Movement & Technology

There are four types of movement skills:

Fundemental Specialised Locomotor and non-locomotor stationary movements Manipulative using a device. E.g. golf, baseball, tennis

By improving movement skills, individuals can...

Participate... with more safety Take part in... a variety of sporting pursuits feel good about... being able to perform skills and perform skills... with less effort and thought

Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) are...

the movement patterns... that involve different body parts the foundation movements ... the foundation movements to the more specialised, complex skills used in play; games, sports, gance, gymnastics, outdoor education and physical activity.

7. Outline characteristics associated with each stage of learning.

(i) Mental processes such as tactical awareness, problem solving and logic (ii) Feelings such as emotions, values and attitudes (iii) Physical skill and motor learning

6. What are the 3 stages of learning?

1. Cognitive 2. Affective 3. Effective

1. (i) Movements can be further divided into 3 skill categories, what are these? (ii) Define a serial skill.

1. Discrete skill 2. Serial skill 3. Continuous skill Contains a series of discrete movements performed in a continuous movement.

3. List 3 characteristics of a closed skill.

1. Indoors 2. Involves limited movement 3. Ones own pace 4. Repetitive task that is easily practiced

5. What does the skill continuum refer to?

A continuum exists whereby closed skills are performed in fixed environmental conditions at one end of the continuum, and open skills are performed within a changing environment at the other.

Perceiving

A step in the learning process where information is collected by the senses.

14. What instructions/practice would be appropriate at each stage of learning.

COGNITIVE - distributed and progression ASSOCIATIVE - part and distributed AUTONOMOUS - whole and mass

Whole-Part-Whole

Combination of whole and part practice It involves: Trying the new skill Breaking it down into parts for training Bringing it back together again Whole-Part-Whole

Feedback

Information received from the performance of a skill.

12. (i) What is the difference between massed and distributed practice? (ii) Briefly discuss which of the above practice methods is best for learners.

Massed is continuous where there is little rest - discrete Distributed is spaced where there are frequent rests - continuous Distributed leaners to better learning

Part Practice

Practice where the skill is broken down and learnt in parts.

Distributed Practice

Rest periods are longer than practice periods.

Sport to Sport Transfer

Sport to Sport Transfer e.g. trampolining to diving

Massed or Distributed Practice

There is no right or wrong practice method, as the learner, the skill, coach and environment all play a part in determining the most suitable method for a particular situation. MASSED PRACTICE is a continuous type of skill practice where the rest period is shorter than the practice period. Often used for continuous skills eg long distance running. Massed is best when learners are skilled and motivated. DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE is characterised by periods of rest or practicing other skills. Best for beginners when motivation is low. Adds variety and allows recovery. Distributed practice is better than massed for most activities

FEEDBACK

WE CANNOT LEARN EFFECTIVELY WITHOUT FEEDBACK Feedback is any information that a learner receives about their performance Feedback is used: To reinforce a successful performance or movement skill To remove errors To motivate the athlete

8. Most models explaining how skills are performed involve 4 stages or parts. Briefly outline what occurs at each stage/part.

1. Input - This is when you have to make decisions based on the input received. These decisions affect WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, and HOW the performer will respond. 2. Processing - The more experience the performer has, the easier this decision process will be. 3. Output - The third part of the loop is output. This is the way in which you decide to move and respond to the decisions you have made. 4. Feedback - During and after your chosen response you will receive information about your performance. This feedback is the final part of the loop. This will help future performance as you can discover the effectiveness of your actions.

4. List 3 characteristics of an open skill.

1. Outdoors 2. Moving when performing 3. Demand varies with the requirements of the game 4. Limited control over the pace

Description of previous learning experience with Description of new learning experience

A golfer learns to take a full swing backswing to maximise power. A hit in hockey is similar, but the backswing must be restricted in order for the head of the stick to remain below the shoulder. A basketball player learns to defend close to their opponent and to knock the ball out of their hand if possible. When the basketball player turns to netball, there are a lot of similarities, but they may find it difficult to obey the three foot rule. A badminton player is taught to flick the wrist in the performance of their shots. If the badminton player takes up tennis, they may have good hand-eye coordination, but they may find it difficult to adapt to the firm straight wrist. A gymnast learns to take off a springboard using a long, low approach and a rebound action. The gymnast may try to use this incorrect technique when jumping off a diving board, because the situation is similar. The gymnast will have to learn and apply the hurdle step. A football player is taught to move forward in order to receive a long pass. This player, taking up rugby, may run in front of the player with the ball, rather than remain in line to receive the backward or sideways pass.

A range of benefits for mastering fundamental movement

A range of benefits are associated with mastering fundamental movement skills through participation in sport and physical activity. They include: - Awareness - Traveling - Balance - Object Control

Skill

A sequence of movements that are learnt through practice and have a definite outcome.

Gross Motor Skill

A skill involving large muscle groups and big movements.

Fine Motor Skill

A skill involving small precise movements using small muscle groups.

Serial Skill

A skill that consists of subroutines.

Discrete Skill

A skill with a definite beginning and end.

Characteristics of a skilled performer

A skilled performer has well-developed kinaesthesis (or a kinaesthetic sense). •Meaning, they know a movement is correct based on the 'feel' of a movement AND can make adjustments mid-skill execution to correct themselves if the movement feels off. •Improved kinaesthesis is a direct result of practice. 3. Skilled performers are better able to predict what may happen in specific situations. •They can quickly and easily predict the possible flight path of the ball, the speed of the ball, the direction of a pass or the direction in which an opponent may move or pass. •This skill allows them added time in which to respond. They can then give more attention to out-manoeuvring an opponent. • It leads to better timing of responses. A skilful performer can vary the pace of a movement to confuse the opponent and prevent them from anticipating the action. The ability to predict actions can also provide more opportunity to ensure the movement is performed smoothly and with coordination. 4. Skilled performers show much more consistency than unskilled performers. In other words, the skilled performer is able to perform the desired movement repeatedly and in various coniditions. This is easy to observe in games such as tennis, where the skilled performer is more consistent in rallies, managing to clear the net and keep the ball in court more regularly 5. Technique is a procedure or practical method applied to a particular task. For example, if the task is to serve a tennis ball, good techniques have been established whereby players can learn to carry out the procedure in the most effective manner.

Ability

Ability Refers to the how well an individual can perform a movement or sequence of movements.

Performance

Advancements in science and technology affect all aspects of modern life, including sport and physical activity. New and advanced technologies enable athletes to perform and compete at standards that were once considered impossible. Performance is being improved due to new developments. For example, new materials such as stronger, lighter carbon are now being used for sailboat masts. Such developments can mean the difference between winning silver or gold. Examples of sporting innovations include: • Ultra light running shoes • Newly designed rowing oars with blades that move more water with each stroke • Softball bats made from ultra light metal alloy, which propels balls further and faster • Snow skis equipped with sensors that measure vibrations from the changing snow surface • The `Fastskin' swimsuit, which reduces water friction • Altitude houses, where athletes sleep and live in a simulated high-altitude environment

Judging and Officiating

Advancements in technology have also resulted in referees, umpires and officials coming under increased scrutiny. Improvements in the number and type of TV cameras at sporting events means that viewers at home have instant access to replays at various camera angles. Inconsistency and/or mistakes by officials are easily picked up because of the increased media attention. In response to this scrutiny many sports also utilise technology, such as wireless communication devices, computer technology and video replays.

Examples of a skilled performer

An example would be a basketballer adjusting their shot after being fouled to ensure the shot still is successful. Anticipation is the skilled performer's ability to read the play, or his opponent and respond accordingly. It refers to the skilled performer's ability to predict their opponent's next move. Good anticipation comes by learning to read an opponent's body positioning and being familiar with their preference of style or shot. This is particularly important for externally paced skills. An example is when a tennis player anticipates a backhand down the line after reading the body positioning of their opponent. This gives the skilled performer more time to cover the court, cover the shot and decide which return they will select. Consistency refers to the skilled performer repeating good performances. This is easily observed in sports such as basketball and tennis, where a skilled performer continually gets the shot in or hits their shot over the net and near the lines. Roger Federer and Kobe Bryant are examples of skilled performers who are consistent in their performances. Technique refers to the technical aspects of skill execution; the result is efficient and consistent movement. Skilled performers have good technical execution of a skill, which saves energy, and produces better and more consistent results, holds up better under pressure, provides less chance of injury, and is a large determinant of elite success. Correct technique is particularly vital in sports such as swimming and running, where correct technique helps generate more power and slimline and saving energy for later in the performance, particularly vital for long distance endurance events.

FMS specific examples: - Balance Leap Vertical Jump Two handed strike Kick Side Gallop Catch Skip Hop Sprint Jog

Balance Gymnastics: beam Leap Dance Vertical Jump Basketball: jumping to shoot Two handed strike Baseball: hitting the ball Kick Karate: kicking Side Gallop Dance Catch Netball Skip Skipping Hop Gymnastics Sprint Athletics Jog Lacrosse

Bilateral Transfer

Bilateral Transfer e.g. learning a cartwheel with the left leg leading and then transfer to the other side

Positive Feedback Negative Feedback

Combined, feedback and practice together provide the best environment for learning physical skills. The timing of the feedback has an impact on the desired outcome. If an action produces a pleasant result, it tends to be repeated. For example, a hockey player, who is praised by their coach for chasing back in defence after being dispossessed, is more likely to repeat this behaviour in the future. Conversely, an action followed by an unpleasant consequence tends not to be repeated.

External Feedback

Comes from other people. It includes comments made by a coach, friend or spectators. It could be the coach's voice, the shot clock or anything that supplements the information already available.

Complex skills

Complex skills need to be broken down, whereas simple skills are best taught as a whole.

Continuous skills

Continuous skills are those that tend to be repetitive in nature such as running or swimming laps in the pool.

For advanced performers feedback should be:

Detailed or specific feedback because they already have a good knowledge of the skill and they can analyse and interpret comprehensive information. Negative feedback is useful to more advanced performers. They already know they can perform the skill well, but in order to improve they need both positive and negative feedback.

Drill to Skill Transfer

Drill to Skill Transfer e.g. stationary passing to passing in a game

Examples of Positive Transfer: Drill to Skill Transfer Bilateral Transfer Perceptual Transfer Skill to Skill Transfer Sport to Sport Transfer Situational Transfer

Drill to Skill Transfer e.g. stationary passing to passing in a game Passing in water polo and out of the water Bilateral Transfer e.g. learning a cartwheel with the left leg leading and then transfer to the other side Throwing with right to left Perceptual Transfer e.g. knowledge of effect of spin on ball bounce learnt in tennis used when batting in cricket AFl throws Skill to Skill Transfer e.g. forward roll to forward somersault Bunnyhop to cartwheel Sport to Sport Transfer e.g. trampolining to diving Hill to floor for forward roll Gym to diving Situational Transfer e.g. increased friction from wearing spikes applied to wearing studs on wet ground Rubber javelin to metal javelin

The Learner

Every learner has their own unique past experiences, personality, motivation and fitness, and should be treated as an individual. When teaching a skill, the stage of learning, age, gender, ability and cognitive processes all need to be taken into account. For example, the language and techniques used to teach primary school dance would be very different to that used in a beginner's class for adults, despite the fact they are both beginners.

Massed Practice

Extended practice with relatively short rest periods.

TIMING OF FEEDBACK

FOR BEGINNERS, FEEDBACK SHOULD BE: Immediate, or straight after the attempt of the skill, so that the learner can attempt to modify the image the skill that is building in their mind. Brief- beginners have a lot to think about already. One or two points are all a beginner can concentrate on. Positive- praise and encouragement rather than focusing on errors. The beginner first needs to know what they are performing correctly.

Internal Feedback

Feedback from within the learner- how did it feel, what can be done to improve: Feeling of limb positioning Sight of a moving ball or opponent The cues and sounds of a competition, like the crack of bat-ball impact and crowd noise.

Intrinsic Feedback

Feedback received from kinaesthesis.

1. What is the difference between fine and gross motor skills?

Fine motor require a small amount of force and involve precision and good hand-eye coordination. Gross motor skills require greater force using large muscle groups and smooth coordination.

Gross skills

Gross skills engage larger muscle groups than fine skills and therefore cause fatigue. Therefore, these skills are best taught with rests built into training sessions.

Continuous Skill

Have no distinct beginning or end.

The Nature of Movement Skills

Having the skills to run, jump, throw, pass, kick, strike and catch are important for games and activities at school and in sport. These movement skills are also useful in building other skills that enable you to participate in a range of physical activities. The twelve basic fundamental movement skills provide a platform from which you learn skills that are sport specific. Many skills have similarities and learning a new skill involves adapting skills that have already been learnt, rather than starting again from the beginning. There are hundreds of different skills and fundamental motor skills act as the basis for learning complex skills like a jump shot in basketball, an overhead pass in hockey, or a reverse pike in trampolining. The skills learnt in early childhood become the basis of many of the specific skills that are used in sport and physical activity. Motor skill learning starts as soon as a baby begins to perceive and react to their environment. For example, a baby reaching out to grasp an object requires hand-eye coordination, and could also provide the basis for developing the manipulative skills required in catching or striking. A baby who first pulls on a piece of furniture to raise themselves into a standing position is beginning to acquire the skills necessary to stand and balance, which are pre-requisites to walking and running, and in turn form the basis of many complex sports skills, such as dribbling and sprinting. List other specialised movement skills: - Phase 1 Specialized Movement: Transitional Stage - Phase 2 - Application: Training to train stage. - Phase 3 - Lifelong Utilization stage

Heart Rate Monitors

Heart Rate Monitors - a device that enables an individual to monitor their heart rate in real time. Devices are made up of a transmitter and receiver. When electrodes contact with skin, the electrical voltages of the heart are monitored. Due to advancements in technology, nowadays heart rate monitors can measure heart rate over an exercise period and time spent in a specific heart rate zone. A person can monitor their heart rate during exercise, with the opportunity to download the information from the device to a computer. Heart rate monitors have been integrated into various forms of fitness related technology, such as elliptical trainers, rowing machines, steppers and stationary bikes. These aerobic exercise machines feature built-in heart rate monitors where heart rate can be measured and monitored during exercise.

Tools used to analyse a performer

INTRODUCTION Performance analysis, as related to sport, can be defined as the analysis of data or information to help in the acceleration of athlete performance. The identification of performance indicators, repeatable methods for collection of data and the manner in which the information is analyzed, are all key factors to a successful performance analysis. This poster will describe and discuss: 1) Methods for collection of performance data on athletes 2) Implementation of technologies 3) Extraction and analysis of data 4) Centre for Video and Performance Analysis (CVPA) DATA COLLECTION Information can be collected with regards to athlete performance using many different technologies. Video is a technology that is becoming commonplace in the sports world. Video is used to gather information on athlete techniques during training or team play during competition. The video camera is also known as a "camcorder" and is defined as a portable device capable of recording video and audio. Figure 1 below shows an image of a typical camcorder available on market. The market is moving towards the offering of "Hi-Definition" (Hi-Def or HDV) as the standard. Video is collected on the camcorder and is stored either on digital tape or on the memory (hard disk) on the video camera. The storage format will depend on the type of camcorder that coach is using. Video footage can be downloaded to a computer for better viewing and analysis. Computer software that is specifically been designed for analysis of sports movements can be used to view and athletes. perform analysis of the video. One such software package for analysis of sports is called Dartfish. Figure 2 below shows an image of Dartfish Software. Video provides information related to the movement of the athletes. However, video does not provide information on the forces exerted on or by the athlete. Technologies such as force sensors, pressure sensors and muscular measurement devices can provide insights into the forces that are produced and act on the athlete. Figure 3 below illustrates some examples of how force sensors can be used to measure forces that the athlete is producing during movements. Other technologies that have been used to measure athlete performance include: 1) Accelerometers 2) Timing Lights 3) Radar Guns 4) GPS These technologies can be used to collect immediate and accurate information related to how an athlete is performing. For example, the accelerometer is a small device that can be attached to a body part or piece of equipment to measure acceleration or velocity. Similar information (velocity) can be obtained by using timing lights, radar guns or GPS technologies. Figure 4 shows examples of these technologies. TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION The implementation of a technology into sport for use in assessment and improvement of performance is not as trivial as one might think. Many technologies exist; however, technology must provide simple and quick information. If it is too complex and cumbersome to use, there will be immediate failure within the execution and can impact success in the overall program. An example of implementation of technologies might be the setting up of a video and timing system that will collect simultaneous video and performance time information at an indoor training venue. Figure 5 below presents the layout of such a system. ANALYSIS OF PERFORMANCE DATA Once technology has been implemented and data collected on athletes, how is a coach to analyze the performance? The performance criteria (i.e., time, score, speed...) must be collected for every trial that the athlete performs. Then, the coach can look at explanatory variables (i.e., video, force....) to identify key differences between poor and good performances.

Improved Standards

Improved Standards Technology is a vital ingredient for improving performance. Advancements in technology impact upon the following: - Speed - skill of the performer - higher demands - reliability to judge performance - injury prevention

Knowledge of Results (KR)

Information linked to the outcome of a skill

9. (i) What is the main role of feedback? (ii) What is the difference between internal and external feedback? (iii) Feedback can include "knowledge of results" or "knowledge of performance". Briefly discuss which of these provides the greatest benefit for a performer.

Information received by a performer about their performance Internal is the information gathered from the inside of the body via the senses. External is information received form an external source such as a coach, teacher or video tape. Knowledge of performance for older years Knowledge of results for early stages to evaluate performance

Injury Rehabilitation

Injury Rehabilitation Technology has affected the sports injury industry and developments in rehabilitation equipment and techniques mean faster, more successful recovery for athletes. Developments in equipment and techniques include: Heat therapy - that omit electromagnetic energy, increasing the temperature of the injured area and promoting blood flow. Thermotherapy - can relieve pain and stimulate the repair of soft tissue injuries by producing heat. Low Level Laser Therapy - decreases pain and inflammation, increases vascularisation, speeds up collagen synthesis, and provides control of micro-organisms.

Physical Practice

Involves motor movements to practice a skill.

KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS VS KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE

KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS (KR) (EXTRINSIC) tells you how successful the skill was performed. Eg) how far discus throw was. Useful when intrinsic feedback cannot provide enough information eg waiting for judges score in diving. KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE (KP) (EXTRINSIC) tells you about the quality of the movement eg rotation of shoulder during golf swing

Kinaesthesis

Kinaesthesis The feedback received from muscles and tendon receptors about the body's position in space.

Knowledge of Performance

Knowledge of Performance (KR) Information linked to the pattern of movements used to execute a skill.

Characteristics of an unskilled performer

Lack co-ordination Lack fluency or jerky Inconsistent Incorrect Not being pleasing to watch Inefficient

What is unskilled performer

Lacking skill or technical training. missing or absent deficient in or not having enough of inadequate; not good enough

The Coach

Like the learner, the coach is an individual, with a range of likes, dislikes, knowledge, beliefs and strategies. A coach who is uncomfortable with a particular type of practice is better to use the style in which they have confidence, knowledge and understanding.

2. Identify a range of sports not currently using technology that would benefit from these advancements.

Many ball games don't take the advantage of the technology that is available. One of them is cricket.

Fundamental Motor Skills -> Specialised Movement Skills

Many sports that involve throwing, such as cricket, netball, basketball, rugby, baseball and javelin have throwing techniques that are specific to that sport. However, when learning these specific techniques, the athlete does not have to start from scratch. Mastery of the fundamental movement skill of the over arm throw provides the basis or platform from which many other skills develop. Specialised movement skills, or sport specific skills, are those that are required in more organised games, activities and sport. They are developed after mastering the fundamental movement skills. Examples of these movement skills are fielding a groundball in baseball or dribbling past an opponent in football. Learning specialised movement skills largely depends on the opportunity to practice and the feedback received. By mastering FMS, participants are more likely to experience enjoyment and success, as well as finding mastery of sports specific skills easier. FMS are taught throughout the early years so that all children have the opportunity to develop these important building blocks to sporting success and enjoyment. Fundamental Motor Skills -> Specialised Movement Skills List Examples: Sport/Activity -> FMS -> Specialised Skill Basketball -> running -> dribbling Soccer -> running or kicking a ball -> dribbling

Mental rehearsal

Mental rehearsal is an effective way to support skill development, and research suggests that a combination of 'imagined practice' and actual practice often results in better performances than those achieved with preparation that relies solely on actual practice. Although mental rehearsal has been shown in many studies to have a positive effect on performance, it should supplement other forms of skill development, not replace them. Two advantages of mental rehearsal are there is no physical fatigue and there is no equipment or facilities required.

Mental Practice or Mental Rehearsal

Mental rehearsal is forming a mental image of the skill to be performed, and visualising successful completion of the skill in your mind. When performed correctly mental rehearsal can improve performance significantly.

Mental rehearsal

Mental rehearsal is forming a mental image of the skill to be performed, and visualising successful completion of the skill in your mind. When performed correctly mental rehearsal can improve performance significantly. Since nearly all skills have a degree of cognitive or mental content, mental rehearsal is an integral component of skills practice. Mental rehearsal can also be built into practice programs. Mental rehearsal is a difficult skill to achieve at first, requiring perseverance and concentration. If performed correctly mental rehearsal can greatly improve performance.

MENTAL PRACTICE OR MENTAL REHEARSAL

Mental rehearsal is forming a mental image of the skill to be performed, and visualising successful completion of the skill. It can improve performance due to: Beginners build an image of the skill in their mind, saving time and energy in physical practice. An athlete becomes more confident following periods of mental rehearsal and this aids performance The brain and nervous system practice sending impulses to muscles The athlete is able to control excitement and nerves A combination of mental practice and actual physical practice often results in more improvement than physical practice alone. Can Mental rehearsal replace physical practice? Mental practice cannot be done without physical practice. It can be done: Immediately following an error, to mentally correct the mistake During breaks or rests in training sessions Between training sessions While injured or ill Prior to competition or performance Advantages of mental rehearsal: there is no physical fatigue and there is no equipment or facilities required.

Progressive Part Method

Method of learning in which the parts are learned and combined sequentially The first 2 parts are mastered, then combined and practiced together until learnt Repeat procedure for each part Appropriate when the parts form a natural and meaningful sequence of actions, which need to be practiced together. For Example A dance sequence A gymnast's floor sequence Tennis serve: grip-stance-backswing.

1. Read 'The Contribution of Technology to Participation and Performance'. What is the difference between 'preparation' and 'performance'?

Most of what athletes and teams do prior to competition (practice, workouts, analyzing the competition or course) prepares them to compete. Mental preparation helps athletes achieve a focused, confident and trusting mindset to help them compete at their highest level.Apr 7, 2011 Sports performance is all about explosive movements, reaction, speed, and agility. Conventional training normally put more emphasis on body transformation and muscular built. A program that includes sport performance training has to be developed specifically for that sport.

Modified Games and Sports

Most sports contain complex skills. If the learner does not achieve early success they may become disheartened and give up. Many sporting bodies have responded to this by developing modified games. Modifications can be made to sports to make them safer and more appropriate for children and beginners. Modifications include: Modified sport decreases the risk of injury for children by teaching them the correct rules and skills of the sport in a safe and fun environment. This ensures children continue in sport in the long term through encouragement and an emphasis on fun and enjoyment.

MODIFIED GAMES AND SPORTS

Most sports contain complex skills. Learner may give up if no success. Sport can be modified to make it safer and appropriate for children and beginners. Mofications include: Decreasing the size of the playing field or court Smaller and/or softer playing equipment Rule changes Timing of games shortened Increased use of body protection and/or protective equipment. Modified sport decreases the risk of injury. This encourages them so that they have fun and continue in the sport. Modified sports include: Oz Hoops Basketball Fun Net and Netta Netball Auskick football Newcombe ball

Negative Transfer of Movement Skills

Negative transfer of skill occurs when skills previously learnt have a detrimental effect on learning new skills. This is most likely to occur when the situation is very similar, but the response required is different.

Examples of an unskilled performer

One who could not have the basic FMS

Open skills

Open skills need to be adaptable. They need to be practiced in varied situations, whereas closed skills aim for repetition in similar situations.

Subroutine

Parts of a skill.

Perceptual Transfer

Perceptual Transfer e.g. knowledge of effect of spin on ball bounce learnt in tennis used when batting in cricket

Positive Transfer of Movement Skills

Positive transfer of skill makes learning new skills easier because an individual doesn't have to learn a new skill from scratch. The assumption here is that the learning of fundamental motor skills can be transferred into the learning of new skills. For example, in learning a volleyball spike, an individual can draw on their previous experiences and use them to help learn the new skill. In this case, the vertical jump and the over arm throw, along with hand-eye coordination practiced during striking, will all contribute. In this example, the learning of fundamental motor skills is transferred into sport specific skills. Similarly, if an individual has participated in an activity which involves similar qualities, such the hand/eye co-ordination found in hockey, they may be able to learn the skills involved in other sports such as cricket or golf more effectively. This is due to the transfer of learning across these activities. Previous experience in sport is an advantage in learning a new skill.

Practice

Practice is essential to skill learning. The type of practice can affect the speed, degree and amount of learning that takes place. Practice is the act of rehearsing, or repeating a skill. In order to make the most of the practice time available, the following factors need to be considered: - Warm up - cool down - clear instructions - evaluate

Whole Practice

Practicing the skill in its entirety.

13. Many athletes use mental practice or mental rehearsal prior to performance. Briefly discuss what this involves and the types of performers most likely to benefit from it.

Practicing the skill in your mind and can be used to complement physical practice. Professional athletes stress about the importance of this training

Positive Transfer of Learning

Prior experience of the same or related tasks that aids in skill learning.

Delayed Feedback

Received after completing a skill.

Concurrent Feedback

Received whilst performing the skill.

Learning Environment

Refers to the factors apart from the learner.

Safety

Safety is of vital importance in any practice session or game. Practice sessions should always include: - Warm up - cool down - protective equipment - safe environment - clear instructions - evaluate The warm up should elevate heart rate and include gross motor skills to prepare the body and mind for the activity to follow. Done correctly, a warm up can significantly reduce the risk of soft tissue injury. A cool down should always complete the practice session to slowly bring the body back to its resting state. This helps minimise muscular soreness following the activity. Protective equipment should be worn during practice sessions and coaches must be strict about players abiding by safety rules. Progression is another aspect of safety. Learners should only attempt new skills they are capable of achieving safely, and only under the coach's supervision.

Serial skills

Serial skills are those where small movements are put together to form a whole skill e.g. a penalty shot in soccer. Discrete skills have a distinct start and finish, for example, a basketball free-throw. These skills may be best taught as a whole, whereas the elements of a serial gymnastic routine are best taught in parts.

11. Under what conditions does part practice prove to be most effective?

Serial skills that are long in duration or moves are relatively separate

Situational Transfer

Situational Transfer e.g. increased friction from wearing spikes applied to wearing studs on wet ground

Skill to Skill Transfer

Skill to Skill Transfer e.g. forward roll to forward somersault

What is a skilled performer

Skilled performers are autonomous performers, and have a particular look to their movement. These observable features of skilled performers include: kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency and good technique.

Closed Skill

Skills performed in a predictable environment.

Open Skill

Skills performed in an unpredictable environment.

Self-paced Skill

Skills where the performer is in control of the timing and the speed of execution.

Skills with low organisation

Skills with low organisation are almost certainly best learnt in parts, before being combined into whole practice situations.

Equipment

Specialised equipment has improved performance and technology has impacted various recreational activities. Fishing has embraced advancements in technology through high-tech sonar and sounding equipment that are now commonplace in many fishing vessels. Sonar (commonly known as fishfinders) enables fishermen to locate schools of fish within the water and position fishing gear accordingly. Various technologies, in conjunction with Global Positioning Systems (GPS), digital charts and personal computers allow operators to create detailed models of their fishing grounds. Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are also beneficial to the leisure pursuit orienteering. Handheld GPS use receivers and microprocessors to attain information related to their position. Load charts and maps can be accessed through a built-in electronic compass and barometric altimeter.

Specialised movement skills

Specialised movement skills, or sport specific skills, are those that are required in more organised games, activities and sport. They are developed after mastering fundamental movement skills. Learning specialised movement skills largely depends on the opportunity to practice and receive feedback. Feedback and practice together combine to provide the best environment for learning physical skills.

Playing surfaces

Tactics, playing style and results are largely dependant on playing surfaces. Major stadiums around the world are using 'next generation' artificial playing surfaces that use sand and/or rubber infill. From a distance, these surfaces are virtually indistinguishable from grass. Artificial Grass is considered as safe to play on as real grass and is effective in reducing ongoing costs associated with traditional surfaces. Polyethylene 'grass' is the most common type of artificial surface that is approximately 5cm long and lubricated with silicone. The 'grass' is then sewn into a rubberized plastic mat and the surface is 'infilled' with a 4cm layer of sand and rubber granules. The 'infill' keeps the fibres upright and provides the right level of shock absorbency and deformability. Portable court systems are another innovation used in indoor arenas. The systems are used to gain maximum usage of a facility and engineered to handle the punishing demands of a multi-purpose arena. Portable courts integrate rubber granules into the base layers of urethane to provide a cushioning effect to reduce the risk of injury and enhance performance. Such systems provide outstanding value as they can be left in place during a sporting season and stored elsewhere when not needed.

Technique Analysis

Technique Analysis - includes testing in the laboratory (under controlled conditions), field testing (where the athlete's performance is analysed in training or while simulating a performance in the usual sport setting) or competition analysis (analysis of an athlete performing in competition). Technique analysis is used for a broad range of sports and activities. Sports that obtain benefit from technique-analysis include individual sports, technique intensive sports and various sports that involve repetitive type activities, such as track and field athletics, swimming, rowing and kayaking. Individualised technique analysis can also benefit specific skills within team sports, such as kicking in rugby, bowling in cricket and serving in tennis. Technique analysis enables the diagnosis of issues that limit an athlete's performance. Once diagnosis is recognized, coaches can implement means to overcome problems, such as incorporating specific drills into an athlete's training program.

The Skill

The Skill The characteristics of the skills involved determine the type of practice needed. The classification of skills provides valuable information regarding the best way to practice them.

Autonomous Stage

The automatic stage of skill learning.

Learning Process

The cyclic process of skill learning.

Motivation

The drive from within.

Associative Stage

The practice stage of skill learning.

Accuracy

The precision with which a skill or routine is executed.

The Environment

The situation in which the skill is to be performed influences the choice of practice sessions. This refers not only to the physical environment i.e. whether indoors or outdoors, but also the size of the group, the availability of equipment and the weather.

Mental Practice

The use of mental rehearsal and visualisation.

2. Brainstorm the many examples of technology in sport (past and present).

The world of sport is continually changing over the years, and the use of technology is just one of those areas that has made an impact on many sports in the modern day. See the annual sports technology awards for the latest technology ideas in the world of sport. One criticism of the use of technology is that it can slow down the speed of the game, but on the other hand for many people it makes watching it more enjoyable to see the correct decisions being made. Assisting the Umpires / Referees Most professional sports in the United States have long used instant replay and other high-tech aids to help referees make the right call. Gridiron has used video replay systems to check referees' calls for many years. Basketball referees use replay systems to make sure players are shooting within the time allotted by the shot clock. In international cricket, the third umpire has been used, one sitting off the ground with access to TV replays of certain situations (such as disputed catches and boundaries) to advise the central umpires. The umpires out on the field are in communication via wireless technology with the other umpire. The third umpire is also asked to adjudicate on run out decisions, which he makes without consultation with the two central umpires. One sport that has resisted the use of high-tech assistance until very recently is soccer/football. Replays could be used to decide off-side decisions, whether a ball passes over the goal line, and clarify penalty decisions. Hawk-Eye Technology Hawk-eye is the name of a computer and camera system which traces a ball's trajectory. It is being used in international cricket and tennis, and many other sports are also looking at making use of this technology. The system is also being trialled in soccer as part of the goal line assessment. The Premier League of Football in the UK has agreed to the introduction of goal-line sensors after being given approval by football's rule-makers. The system being developed by the UK company Hawk-Eye, would give a definitive decision on whether the ball had crossed the line. The Hawk Eye uses a camera taking 600 frames a second on the goal-line, with the information is analyzed by computer and sent to the referee's headset or a device on his wrist. In 2015, Hawkeye technology was also used by rugby officials at the 2015 Rugby World Cup, to improve decision-making by the television match official (TMO) and also assist with player safety. In this case it is enhanced video review, rather than the ball tracking technology as used in other sports. Sport Specific Tennis - it is now standard at the major tennis tournaments for a line review system to be in place, with players given power to review contentious line calls. It is powered by the Hawk-Eye ball tracking system. See more about Hawk Eye for Tennis Soccer / Football - Soccer is looking at joining the 21st century, looking at various technologies for the goal line to determine if the pass passes over the line or not. See more about Football/Soccer Technology Basketball - the NBA uses replay vision to review 'last touch' decisions in the final two minutes of games, and also to determine whether players release the ball before the shot clock expires. Cricket - technology in cricket has been driven by advances in the TV coverage. Things that were once extra information provided by the TV networks are now being incorporated into the decision referral system (DRS), such as hawk-eye and hot spot, and maybe even the old favorite snicko. See more about Cricket Technology. Aussie Rules Football - umpire review system has also been implemented in AFL, with an off field umpire in certain circumstances adjudicating on whether the ball passes over the goal line or is touched, using video evidence via multiple camera angles. See more about Technology in AFL. Baseball - In 2014 a challenge system was put in place for the MLB to use replays to challenge certain umpiring decisions. See more about Technology in Baseball. Rugby Union - In 2015, Hawkeye technology was used by rugby officials at the 2015 Rugby World Cup. The video review technology with synchronised camera views was used to improve decision-making by the television match official (TMO) and also used by medical staff to assist with player safety by identifying possible concussion instances and behind play incidents. Rugby League - The NRL was an early implementer of using the video referee to help adjudicate questionable tries. computer softwareComputer Software There are numerous software packages that are designed for fitness and nutrition professionals to organize data and produce reports, ideal for visitors to this site. Here are a couple of packages that come recommended by Topend Sports. Team Beep Test — the most versatile and useful software for conducting and recording results of the bleep / beep test, with results recorded directly onto your computer. BodyByte — a universal standalone computer software program specially developed to comprehensively organize and manage all the information associated with nutrition, training and fitness.

Clothing

There has also been considerable development in the clothing options for athletes. For example, swimming manufacturers have designed swimsuits to improve a swimmer's time by up to 10%. The swimsuits have been developed to decrease the force that water exerts on swimmers, also known as 'drag'. The suits alter the fluid dynamics of water as it flows over and around the swimmer. Basically, less drag means less energy a competitor must exert causing faster times. In athletics, developments in footwear have introduced 'smart' shoes, a shoe that has been designed to respond to an athlete's performance. A sensor, implanted in the heel can take up to 20,000 readings per second relaying recorded information to an embedded electronic 'brain'. The 'brain' analyses the readings and makes changes to the shoe, specific to the athlete's running style. In terms of monitoring, the 'smart' shoes feature push-button controls and light-emitting diodes to display settings within the tongue of the shoe.

The Progressive Part Method

This is sometimes also known as the chaining method, as the parts of a skill are practised individually, in order, before being linked together and expanded. For example in the triple jump, the hop will be practised and learnt, before the skip is then practised and learnt. The two are then linked together. Finally the jump will be learnt individually and then tagged on the end of the skip. This is slow process but allows weaknesses to be targeted and for the performer to understand the relationship of the sub-routines.

Positive Feedback

This occurs when the skill is performed correctly.

Negative Feedback

This occurs when the skill is unsuccessful.

Three Dimensional Motion Analysis Systems

Three Dimensional Motion Analysis Systems - an analysis tool that automatically tracks the performer at up to 250 images per second. This high level of analysis is ideal for fast movements where slower image technology, such as video, may miss important technique information. The analysis systems are best for tracking movements such as golf drives or tennis serves. Quantitative date is obtained including images showing angles, velocities and accelerations. Qualitative analysis is also given through viewing the movement at any speed and from any angle.

Externally Paced Skill

Timing of movement is controlled by external sources.

Preparation

To help better prepare athletes for competition, Australia has dispensed millions of dollars into developing new technology specific to sport. A portion of the money is used to equip laboratories with sensors, cameras, computers, software and other devices that supply precise data. For example, cyclists have components of their bike and body positions tested in state of the art wind tunnels to gain an advantage over their competitors by minimizing drag. Additionally, high tech pools can now minimize wave interference and provide greater grip for kick-turns off the wall. The formation of new sport science fields, such as physiology, nutrition, psychology and medicine, help develop training technologies and give athletes a competitive edge. Training technologies can help prevent injury and reduce the recovery time between workouts. For instance, specialized equipment can be used during training to precisely control the velocity of an athlete's movement to prevent damage to the joints. Scientists aim to make the most of technological advancements by tailoring perfect techniques for each athlete. For example, in aquatic events, computer simulations allow coaches to manipulate dives or swimming strokes and discover changes that increase efficiency and reduce water resistance. Arrays of technological devices are used to assist athletes and coaches in determining optimum participation levels. A number of devices are explained below.

How can we use transfer?

Transfer of learning requires applying the skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes that were learned in one situation to another learning situation. This increases the speed of learning. Transfer is most effective when the skills are similar, when the learner understands the concept of transfer and when the learning environment is similar.

Definition of Transfer of Skill

Transfer of skill is where the learning and performance of one skill affects the learning and performance of another. Positive transfer occurs when one skill enhances, or benefits the learning and performance of another.

Video Analysis

Video Analysis - used to analyse video footage of sporting activity. Video analysis is reasonably accessible and can easily be used on the sporting field. Video analysis systems feature split screens, screen overlay, slow motion, frame by frame options and drawing tools that can be used to illustrate key technique points. Measurements of key features including body and joint angles, velocities, angles of ball release etc. can be obtained through video analysis and viewed by the athlete. Sport scientists can use a force platform, which can be embedded in a running track or with moveable positions located within a biomechanics laboratory. The force platforms can be located to measure take-off forces in a number of disciplines, such as gymnastics, dance, running, jumping and hurdling. The force platform measures the magnitude and direction of forces in three planes, providing data on efficiency as well as peak power. Force platform data combined with video analysis provides a greater understanding of the athlete's technique.

Part Method

When a skill is complex or there is an element of danger to the player, it is more appropriate to break down into parts. Parts can be taught separately then joined together Demonstrate whole skill so they get a mental picture Triple Jump is a good example for part teaching Advantages of Part Practice: Learner can achieve success at each level of learning Encourages the learner and builds confidence

Whole Method

Whole Method Teach and demonstrate the skill as a whole Good for simple, discrete skills or skills that cannot be broken into parts Examples: Golf swing Racing dive Set shot in volleyball Vertical jump Bench press Advantages: the learner gets to experience the feeling of the whole movement. It is time effective Disadvantages: Learner may lose motivation May be afraid to attempt the skill May be difficult to comprehend parts of a complex skill.

Skills are...

actions or movements that provide the basis of all sporting performance

A skill is...

an ability that can be learned

It is...

the proficiency that occurs from training and practice -> the ability to do something well

Examples of FMS

two handed strike side gallop catch sprint & run balance vertical jump hop skip kick jog overarm throw leap

Practical Application Describe the skills that are being used. Are these skills FMS's or specialised? • Newcombe ball and volleyball • Captain Ball and netball • Running and dribbling a football • Cricket and softball

• Newcombe ball and volleyball Specialised • Captain Ball and netball FMS • Running and dribbling a football Specialised • Cricket and softball FMS/specialised

10. Skills can be taught and practised as:

• Whole: where the whole skill is practiced. When the components of a skill are related to each other and are simple it is the best way to perform a skill • Part: when part of the skill is practiced. When components of the skill are complex and not related • Progressive: related parts are practiced before being added to other related parts. Best used for long in duration