NAS Final

Eunice Williams

- Daughter of John Williams, taken captive in the raid on Deerfield - Adopted into way of life: taken into captivity and became a baptized Catholic, married and Indian man, and refused to return to New England - Threatened the social order of her father's household

Deerfield Raid

- 1704, party of Abenakis, Mohawks, and Hurons gathered with their French allies and sacked the town of Deerfield Mass. - Carried off 112 people including the minister and his family - Fled north along the Connecticut River, killed adults if slowing the pace of the trek but carried children on sleds - Eunice, the daughter of the minister, stayed with the Indians and converted to Catholicism and married a Mohawk. Refused to return home. She was naturalized to the Indian way of life

Treaty of Lancaster

- 1744 in Pennsylvania - commissioners from VA invited the Iroquois delegates to send their children to William and Mary, where they could receive benefits of an English education - They were thanked but the Onondaga orator Canasatego thanked them but declines, believed that the children would come back and be "good for nothing" and that if they wanted to become real men they should be sent to Iroquois country

Treaty of Fort Pitt

- 1778, also known as the treaty with the Delawares - The first treaty the US negotiated with the Indians between the Delaware nation and the US - US desired to gain Delaware trade, political, and military alliance on the side of the Americans during the War of Independence (British also wanted this) - Treaty of peace and mutual protection - peaceful relations and forget past harms, agreed to supply military aid to one another if necessary

Anthony Wayne

- After Sin Clair's army was defeated, Wayne rebuilt the army to prepare for another invasion - The US commissioners could not reach an agreement with the tribes and General Wayne's army was left to resolve the issue - Builds and leads the army that defeats the NW Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 - By the time Wayne led his army, the Northwestern tribes were no longer united, making it easier for him - Burns Indian corn fields

Deganawidah

- After his daughters died, Hiawatha met Deganawidah (A Huron or Mohawk or healing spirit in human form) - Known as the Peacemaker, eased Hiawatha's grief with words of condolence and beads of wampum - Helped Hiawatha compose the great law of peace - Traveled from village to village, teaching laws of peace, he placed deer antlers on the heads of the chiefs of the Five nations as symbols of their authority - The great law of the League, given to the Iroquois by Deganawidah, was preserved for generations through oral tradition and then was eventually written down in the 19th century

Mandans

- Believed ancestors emerged from under the earth - Lived on edges of Great plains - Ravaged by epidemics - Manufactured goods filtered in through Mandan villages on the Missouri - Extensive fields that women cultivated were their basis of prosperity and trade - Great marketplace and crossroads, hub of huge intertribal trading network in which Plain Indians exchanged horses and the products of buffalo hunting for guns, trade goods, and agricultural produce - ALL a death trap for epidemic disease (smallpox epidemic of 1779-1781) - Epidemic of 1837 virtually destroyed the Mandans - Held a commanding position on the Great Bend of the upper Missouri prior to 1780 and their power blocked Sioux expansion - Numbered around 9000 people in the middle of the 18th century, told Lewis and Clark in 1805 that 20 years before they had inhabited 6 villages but had been reduced to 2 by attacks from the Sioux and due to Smallpox

Battle of Fallen Timbers

- Britain faced with trouble in Europe and a revolutionary government in France (not interested in another war in the US) - Wayne defeats the Indians (what's important is what happens after) ♣ Indians fled to a British fort where they thought they would receive assistance ♣ The Indian confederacy had been supported and supplied by the British ♣ British commander kept the gates closed, severing British Indian alliance ♣ Actual losses of Indians at battle of fallen timbers were light

Sir William Johnson

- British superintendent of Indian affairs in the North during the mid 18th century (intermediaries between the crown and tribes) - Set the tone of the British Indian Department for more than a generation, desired to keep the Iroquois neutral - Married Mohawk woman Molly Brant, disregarded role that Iroquoian women played in politics (even though he married one)

Mary Jemison

- Captured and adopted by the Seneca's as a teenage in 1758, married an Indian husband and raised a family - Adopted by Seneca's and spent the rest of her life as an Iroquoian woman - Her life story was published in 1824 - As a captive she had to adjust to new situation but also brought new ideas and technologies to captors' societies - Her account is very valuable because it is very rare to hear accurate information and viewpoints of Native American women during this time period - she refused to return home

William Wells

- Captures and raised by Miami Indians, thought of himself as Indian - Married to chief little turtles daughter - Acted a decoy, he would yell help to white people and they would come and then the Indians would kill them - Goes back to American society and decides to act an interpreter for them - A white captive who had been adopted and fought against the Americans in St Clairs' defeat who switched sides and became an interpreter for Wayne - Served as an Indian agent for the US, aided Little Turtle in urging the Miamis to make a transition to the new way of life (peace)

Chickamauga

- Cherokee people living near the present location of Chattanooga, Tennessee - Separated from the greater body of the Cherokee tribes during the American Revolution, did not desire to make peace with the American rebels near the end of 1776 - Followed Dragging Canoe, down Tennessee River away from historic Overhill Cherokee towns in the winter of 1776-1777 (relocated away from colonists) - Relocated on the Chickamauga Creek, and were referred to as the Chickamaugas

Chota

- Cherokee town in southeastern US - War negotiations occurred here during the outbreak of the American Revolution, delegates assembled here

Dragging Canoe

- Cherokee war chief - Stormed out of negotiations at Sycamore Shoals and said he would make the lands "dark and bloody" - Was mad that older men were selling his land - Believed the outbreak of the revolution to be an opportunity to drive invaders off their homelands, but that would require challenging the authority of the older chiefs and gaining the upper hand in the councils of the Cherokee nation

Sullivan's Expedition

- Continental army's invasion of Iroquois homeland - Designed by George Washington to punish the British allied Iroquois nations for a series of frontier raids the year before, with the hope of forcing the Iroquois out of the war - Commander John Sullivan commanded the troops, proceeded to destroy cornfields and Iroquois towns - Devastated the Iroquois league, many left NY and resettled in Canada - Did not entirely knock them out of the war

NW Indian Confederacy

- Defeated Arthur St. Clair's army - US mentioned that they'd be possibly willing to compromise and accept the Muskingum River as the boundary line BUT the western tribes were not interested in compromise - Indians and Americans couldn't come to an agreement with the commissioners and negotiations went nowhere until Indians offered a formula for peace (Western Indians - Message to the Commissioners of the United States 1793) - Commissioners viewed this a refusal to make peace and General Wayne's army was left to resolve the issue - *also known as Tecumseh's confederacy (?)

White Eyes

- Delaware chief - Led his people in making the Treaty of Fort Pitt in 1778, the first written Indian treaty concluded by the US - Delawares and US congress agreed to a defensive alliance, but short lived... American militiamen who regarded all natives as enemies, murdered white eyes in Ohio Indian country - Government tried to say that he died of smallpox but damage was done

Treaty of Paris (1763(

- Ended the seven years' war in Europe and the French and Indian War in North America - Britain won all of Canada and almost all of the modern US east of Mississippi - Because France lost so much land, it contributed to British rule and expansion in the New World - Pontiacs war was in response to this, in hopes of driving out the British

Royal Proclamation of 1763

- Established the Appalachians as the boundary line between colonial lands and Indian lands - "no private person do presume to make any purchase from the said Indians" - Only crowns representatives acting in formal council could negotiate land transfers and only licensed traders would be permitted to operate in Indian country - Did little to stop Indian-hating frontier settlers, especially those of the colonial elite who had investments in western land - British desired to avoid further Indian wars of resistance, but the proclamation was ineffective

Cherokees

- Homeland was the Appalachian highlands into the 18th century (Western Carolinas, eastern Georgia, Tennessee) - Introduction of firearms played an important role in their formation - Moved south sometime after the 1640's - Called themselves the "real people" - Men hunted, women farmed - Five nations had forced them to abandon previous homeland when norther Iroquoians has guns and they did not - Traded with the Virginians - Allied with the English - Staged a coup during the outbreak of the Revolutionary war at Chota in May 1776

Albany Congress

- Important step in forging unity among British colony colonies - Cultural encounter, where colonial officials met with Iroquois men who spoke on wampum belts and Indian women strung belts for use in council - Benjamin Franklin's attempt at uniting the colonies

Arthur St. Clair

- In 1791 the native Americans routed an army under St. Clairs' lead - Heaviest defeat Indians ever inflicted on the US - Suffered over 900 casualties (did not have manpower or resources to sustain such losses) Governor of NW territory, ordered to destroy the villages and cornfields of the Northwestern tribes and build a fort right in the center of Indian

Shawnees

- In the wars between France and England, the Shawnees tended to support their French allies - Originally occupied Ohio valley - Mobility and migration became a way to survive in a world of violence and turmoil - Many Shawnees captives resisted liberation and some adult captives were equally reluctant to return - Proclamation line of 1763 = most of the land Iroquois sold was south of the Ohio river, which was hunting territory claimed by the Shawnees (who were not at treaty negotiations)... fort Stanwix was an act of betrayal - Continued to fight for their land near and around the Ohio River, eventually were forced to give up their land claims in Ohio and were dispersed through Oklahoma and Kansas - Were forced to surrender most of their lands in Ohio in the Treaty of Greenville

Sea Otter Trade

- Indians on the northwest coast became involved in sea otter pelts that brought outside world to their shores - Began with Russian interest in Northwest coast, Russians traded Chinese rubles for sea otter pelts. Abused natives and forced them to hunt for sea otter pelts by holding their women hostage - Voyage of Captain James Cook in 1778 = Greatest Voyage in the age of sail (made a huge profit) *came back and told Europeans that there were fortunes to be made in sea otter trade - Sea otters became the key to great fortunes in England and New England - British and Yankee merchants take manufactured goods, exchange goods for pelts in US, stay in Hawaii for the winter, take the pelts to China and sell them for silks, spices, and tea, take back home to UK (otter pelts = status symbol) - Set for life if you complete that voyage

Delawares

- Initially declined to take up arms or support British - Delaware's and US congress agreed to a defensive alliance @ treaty of Fort Pitt - After their chief was killed, they made Britain's war against the US their own - Delaware's were Christians and pacifists, but perceived by American militia as solely their enemy (americans killed 96 of them, Deleware's would get revenge) - Lost the last of their lands in the walking purchase of 1738, when the William Penn produced a team of runners to grant themselves land "as far as a man can go in a day and a half" they continued to retreat westward

French and Indian War

- Involved Indians fighting on both sides alongside European armies and against European armies that were invading Indian country - Also known as the 7 years war - 1756 war was declared by British - 1763 - France's expansion into the Ohio River valley brought conflict with the British colonies - At the peace conference in 1763, the British received Canada from France and Florida from Spain, but permitted France to keep its West Indian sugar islands and gave Louisiana to Spain. The treaty strengthened the American colonies significantly by removing their European rivals to the north and south and opening the Mississippi Valley to westward expansion

Kahnawake

- Iroquois Indians who converted to Roman Catholicism, who were removed from upstate New York and resettled in Canada - Name of the eastern most town of the Mohawks and a source of many of the original Canadian Iroquois - They were the Canadian Iroquois most directly affected by the American Revolution, they struggled to maintain neutrality and were lobbied by both the British and the Americans - Where Eunice Williams is taken

Covenant Chain

- Iroquois constitute 5-6 tribes... Wampum belt represents a chain that links them together - The Iroquois and their English allies create a covenant chain - It can be extended ( ex: if the Iroquois become allies with Miami and Shawnee... the belt can lengthen) - Incorporating other people by "adding" onto the belt. People discuss the chain of alliance going "rusty" - meaning it needs to be polished by strengthening the relations.. through giving gifts etc.

Tuscarora

- Leaned towards the colonists during the American Revolution because of missionary Samuel Kirkland - Joined the league as the sixth nation around 1722 after moving north from the Carolinas; represents the idea of longhouse that extends to allow in new members who desire to foster peace - Tuscarora War in North Carolina (1711-1713); due to unfair trading practices and encroachment on their lands the Tuscarora's went to war with settlers. Europeans enlisted the Yamasee and Cherokee as Indian allies against the Tuscarora. Bloodiest colonial war in NC history. Defeated the Tuscarora signed a treaty and settles on a reserved tract of land in Bertie County.

Gnadenhutten

- Massacre - Pennsylvania 1782 - Group of Pennsylvania militiamen killed 90+ unarmed native Americans at a mission settlement (converting to Christianity) in Gnadenhutten Ohio - Claimed they were seeking revenge for Indian raids on their frontier settlements but Indians they murdered played no role in the attack

John Williams

- Minister of the town in Deerfield that was sacked by Indians and their French allies - Liberated after 2.5 years of captivity - Wrote an account of his experiences called "The Redeemed Captive Returning to Zion," in the account he expounded the Puritan view of captivity as a testing of good protestants and that they survived by resisting the savages and Jesuits who tried to turn them into Catholics - His daughter refused to leave the Indians, she threatened the safety of his household and the stability of the social order

Joseph Brant

- Mohawk (1743-1807) most famous Indian of his day - War chief that led the Mohawks during the Revolution, sided with the crown - Many portraits of him - Educated at an Indian charity school in Connecticut, both bilingual and literate, translated gospel into Mohawk - Visited England twice, received at court, and befriended prince of wales - Became a war leader on the British side during the revolution, led his people to the grand river after the war - Disappointed by Britain's abandonment of its Indian allies in 1783, he continued to play a role in relations between Northeastern Indians, the British, and the new US

Treaty of Greenville

- More than 1000 Indian delegated accepted Wayne's terms and ceded the US 2/3 of Ohio and part of Indiana - In return Indians were promised a lasting boundary between their lands and American territory - By the time Wayne's army entered into Indian country, the Northwestern confederacy was no longer united (some desired resistance others desired peace)... the Indians were easily driven out of their territories - End of a generation of warfare

Chinooks

- Mouth of Columbia - Moved easily across the water in sturdy canoes - Traded inland with other Indian peoples and acquired items from half a continent away at the Dalles - Not isolated but isolated from European contact - On the Pacific Coast, native people had little contact with Europeans and Americans until the 18th century - Europeans came for fur not for souls (to convert them)

John Webber

- Official artist on Captain James Cook's third voyage - Composed an impressive collection of drawings of Native people in Hawaii, British Columbia, Alaska, Siberia, Tonga, Tahiti, and New Zealand (sketched portraits when they came aboard a ship) - Also sketched houses, artifacts, kayaks, and landscapes

Hiawatha

- Onandaga chieftan who lost three daughters - Some Iroquoian traditions attributed the deaths to evil powers... and the "mourning war" traditions demanded that Hiawatha avenge the grief by taking the life of an enemy - He decided to break the cycle of violence and foster a new culture of "healing worlds and not bloody deeds" - Composed laws of great peace that restored order and preserved harmony in Iroquois country (recording each law on strings of wampum)

Mohawks

- One of the five Iroquoian nations - Defended eastern borders of Iroquois homeland; designated keepers of the Eastern door - First of the Iroquoian tribes to be introduced to American Indian warfare. Faced Champlain + Algonquins/Hurons at Southern end of Lake Champlain. Guns were used against Mohawks and inflicted many deaths on Iroquoian people - Beginning of the time period in which Natives became dependent on European warfare - When Iroquois abandoned neutrality, the Mohawks tended to side with the British

Cayuga

- One of the five Iroquoian nations - During the American Revolution, most Cayuga's supported the crown

Onandaga

- One of the five Iroquoian nations - Homeland in and around present day Onondaga County, New York, south of Lake Ontario - Keepers of the council of fire - Became the site of the leagues central fire council fire and Tadodaho the fire's guardian - Onondaga chieftain (Hayenwatha/Hiawatha) lost three daughters. Chose to break the cycle of the "mourning war," the Iroquoian culture in which demanded that grief and respect for lost ones was shown by taking the life of an enemy. He changed this culture and made the Iroquoian culture one of healing words and not bloody deeds. He composed the law of great peace that would restore order and preserve harmony in Iroquois country... recording all of this on a wampum belt to be passed down for future generations - During American Revolution, most Onondagas supported the crown

Seneca

- One of the five Iroquoian nations - Keepers of the western door - Agreed to replace war and weapons with words and wampum (along with four other Iroquoian nations) - When the Iroquoians ended their neutrality, the Seneca's occasionally fought with the French - Sided with the British during the Revolution

Oneida

- One of the five Iroquoian nations - Oneida declaration of neutrality (1775): first declaration of neutrality made on the North American continent. Oneida nation declares its neutrality, recognizing past patronage of the English but will not fight again the New Englanders (interpreted and wrote by Samuel Kirkland) - Contributed during the American Revolution by supporting the American cause (alliance between Americans and Oneidas was due to Reverend Samuel Kirkland) - During American revolution side with colonists due to influence of missionary Kirkland who desired to break away from the Church of England - At battle of Oriskany in 1777, Oneidas fought alongside the Americans while Mohawks and Seneca's fought with the British; devastating to Iroquoian society because the society was founded on peace and kinship ties

Pontiac

- Ottawa chief - Intertribal leader who organized Pontiac's War (1763-1764), resistance to British power/control in the Great Lakes area - Pontiacs War: tribes in Great Lakes and Ohio Valley region rallied against the British. Pontiac calls for the expulsion of redcoats from Indian country. Indian drove redcoats back on several fronts but disease combined with military inferiority placed them at a disadvantage. This was considered a continuation of the seven years' war, Indians who had not been defeated refused to accept the conditions of peace that Britain imposed and France accepted. - Attacks ended when Pontiac was killed

Calamut

- Peace pipe - Carrying it means that you're on a mission of peace - Smoke is going up as words go up, sacred words are being spoken... you don't break words (meaning that in history it has been the US breaking treaties not the Indians) - Brought peace and order to relationships and turned strangers into kinfolk

Samson Occom

- Preacher - Studied English, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin - Wrote the first autobiography by a native American - wrote diaries, letters, petitions, etc. to colonial assemblies, used literacy as a means of resistance - Preached Christianity to Indian people and traveled to Britain to raise money for the Indian school at Dartmouth college

Canasatego

- Scholars believe that the League of the Iroquois served as a model for the US constitution - The Iroquois model was there for the colonists to emulate - in 1744 the Onondaga orator Canasatego urged them to follow the model of "union and amity" established by "our wise forefathers" (suggested to the colonists/Benjamin Franklin that they look at the Iroquoian League when creating their constitution) - @ treaty of Lancaster... offered for Indian children to receive an English education at William and Mary. Canasatego declined offer, he claimed that real men won't be made of them and that they came home "good for nothing"

Red Jacket

- Seneca Orator - Carried a message to the Western tribes, saying the Americans would be willing to compromise and might be accept the Muskingum River as the boundary line - He was rejected by the Shawnees and their allies, "speak from your heart and not your mouth" because they saw no need to compromise since they had just defeated St. Clair's army (the Shawnee picked up the strings on which red jacket spoke and threw them at the feet of the Seneca delegation)

Treaty of Fort Stanwix

- Sir William Johnson meets with Iroquois at Fort Stanwix, he exceeded his authority and purchased a huge tract of land from the assembled Indian delegates - Western tribes viewed this as an act of betrayal - The treaty allowed Iroquois delegates along with Sir William Johnson to hand away Cherokee hunting land north of the Tennessee river

Iroquois League

- The Iroquois saw their league as an extended longhouse, stretching from Mohawk valley to Lake Erie - The league fostered peace, wanted people to follow its roots of peace - Composed of five nations (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca)... - The Tuscaroras joined the league as the sixth nation around 1722 - Each member tribe occupied a position and performed a role... the longhouse could be extended to include others who sought its shelter - One of the oldest remaining political bodies in North America

Clan Mothers

- The oldest woman of a clan is called the clan mother - Position is hereditary, responsible for welfare of clan - Supervises the procedures of the ceremonies and the food etc. - Role in both the political and social world (raise children, sought for guidance Names all of the people in the clan

Treaty of Paris (1783)

- Treaty in wish British formally recognize the independence of the US, ended the American Revolution - Boundaries of the US were established - The Native Americans of the Ohio country took no formal part in the treaty negotiations, land was given away that belonged to them - British and American negotiators didn't consider the tribes who had been living in these lands. Some tribes were allies of the British and wanted the British to win the war so that the American colonists couldn't expand beyond the Appalachian mountains.

Peace of Montreal

- Treaty that brought together the French and many Indian nations in Montreal - Put an end to Franco-Iroquois wars and conflicts involving the Iroquois and French because of the fur trade - Close to 40 first nations and the French signed the treaty - Central council fire at Onondaga meets and decides on a new foreign policy after so much population loss - instead of fighting for the English, they will adopt neutrality - Do this through treaties in Montreal and Albany 1700 - 1701 - More Indians in Montreal than French people - "We are not going to get involved in imperial-driven wars because they are destroying us and we are on a downward cycle- so instead we are adopting a formal position of neutrality" works because the Iroquois are powerful at the time, threaten that if their neutrality isn't respected, they will join imperial wars but on the other side - Pull off a new world order - return to the original vision of a people of peace

Blue Jacket

- Warrior of western tribe - Shawnee - Inflicted a defeat on the American efforts made by General Hamar when he decided to invade Indian country - He led the defeat with Miami war chief Little Turtle

Indian Trade and Non-Intercourse Act

- congress passed this piece of legislation to regulate conditions on the frontier and reaffirm that conduct of Indian affairs was reserved to the federal government and not the states - permitted only licensed traders to operate in Indian country + no transfers of Indian land were valid without congressional approval - renewed on and off until 1834 - regardless, the US failed to control its citizens on distant frontiers and settlers rarely shared their governments concern for expansion w/ honor - treaties were frequently made w/o congressional approval

Northwest Ordinance

- law passed in 1787 to regulate the settlement of the NW territory - declared that the US would not disturb the Indians in rightful possession of their lands, except in "just and lawful wars authorized by Congress" - BUT also laid out a blueprint for national expansion, Northwest territory was to be divided into districts... eventually to become states - Indians who rejected soon found themselves subjected to "just and lawful wars" - Because it allowed for expansion it also resulted in the taking of land from Indian tribes

Treaty of Fort Finney

- more than 200 Shawnee met the American commissioners at Fort Finney (in Ohio) - tribes whose traditional responsibilities included healing and negotiations - negotiations at Fort Finney represent the contrast between the new and old ways of conducting diplomacy in Indian Country - Shawnee approached in a ceremonial fashion (speeches of welcome, peace pipes, dining) - Americans were in no mood for conciliation, preferred to dictate terms with the threat of force ("I carry in my right hand war and peace in my left") - Americans threw Shawnee wampum belt on table and threatened them with destruction - Accepted American terms, many Shawnee who did not attend the meeting were livid and refused to give up captives

Little Turtle

Chief of the Miami who led a Native American alliance that raided U.S. settlements in the Northwest Territory. He was defeated and forced to sign the Treaty of Greenville. Later, he became an advocate for peace

Cheyennes

Indian people who became nomadic buffalo hunters after migrating to the Great Plains in the eighteenth century - tribe of the Great Plains - separated into two groups, the Northern Cheyenne and the Southern Cheyenne - divided into warrior clans - lived in teepees - Quintessential plains Indians - BUT they used to live in western great lakes, farming people (when the French meet them), banks of Missouri, earth lodge villages (not tipis like on the plains) - Cheyenne moved out onto the plains and became buffalo-hunting, equestrian society - Went into center of plains to get more buffalo and to position themselves to be in a good location for trade - Trade with Arikara - Even if it's not for them, they will know someone who wants it - Become equestrian buffalo hunters - Abandon farming for hunting

Comanches

Plains Indians who were nomadic hunter-gatherers; depended heavily on bison, maintained huge herds of horses, and were devastating warriors. - moved onto plains in the 18th century - were once people with the Shoshones (UtesNevada) - drought in Nevada = migration - incorporate other people into their society - by 1800 they are building their own empire - Another epidemic coming out of New Orleans - Comanches are dying but also taking in survivors of smallpox from other tribes - Yes, their population is growing but only because they are taking in more people

Attakullakulla

This Cherokee chief known as "Little Carpenter" who was a friend to the British settlers. His son was Dragging Canoe.

Shoshones

a member of an American Indian people living chiefly in Wyoming, Idaho, and Nevada - also known as the snake Indians - When Europeans first arrived on northern plains in the 18th century they met these Indians - Descendants of people who had once inhabited the Great Basin region of Nevada (moved North and East) - Acquired horses in 18th century from Ute and Comanche to the south and then pushed onto the northern Plains - Became infected with smallpox while trading horses - Could make it home before they even had symptoms spread easily - Major traders in the diffusion of horses through the Northwest