NEURAL BASIS OF COMMUNICATION Test 1 Per Review

fMRI

fMRI- Functional magnetic resonance imaging-- a neuroimaging technique that combines the advantage of MRI with the advantages of PET, showing both the anatomy and physiology of the brain by measuring blood oxygenation.

Dorsal induction,

forms roof and alar plates, affect neural crest before they migrat

Graded potential

shift in electrical charge in a tiny area of the neuron (temporary); transmits a long cell membranes leaving neuron and polarized state; needs higher than normal threshold of excitation to fire A local voltage change in a neuron membrane induced by stimulation of a neuron, with strength proportional to the strength of the stimulus and lasting about a millisecond.

Synaptogenesis

synaptogenesis- neurons that fire together wire together, those that don't won't.

Cortical Organization

broadman area 1,2,3 = primary somatosensor

6 Phases of nervous system development. Dorsal induction, Ventral Induction, Neural Proliferation, Neuronal Migration, Cortical Organization Synapse Formation, Myelination

*Dorsal Induction(GA 3-7 weeks) is a neurodevelopmental period in which the neural tube is formed. at around the 3rd week of development, the dorsal ectoderm thickens to form the neural plate. By the 4th week of development, this plate bends and wraps around itself to for a tube(the neural tube) from which the brain and spinal cord will develop. The process of forming the neural tube is called neurulation. 6th week: ends of the neural tube closes. the brain and the spinal cord will develop out of the neural tube. Neural tube defects-ENCEPHALOCELE-, it involves failure of neural tube ends to close. ENCEPHALOCELE-when part of the brain protrudes from the skull, excess fluid exposure to radiation can cause it or genetic factors. Neural tube defect- SPINA BIFIDA- is a cyst on back that may or may not involve the spinal cord. MYELOMENINGOCELE- the spinal cord carries out and is most severe, might live a few days. MENINGOCELE- spinal cord does not come out SPINA BIFIDA OCCULTA- milder

Neurogenesis

neurogenesis- means the birth of new neurons; this process is at the heart of the neural proliferation stage.

Common birth defects associated with each phase • Encephalocele • Spina bifida • Myelomeningocele • Holoprosencephaly • Microcephaly • Schizencephaly • Lissencephaly • Polymicrogyria

*encephalocele-- a rare malformation of the skull in which a malformed portion of the brain, usually the occipital lobe, protrudes from the skull in a sac. This happens in the Dorsal Induction GA 6 months. ***Spina Bifida.Neural tube defect- SPINA BIFIDA- is a cyst on back that may or may not involve the spinal cord and occurs in the Dorsal Induction GA 6 months.. **Myelomeningocele- MYELOMENINGOCELE- the spinal cord carries out and is most severe, might live a few days.This happens in the Dorsal Induction GA 6 months. **Holoprosencephaly**Holoprosence- is failure of brain cleavage. (3 types) Alobar holoprosencephaly involves no cleavage at all, leaving the infant with no hemisphere development. the brain is just one mass with no hemispheric division or corpus callosum, also craniofacial abnormalities, cleft lip) Semilobar holoprosencephaly is a milder form involving some development of the longitudinal fissure that divides the left and right hemispheres and corpus callosum is absent. Lobar holoprosencephaly is the least severe form where the infant's brain looks near normal; however, there are some abnormal connections between the hemispheres and abnormal development of the corpus callosum. happens during Ventral Induction (GA 2-3 months) **Microcephaly

Developmental approach Germinal stage, embryonic period, fetal period Endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm Blastocyst

*the developmental approach is focused on the CNS, specifically the organization of the brain, rather than the nervous system as a whole--Central nervous system>procencephalon(forebrain)>Telencephalon(cerebral hemisphere, Diencencephalon; Mesencephalon(midbrain), Rhombencephalon(hindbrain)>Myelencephalon(Medulla), Metencephalon(Pons and Cerebellum)

Myelin

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next. A layer of electrical insulation that surrounds the axon. Insulating membrane surrounding the axon in some neurons A white, fatty covering wrapped around the axons of some neurons that increases their communication speed.

multiple sclerosis

A chronic disease of the central nervous system marked by damage to the myelin sheath. Plaques occur in the brain and spinal cord causing tremor, weakness, incoordination, paresthesia, and disturbances in vision and speech

Myasthenia Gravis

A disease in which acetylcholine receptors on muscle cells are destroyed so that muscles can no longer respond to the acetylcholine signal to contract. Symptoms include muscular weakness and progressively more common bouts of fatigue. The disease's cause is unknown but is more common in females than in males; it usually strikes between the ages of 20 and 50.

Synapse

A junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next. Location at which a neuron can transfer an impulse to another cell Gap between neurons

Various muscle actions: adduct, abduct, flexion, extension

Adduct-to bring structures together- Close- Abduct-to move structures apart- open- flexion- bending a joint extension-straightening out a joint

Anatomical approach vs. Functional approach

An anatomical approach involves those structures that can be seen with the human eye(gross anatomy). This approach divides the nervous system into two basic sections, the central nervous system (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System(PNS) The functional approach, two major nervous system divisions are made; the sensory(or afferent) system and the motor (or Efferent) system. the sensory system can be further broken down into the somatosensory and the visceral sensory systems.

Anatomy

Anatomy is the structure of the body.

Angiography Imaging

Angiography in an invasive neuroimaging technique that uses iodine and x-rays to produced picture of the blood vessels.

Neuronal Migration,

neurons move to their correct position in the brain, beginning three to four weeks after contraception the movement of neurons to specialized regions of the brain cells moving outward from their point of origin to their appropriate locations

Pathologies: brain tumors, general multiple sclerosis, Guillain-Barre syndrome, Myasthenia Gravis Major neurotransmitters

Brain tumors-also known as neoplasms (new growth) are abnormal growth of the nervous system cells. sometimes one of the cells will cease functioning as is should and will replicate itself forming a mass of abnormal cells. General multiple sclerosis-

Cortical Organization

Cortical organization- (GA 5 months to year) -once neurons arrive at intended spot in the CNS, they sprout dendrites and axons. -Synapses(connections) begin to form between neurons. -Neurons that fire together will wire together and those that don't won't. this process is known as synaptogenesis. -at first there will be more neurons than needed but a process called synaptic pruning will take place later and last into the teen years and perhaps the whole lifespan and will eliminate the extra connections. -Polymicrogyria is an error in cortical organization, which is a condition where children have too many folds(gyri) in the central hemispheres or both hemisphere leading to epilepsy, developmental delay, intellectual disability, and speech and swallowing problems depending on severity of the case.

Computerized Tomography

Computed tomography (CT) a neuroimaging technique that passes x-rays through the human body that reflect off different densities of tissue, bone and fluid in different ways. producing an image, CT scan CT scan, imaging technique able to produce cross-sectional view of body; x-ray pictures are taken at multiple angles through body and computer uses all images to construct composite cross-section.

Chapter 3 Anatomical Position Body Sections: coronal, A sagittal, transverse

Coronal is a body section that splits a structure into front and back portions. Sagittal is a body section that divides the body or specific anatomical structure into left and right position. Transverse is a body section that splits a structure into top and bottom portions.

Electroencephalography

Electroencephalography (EEG) a temporal resolution neuroimaging technique that measures the neuronal electrical activity through electrodes placed on the scalp.

Geminal Stage

Geminal stage(GA) is the first week. the germinal stage begins when a sperm cell penetrates an egg or ovum cell. As the fertilized cell or zygote travels down the fallopian tube over the course of about 5 days. it begins to divide. This process is known as cleavage, and the result is a ball of cells known as a morula. **Embryonic Stage(GA) 2-8 weeks; morula divdes into three layer ; outer cells; supporting cells; inner cells; become the embryo *Fetal Period- GA 9+-- embryonic period ends when blastocyst implants into uterus *Endoderm-will eventually for into the gut, liver, and lungs *Mesoderm- will develop into the skeleton, muscles, kidneys, blood, and heart. *ectoderm- turns into the skin and nervous system *Blastocyst-

Chapter 4 Glial cells types and functions

Glia cells exist 40-50 times more than neurons. -they protect neurons and repair tissue -do not transmit nerve impulse -3 main types 1. Astrocytes- Star shaped cells, maintain neuronal environment.-they form a lining around the brain and blood vessels. repair and feed neurons. they help regulate the ion balance outside of cells. 2. Microglia cell- it travels to areas of damage, scavenge debris and defend against foreign substances. Role in plasticity. they are floating. 3. Oligodendroglia-Produce myelin in the CNS. myelin is white in color. wrap around the axons. Each cells supplies for 25 or more axons, when the myelin is cut, it doesn't seem to heal itself. Node of Runvier --Schwann cells Side note from the PNS Schwann cells produce myelin in the PNS. Many Schwann cells to one segment of axon. Satellite cells Astrocytes of the PNS help nourish and maintain to continue impulses. Maintain neuronal environment.

Magnetic Resonance

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) a neuroimaging technique that uses a magnetic current to flip protons within the body's water molecules. the signal that is produced through this process is picked up by the MRI's receiver coils and the data are formed into 3D images.

Mesencephalon,

Mesencephalon(midbrain) -A neurodevelopmental term for those embryonic structures that will develop into the midbrain.

Myelination

Myelination (GA birth to years after birth. - Neurons axons are coated with Myelin the process by which axons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron -the process reaches its peak about 1 year after birth -this is when infants gain greater controls of their bodies and begins to develop the ability to communicate verbally. -Failure in this stage may result in hypomyelinaiton, a reduced ability to form myelin resulting in intellectual disability.

Guillain-Barre syndrome

Named after the first French physician , its a rapid, progressive demyelinating disease of the PNS. Different types but the most common is autoimmune response.

Neuronal Migration,

Neural Migration (GA 3-5 months) -New neurons move in wavelike fashion to their correct position in the cerebral hemispheres. -a chemical called reeling signals these cells as to where they should stop in this migration. -at about 20 weeks of GA, the migration ends and the six layers of the cerebral cortex are established. -two conditions with abnormal migration are:(Lack of reelin) Schizencephaly- is a rare condition characterized by abnormal openings or cleft in the cerebral hemisphere where neurons failed to migrate. possible issues include speech and language problems, developmental delays and intellectual disability(NINDS) Lissencephaly is cause by a lack of reelin, resulting in the brain having smooth appearance, absent of it characteristic hills and valleys(Gyri and sulci).(intellectual disability, seizures, and failure to thrive(NINDS)

Neural Proliferation,

Neural Proliferation(GA 3-4 months) -Neurogenesis- the birth of new neurons -will become the gray and white matter of the cerebral hemisphere. -born out of the spinal cord and brainstem -interruptions may result in microcephaly, where children may have abnormal/ small heads/brains.. due to lack of correct number of cells and is most often cause by viruses or alcohol exposure.

Chapter 1 Neurology

Neurology is the study of the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of the nervous system.

Neuron structure

Neurons --Relay excitatory or inhibitory muscles. --Regulate sensorimotor and higher functions(cognition and language) The structure of a neuron is compose of dendrites, the nucleus, cell body(soma), axon, Nodes of Ranvier, and Myelin sheaths. Facts-neurons are building blocks humanbrain -100 billion neurons specialization function- to communicate communication-electrochemical signal.

Neurulation

Neurulation is the process of forming the neural tube both ends of the neural tube are initially open(openings are called neuropores) but close at around 6 weeks GA.

Synapse Formation,

Occurs when a neuron grows and forms a synapse with the dendrites of another neuron What is synaptogenesis?

Pathology

Pathology is the study of disease processes that affect both anatomy and physiology.

Physiology

Physiology is the body's function.

Positron Emission Tomography

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is a spatial neuroimaging technology that shows brain activity based on the brain's glucose metabolism.

Prosencephalon

Prosencephalon- a neurodevelopmental term for the forebrain, which will develop into the diencephalon(ie. thalamic strucures) and telencephalon(ie. cerebral hemisphere) The components are for telencephalon: cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, olfactory bulbs Diencephalon components: Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus and subthalamus

Saltatory conduction

Rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane.

Rhombencephalon

Rhombencephalon- a neurodevelopmental term for those embryonic structures that will develop into pons, medulla, and cerebellum(ie. the myelencephalon and metencephalon), also known as the hindbrain.

pns

See above

Spatial vs temporal resolution

Spatial resolution is a class of neuroimaging techniques that show the location of brain activity. Temporal resolution is a class of neuroimaging techniques that deal with the time between when a stimulus is introduced and the brain's response to it.

Ch.2 Starting on pg 25. *Not covering the neurological assessment (at this point) Neuroimaging techniques: Structural vs functional, uses, general pros/cons

Structural Imaging: a class of neuroimaging techniques that reveal the anatomy of the brain. Functional imaging: a class of neuroimaging techniques that reveal the physiology of the brain. shows the brains activity.

Directional terms: superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, lateral, medial, proximal, distal, peripheral, central, ipsilateral, contralateral, supine, pronate

Superior - is from a high position Inferior- is from a low position anterior-Toward the belly Posterior-toward the back lateral-away from the body's midline medial- towards the body's midline proximal- refers to the point nearest a limb's attachment distal-the part of the limb farthest from its attachment peripheral- toward the outer surface central - toward the center Ipsilateral-same sided contralateral- opposite side supine - when the face/ventral surface is up pronate- when the face/ventral surface is down

Synapse Formation,

Synapse formation- a connection between a neuron and another neuron, muscle or gland. Occurs when a neuron grows and forms a synapse with the dendrites of another neuron

History of neuroscience (especially p. 8-12) Think about trends and discussion pointing in the history of neuroscience understanding Also study the SOLO version with different terms

The Egyptians were cardio-centrist, meaning they believe the seat of mental functions was in the organ of the heart. Smith papysus(3000-2500bc) records 48 medical cases, which include cases involving head and brain injury. Case 8 talks about weakness of one side of the body(eg. hemiplegia) due to head injury. The Greeks--(Hippocrates (460-370) observed the damage to one side of the brain which resulted in problems with the opposite side of the body. Aristole- correctly theorized the idea of localization, the idea that a certain part of the body is responsible for certain mental function but he attributed to the wrong organ(to the heart instead of the brain) He thought the brain was a radiator to cool down the blood, which had been heated up by the heart. ***Moving to the Common Era(AD) thinkers shifted attention from the heart to the head. 2 thinkers(famous Romans) Galen (AD 130-200) and Augustine(AD 354-430) postulated that mental functions were localized in the brain. Specifically, they believed these functions were localized in the open spaces of the brain known as the ventricles. This belief gave rise to what is known as the cell doctrine, that the cells or ventricles of the brain has physic gases called humors in them responsible for mental functions and this theory persisted for 1000 years until the Renaissance when people like Andreas Vesalius (AD 1514-1564) began to conduct careful studies. **in the 18th and 19th century, the attention shifted from ventricles to the brain tissues itself. Phrenologist like Franz Josef Gall (1758-1828) believed bumps on peoples scalps were due to raised up portions of brain tissue which represented mental strengths, such as memory, math ability, and color perception and personality traits such as agreeableness or combativeness. this led to the development of the profession of phrenology whose practitioners examined and analyzed peoples skulls in a procedure called cranioscopy. ---the Phrenologist are examples of radical localizationist meaning people who believed certain areas and only those areas performed certain mental functions. --The hoppisite view, called holism was presented by Marie Jean PierreFlouren-who asserted the brain function was not so neatly organized- she argued that the whole brain was involved in a mental function, not just a discrete part of the brain. --In the latter half of the 19th century, a mediating position known as connectionism developed. Paul Broca-"Tan" Damage to left hemisphere after he did autopsy after Tan died. Karl Wernicke was from Germany discover that when left area above the gyrus was damage people were unable to understand others speech and language.

Hyperpolarization

The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more negative direction. An inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) is associated with ________.

Types of neurons

The can be identified by processes. 1. Multipolar neurons-many different dendrites and one primary, axon and 2. Bipolar neuron has a dendrite and an exon, they are in the retinal neuron and olfactory neuron and they only have one main dentrite and one axon. 3. Unipolar neurons touch and pain sensory neuron back. Anaxonix neuron

Major divisions of the nervous system: CNS vs PNS

There are two: The Central Nervous System is the part of the nervous system made up of the brain and spinal cord. The Peripheral Nervous system involves hearing structures found on the periphery of the head, including the outer, middle and inner ear.

Ventral Induction

Ventral Induction (GA 2-3 months) is a neurodevelopmental period when the face and brain develop out of the superior end of the neural tube. after is closes the Neural and starts to bend forward -bends ventral and the superior end goes on to form the major components of the brain. the 1st of these components is the prosencephalon(forebrain) which will develop into the diencephalon(thalamus structure) and telencephalon(cerebral hemisphere), Mesencephalon (midbrain), Rhombencephalon> Myelencephalon>medulla, Metencephalon>pons and cerebellum. and spinal cord. **Holoprosence- is failure of brain cleavage. (3 types) Alobar holoprosencephaly involves no cleavage at all, leaving the infant with no hemisphere development. the brain is just one mass with no hemispheric division or corpus callosum, also craniofacial abnormalities, cleft lip) Semilobar holoprosencephaly is a milder form involving some development of the longitudinal fissure that divides the left and right hemispheres and corpus callosum is absent. Lobar holoprosencephaly is the least severe form where the infant's brain looks near normal; however, there are some abnormal connections between the hemispheres and abnormal development of the corpus callosum.

Excitatory postsynaptic potential

a postsynaptic potential that depolarizes the neuronal membrane, making the cell more likely to fire an action potential Is a postsynaptic potential that makes the neuron more likely to fire an action potential.

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

a postsynaptic potential that hyperpolarizes the neuronal membrane, making a cell less likely to fire an action potential

Refractory period

after firing when a neuron will not fire again no matter how strong the incoming message may be The period of time during which a neuron cannot respond to another stimulus because the membrane is returning to its polarized state

Ventral Induction,

primary induction by notochor 1. Holoprosencephal

Myelination

the process by which axons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron

Depolarization

voltage change that occurs when the difference in charge across a membrane decreases An electrical state where the inside of an excitable cell is made less negative compared with the outside; if an axon is depolarized, an impulse is passing

Neural Proliferation,

• Begins with neural tube closure • New cells born in ventricular zone • 1 mother cell produces ~10,000 daughter cells • All neurons (100 billion in total) are produced pre-natally • Rate of proliferation extremely high; thousands/minute the rapid increase in the number of neurons that follows the formation of the neural tub