Glaciers typically retreat short distances during the summer months, only to advance in the winter.
Crevasses form when sun-heated rocks melt their way into glacial ice.
Which of the following is true regarding the formation of the Colorado Rockies?
Weathering and fluvial processes eroded the Rockies to nearly half their original height before glaciation took place.
In what setting would you expect to find stratovolcanoes with explosive eruptions?
Where an oceanic plate is subducted below a continental plate
Mid-latitude areas, such as the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and Wyoming, are most likely to exhibit which of the following types of glaciers?
cirque glaciers