Napolean Bonaparte

Citizen-soldiers

Armies began to be made up of "citizen-soldiers." This changed warfare, as now, the soldiers were committed to their cause, unlike the mercenaries that preceded them. This demonstrates the spread of nationalism throughout Europe, as ordinary people, such as the sans-culottes, fought to defend their country.

Duke of Wellington

Arthur Wellesley, the duke of Wellington was a British military leader. He defeated Napoleon at the battle of Leipzig and finally at the battle of Waterloo, helping exile him for the second and final time.

carl von Clausewitz

Carl Von Clausewitz was a Prussian general and military writer, He described how warfare, which he described as an "extension of state policy by other means," had changed. Whereas the wars of most of the eighteenth century had been those of kings and of states, not entire peoples, now "war had again suddenly become an affair of the people, and that of a citizen of the state."

Continental System

In November 1806, Napoleon announced his Continental System. It prohibited trade with Britain, which he hoped would strangle the British economy by closing all continental ports to British ships. French merchants and manufacturers, as well as the state would earn fortunes supplying the captive markets of the continent. The banning of British ports led to the development of some important innovations in France.

Jean Louis David

Jean-Louis David painted Emperor Napoleon Crowning Empress Josephine in the Cathedral of Notre Dame.

Joseph Bonaparte

Joseph Bonaparte was Napoleon's older brother who he gave the throne of Spain to in 1808. Along with his brother, he imposed ecclesiastical reforms, which included the reduction in the number of monastic convents by two-thirds and the abolition of the Inquisition.

Louis XVIII

Louis XVIII was Louis XVI's little brother, who returned to France in 1814 and ruled from 1814-1815 and 1815-1824. He issued the constitutional "Charter." He was disliked by the people of France for hid substitution of the white flag of the Bourbon family for the tricolor one, the description of the Charter as a "gift" from the king to the people, the retiring of 14,000 officers at half pay, the restoration of returned emigres to high positions in the army, and the return to their original owners of national lands that had not been sold.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military leader who rose to power after the French Revolution, and eventually became emperor of France. He was a brilliant military strategist and built France the biggest empire since the Roman times.

"A Career Open to All Talents"

Napoleon once wrote, "My motto has always been: a career open to all talents." He considered the end of social distinctions at birth to be one of the most lasting accomplishments of the French Revolution.

"Authority from above; Confidence from below."

Napoleon said "authority from above' confidence from below." This quote demostrates his and Napoleon's insistence in a stronger executive power to control the country of France.

`1St. Helena

St. Helena was the island in the South Atlantic that Napoleon was exiled to for the second, and final, time in 1815. It was 1,000 miles away from the any mainland. The closest island was a British naval base about 600 miles away.

Talleyrand

Talleyrand resigned as foreign minister in 1807, after the execution of the duke of Enghien. He now symbolized the "party of peace" which opposed extending the empire past limits that could effectively be administered. In 1809, he began to negotiate secretly with Austria about the possibility of a monarchical restoration in France should Napoleon fall.

100 Days

The "100 Days" refers to the period of time in which Napoleon reigned over France for a second time, being eventually defeated, 100 days after Louis XVIII fled Paris. Once Napoleon was back in power, the countries of Europe immediately declared war on him, and after raising a new French army, he was eventually defeated by the combined forces of the other European countries.

Charter

The "Charter" was signed by Louis XVIII and granted people "public liberties" promising that a legislature would be elected based on a very restricted franchise. Although the document affirmed monarchical rule by divine right, in confirmed some of the important victories of the Revolution, including equality before the law and freedom of expression and religion, although Catholicism would be the religion of state.

Grand Army

The "Grand Army" was Napoleon's army that consisted of over 600,000 men. In June 1812, the Grand Army crossed the Niemen River from the Grand Duchy of Warsaw into Russia. It may have been the largest army ever raised up to that time, but its quality had declined since 1806 through casualties and desertions.

battle of trafalgar

The Battle of Trafalgar was a naval battle during the War of the Third Coalition. It was a decisive victory for the British navy against the combined Spanish and French fleets. It earned Great Britain control of the seas and diminished any chance of a French invasion of England.

Waterloo

The Battle of Waterloo took place on June 18, 1815, and was the battle in which Napoleon fell to British forces. The duke of Wellington, reinforced by the Prussian military totally and devastatingly defeated the French army.

concordat of 1801

The Concordat of 1801 was an agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII. It helped solidify some of the changed brought by the Revolution, declaring Catholicism "the religion of the majority of the citizens" in France. It restored ecclesiastical influence in France, reflected by an increase in religious observance and in the number of people entering the clergy.

Confederation of the Rhine

The Confederation of the Rhine was organized by Napoleon and was composed of sixteen German states, excluding Prussia and Austria. Napoleon named himself "Protector" of the Confederation, and its members agreed to support him if war broke out again. This made the Holy Roman Empire even more irrelevant than it had been for a very long time.

Legion of Honor

The Legion of Honor to reward those who served the nation with distinction. It was organized along military lines, with commanders, officers, and knights. 97 percent of those in the Legion of Honor served in his military forces.

Napoleonic Code

The Napoleonic Code, or the Civil Code of 1804, may have been Napoleon's most lasting legacy. It was over 2,000 articles long and enshrined the equality of all people before the law. It also granted freedom of religion and protected private property. However, the laws also gave men many rights over women.

Peninsular War

The Peninsular war occurred from 1808 to 1813 between France and Spain. Napoleon and his brother Joseph Bonaparte, who Napoleon allowed to rule Spain, imposed ecclesiastical reforms that angered the Spanish people, causing them to revolt against the French. The Spanish used what was arguably the first guerilla warfare in modern Europe.

Consulate

The consulate was the French government after the fall of the directory, headed by Napoleon Bonaparte, comprised of three consuls. It provided political stability by institutionalizing strong executive authority.

duke of enghien

The duke of Enghien, Louis de Bourbon-Conde, was a member of the Bourbon family who had emigrated to Baden. Napoleon accused him of being involved in an alleged conspiracy by royalists against his life. French troops moved in Baden to arrest, and he was hurriedly tried and executed. Public opinion throughout France was outraged with Napoleon.

Notables

Those who were among the elite class created by Napoleon were called "Notables." He rewarded those who served him with prestigious titles and lucrative positions. Between 1804 and 1814, Napoleon created 3,600 titles.

toussaint l'ouverture

Toussaint L'ouverture was the leader of a Haitian rebellion proclaiming their independence from France. In response, Napoleon restored French control of Haiti and reinstituted slavery in the French colonies. L'ouverture was captured and taken to France, where he soon died.