Neuroscience

Functional Asymmetry in Neurological Patients: Case M.M.- Damage to the LEFT parietal lobe What did this patient have difficulty with after brain damage in this area?

Difficulties with LANGUAGE, copying movements, reading, arithmetic, and generating names of objects or animals

What did Fritsch and Hitzig discover?

Discovered they could electrically stimulate the NEOcortex of an anesthetized dog to produce MOVEMENTS of the mouth, limbs, and paws on the OPPOSITE side of the dog's body

Hyperphagia is...

Disorder in which an animal overeats; observed following lesions to the ventromedial hypothalamus

Which class of Antipsychotic drugs have improved functioning of schizophrenia patients and reduced number housed in institutions?

Dopaminergic ANTangonists

Which auditory stream integrates auditory and somatosensory information to control speech production?

Dorsal

In "Spatial Orientation" that illustrates brain-structure location in relation to other body parts, which terms are used for BIRDS?

Dorsal (Superior) ^, Ventral (Inferior) v, Rostral < this refers to the direction of the "beak", and Caudal > this refers to the direction of the "tail"

In "Spatial Orientation" that illustrates brain-structure location in relation to other body parts, which terms are used for HUMANS and ANIMALS?

Dorsal ^, Anterior <, Posterior >, Ventral v

Within the Nucleus of a cell are Chromosomes...

Double-helix structure that holds an organism's entire deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence • Four nucleotide bases: - Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C) • Human somatic cells have 23 pairs • Contain the genes

Psychoanalytic Theory of Dreams according to Sigmund Freud...

Dreams are the SYMBOLIC FULFILLMENT of UNCONSCIOUS WISHES

The Wanting and Liking Theory has to do with...

Drug Addiction

A neurotransmitter may bind to an IONOTROPIC receptor and have an...

ECXITATORY effect on the target cell. (Example: Acetylcholine activates iontropic receptors on muscles for excitation)

In Spinal Nerves (part of the SNS) ANTERIOR or VENTRAL fibers are...

EFFERENT: they carry information from the spinal cord to the muscles.

The ear collects sound waves from the surrounding air. It converts MECHANICAL energy into ___________________ neural energy which is routed through the brainstem to the auditory cortex.

ELECTROCHEMICAL

These are the Proposed Neural Circuit for what kind of Memory? -Amygdala -Medial Temporal Cortex -Brainstem -Hypothalamus -Periaquaductal Gray Matter (PAG) -Basal Ganglia

EMOTIONAL see visual on slide 44 of lecture 14

Sensory Receptors are specialized cells that transduce (convert) SENSORY ENERGY (e.g., light) into NEURAL ACTIVITY. Each sensory system's receptors are designed to respond only to a narrow band of...

ENERGY Vision: light energy -> chemical energy Auditory: air pressure ->mechanical energy Somatosensory: mechanical energy Taste & Olfaction: chemical molecules

Behavioral treatments focus on key ___________________factors that influence how a person ACTS

ENVIRONMENTAL As behavior changes in response to treatment, the brain is affected as well

What condition is this describing? -Inability to recall any PERSONALLY experienced events -Associated with frontal lobe injuries or reduced blood flow to the frontal lobes (Frontal lobes may allow us to mentally travel through our past)

EPISODIC Amnesia (e.g. Patient K. C.)

What is the name of this type of PERSONAL Memory? (Autobiographical memory for events pegged to specific place and time contexts)

EPISODIC Memory

In the SOMATIC Nervous System (part of the PNS), Cholinergic Neurons release Acetylcholine (ACh), which...

EXCITES skeletal MUSCLES to cause contractions

Scheibel and colleagues (1993) proved that there is ___________________-dependent change in the human brain: -Relationship between the complexity of dendritic branching and the nature of the computational tasks performed by a brain area (Example: Neurons receiving input from fingers versus the chest wall) -Life _________________ alters dendritic morphology (Example: Career word processors have greater differences between finger and trunk neurons than salespersons)

EXPERIENCE

These are the primary structures for what kind of memory? -Medial temporal region Hippocampus Amygdala Entorhinal cortex Parahippocampal cortex Perirhinal cortex -Frontal cortex

EXPLICIT

Facts about Important Brain Principle #3: Many of the Brain's Circuits Are Crossed...

Each hemisphere receives sensory stimulation from the opposite (contralateral) side of the body and controls muscles on the contralateral side as well

MOTOR pathways send neural information and are always considered...

Efferent (OUTGOING)

Electroencephalogram (EEG)...

Electrical brain graph that records electrical activity through the skull or from the brain and represents graded potentials of many neurons

Galvani (18th Century)...

Electrical current applied to a dissected nerve caused the muscle connected to the nerve to twitch; concluded that electricity flows along the nerve

Fritsch and Hitzig (Mid-19th Century) are known for...

Electrical stimulation of the neocortex causes movement (arms and legs)

How can you measure single-neuron action potentials with fine electrodes?

Electrodes are placed next to cells (extracellular recording) or inside them (intracellular recording)

On Day 15 of the process from fertilization to embryo an ____________ ____________is formed.

Embryonic Disc

_____________ Therapy involves the following: -Talking about emotional problems, enabling people to gain insights into their causes; may also serve as treatment -Addresses unwanted behaviors directly (by acquiring a skill rather than taking a pill) -Effective treatment for depression or anxiety

Emotional

Amygdala is critical for ______________ memory.

Emotional (Damage to amygdala abolishes emotional memory but has little effect on implicit or explicit memory)

Memory for the affective properties of stimuli or events is called...

Emotional Memory

Natural (morphine) and synthetic (heroin, oxymorphone, methadone, oxycodone, fentanyl) opioids mimic...

Endorphins. -Most synthetic opioids are prescribed for clinical use in pain management -All opioids are potently addictive, and abuse of prescription opioids is growing more common

Digestive System extracts lipids, amino acids and glucose, each of which is a specialized form of ______________ reserve.

Energy

Cognitive enhancement...

Enlists current knowledge of pharmacology, brain plasticity, brain stimulation, neurogenetics, and so on, to boost brain functioning

Raising rats in enriched enclosures is associated with: -Increased brain weight -More dendrites -More astrocytes -More blood capillaries -More synapses per neuron -Increased mitochondrial volume -Marker of greater metabolic activity What does this infer?

Enriched experience increases Plasticity

Digestion is controlled by the ______________________ Nervous System (ENS).

Enteric

To determine or modify the period of a biorhythm is called...

Entrainment

The study of Epigenetic shows us that, genes that are expressed can change dramatically in response to...

Environment and Experience

Zeitgeber definition...

Environmental event that entrains biological rhythms; a "time giver" Example: Light resets the biological clock

In Recovery from Brain Injury, what is another example of the Lost-Neuron-Replacement Solution?

Epidermal Growth Factor (Neurotrophic factor that stimulates the subventricular zone to generate cells that migrate into the striatum and eventually differentiate into neurons and glia) 1. After cortical stroke, infusion of epidermal growth factor into the lateral ventricle of a rat induced neurogenesis in the subventricular zone 2. Then the stem cells migrated to the site of injury and filled in the damaged area

Synaptic organization is partly directed by a person's genes, but it is also __________________.

Epigenetic (Variations in the kinds of experiences to which people are exposed, coupled with variations in genetic patterns, undoubtedly contribute to the individual differences in both quantitative and qualitative intelligence that we observe.)

Brain malformations such as angioma (abnormal cerebral blood vessels which cause the death of brain tissue around it) are one cause of ______________________.

Epilepsy

As he researched how neurons communicate, after the Frog Heart Experiment and the discover of the effect of acetylcholine (ACh), Otto Loewi researched...

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

Sex hormones responsible for the distinguishing characteristics of the female...

Estrogen

What is the discipline called that seeks to apply principles of natural selection to understand the causes of human behavior?

Evolutionary Psychology

__________________ Lobes act like an orchestra conductor

Example: selecting a course of action, ignoring irrelevant stimuli, and remembering what you have already done People with frontal-lobe injuries are UNABLE to ORGANIZE their behavior.

Obesity is...

Excessive accumulation of body fat

What can influence intelligence by increasing the number of synapses and the number of glial cells?

Experience

Discoveries about how neurons communicate stem from...

Experiments designed to study what controls an animal's HEART rate

What is the Opponent-Process Theory (of seeing color), Ewald Hering (1874)?

Explanation of color vision that emphasizes the importance of the OPPOSITION of colors: -Red versus green -Blue versus yellow

At what age is there capacity for memory improvement and correlated structural changes in humans?

Extends well into ADULTHOOD! -This is seen in the HIPPOCAMPUS (increased hippocampal volume with increased memory)

Patients with contralateral neglect exhibit this symptom as they begin to recover

Extinction

In researching Long-term Potentiation, A strong burst of electrical stimulation applied to the presynaptic neuron produces an increase in the amplitude of the EPSP in the POSTsynaptic neuron. First recorded in the hippocampus by Bliss and Lømø in 1973, ______________ POTENIAL, is defined as the EPSPs from many neurons; recorded with extracellular electrodes

FIELD See visual on slide 47 of lecture 14

Programming Computers is an example of brain...

FLEXIBILITY. (We perform many tasks today that our brains were not originally selected for early during evolution)

SHORT-Term Memory (few minutes in duration), involves the _____________ lobes.

FRONTAL

Aphagia is...

Failure to eat; observed following lesions to the lateral hypothalamus

Aristotle believed the brain had a role in producing behavior.

False

The brain has the same system for visual object recognition and visual guidance of motion. True or False?

False Visual object recognition and visual guidance of motion systems are different.

There are no differences cognitively between the sexes when it comes to completing tasks. True or False?

False. -Men statistically perform higher and faster on Spatial relation type tasks and mental rotation-type tasks. -Women statistically perform higher and faster on short-term memory type tasks and verbal-fluency type tasks.

Birdsong dialects are a myth. True or False?

False. Birdsong dialects are real.

Brains exposed to different environments still develop the same way. True or False?

False. Brains exposed to different environmental experiences are molded in different ways

Consciousness is a unitary (singular) condition. True or False?

False. Consciousness is not a unitary condition, but rather, there are "states of consciousness"

The parts of the motor cortex that control the hands, fingers, lips, and tongue are smaller than parts of the motor cortex that control other areas. True or False?

False. They are disproportionately larger!

Butterflies and honeybees have the same perception of light and color that we do. True or False?

False. They can also detect light in the ultraviolet range so they have a broader range of color and perception.

Adults are more sensitive to taste than children. True or False?

False. Children are more sensitive.

You cannot see Alzheimers in brain imaging. True or False.

False. In early stages it may not be obvious, but the brain has a very different appearance later on: Cerebral Atrophy, with abnormal separations between areas.

There is one Memory system. True or False?

False. There are MULTIPLE: -Short-term (sensory, motor, cognitive) -Long-term 1. Explicit (Conscious) -Episodic (Personal, Autobiographical) -Semantic (Facts, Knowledge) 2. Implicit (Unconscious) (Skills, Habits, Priming, Conditioning) 3. Emotional (Conscious AND Unconscious) (Attraction, Avoidance, Fear)

Precise effects of drugs on prenatal brain development are fully understood. True or False?

False. They are poorly understood.

We can simply treat pain by severing the anterior spinothalamic pathway. True or False?

False. You cannot do that.

Neurochemistry of LTP (Long-term Potential): Both weak and strong electrical stimulation have the same effect on LTP. True or False.

False. Different results: 1. WEAKER stimulates AMPA by producing GLUTAMATE. 2. STRONGER DISLODGES MAGNESIUM ion allowing NMDA to be stimulated from an influx of Ca2 3. After which, a WEAKER stimulation (because now the Magnesium is out of the way) will produce BOTH AMPA (from the Glutamate) and NMDA (from an influx of Ca2) (You can reference visual on slide 52 of lecture 14)

Different transmitters cannot coexist in the same terminal or synapse. True or False?

False. Different transmitters can coexist in the same terminal or synapse.

Drugs that are inhaled encounter many barriers on the way to the brain. True or False?

False. Inhaled drugs encounter very few barriers.

The environment cannot allow a gene to be expressed or prevent its expression. True or False.

False. It can allow a gene to be expressed or prevent expression.

The forebrain does not grow dramatically in the evolution of the mammalian brain. True or False?

False. It grows dramatically.

It is easy to make brain-behavior comparisons between members within the same species. Example: Brain size and intelligence. True or False?

False. It is Difficult.

But memory is a single function. True or False?

False. It is NOT a single function (memory for events, colors, names, places and motor skills, etc.)

Behavioral disorders are easy to test in brain-behavior research on animals. True or False?

False. It is not as easy.

Sensitization is same as habituation at the molecular and behavioral levels. True or False?

False. It is the opposite.

Cumulative experiences do not affect how genes work. True or False?

False. The study of epigenetics shows us that they do affect how genes work.

There is very little variation in people's sleep-waking behavior. True or False.

False. There is considerable difference: -People sleep more when they are young -Most people sleep 7-8 hours per night -Some sleep much more or less (As little as 1 hour per day!)

Muscles and nervous systems did NOT evolve together to underlie the forms of movement (behavior) that distinguish members of the animal kingdom.

False. They DID evolve together.

In the SNS, Spinal-cord segments (are not interconnected so adjacent segments can operate together to direct complex coordinated movements). True or False?

False. They are interconnected.

Homo sapiens did not coexist with other Hominid Species. True or False?

False. They did-Until 30,000 years ago in Asia and 18,000 years ago in Europe.

Of all the chordates, humans have the smallest brain relative to body size. True or False?

False. They have the LARGEST.

Homo sapiens have the smallest EQ. True or False?

False. They have the largest.

Most behaviors are produced by groups of ten neurons. True or False?

False. hundreds or thousands of neurons

STEROID hormones...

Fat-soluble chemical messenger synthesized from cholesterol Examples: gonadal (sex) hormones, thyroid

Increased blood cooling led to Improved brain cooling which led to Increased Hominid Brain Size, is an example of...

Faulk's (1990) RADIATOR Hypothesis

Circadian rhythm involves a _____________ _____________ in which proteins are first made and then combine.

Feedback Loop (-Combined protein, called a dimer for two proteins, inhibits the production of its component proteins -Dimer degrades and the process begins anew) See visual on page 20 of lecture 13

What keeps the body apprised of how well breakdown of food is proceeding?

Feedback mechanisms (When food reaches the intestines, it interacts with receptors there to trigger the release of at least 10 different peptide hormones (i.e. Cholecystokinin-CCK) (See diagram on page 42 of lecture 12)

Bartholow (1874) is known for...

First report of human brain stimulation

Caton (Early 19th Century) is known for...

First to attempt to measure electrical currents of the brain using a voltmeter and electrodes on the skull

The shapes and relative sizes of the brainstem's parts can be imagined as analogous as to your...

Fist (analogous to diencephalon), Wrist (analogous to midbrain), forearm (analogous to hindbrain)-this is when holding your arm up vertically

Whereas the preferred stimuli of neurons in the primary visual cortex (V1) are ____________________ (genetically programmed), the neurons in the temporal lobe are able to ALTER their preference with experience.

Fixed

von Helmholtz (19th Century) is known for...

Flow of information in the nervous system is too slow to be a flow of electricity -Nerve conduction: 30-40 meters/second -Electricity: 3 × 108 meters/second

Cochlea...

Fluid-filled INNER ear structure that contains theauditory receptor cells (Receptor cells and the cells that support them are called the Organ of the Corti)

What are the 3 classes of seizures mentioned in the slides?

Focal Seizures Generalized Seizures Status Epiliepticus

What are Nalorphine and Naloxone used for?

For those struggling with opioid addiction. They are: 1. Drugs that act as antagonists at opioid receptors 2. "Competitive inhibitors": compete with opioids for neuronal receptors

Oligodendroglia Cell (One of the 5 types of Glial Cells)...

Form Myelin around CENTRAL Nervous System Axons in BRAIN and SPINAL Cord.

Producing the resting potential...

Four charged particles take part in producing the resting potential: -Sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl−) Higher concentration outside cell -Potassium (K+) and large proteins (A−) Higher concentration inside cell

Internal Features of the brain include...

Four ventricles, Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF), Gray Matter, White Matter (including corpus callosum), Neurons, Glial Cells, Nuclei, Nerves, Tracts

More cortical tissue is devoted to cells in the ______________ than in the periphery.

Fovea

Which of the 3 properties of SOUND wave energy is this describing? -Number of cycles that a wave completes in a given amount of time -Measured in Hertz: cycles per second -Corresponds to our perception of pitch

Frequency (Low pitch= Low Frequency, High Pitch=High Frequency)

These features are included in which person's psychoanalytic theory of dreams? MANIFEST Content: Loosely connected series of bizarre images and actions LATENT Content: True meaning of the dream

Freud

Which part of the brain is the last to mature?

Frontal lobe

Persistent Vegetative State...

Functional MRI showed differences in the thoughts of "playing tennis" and "walking through your house" (significance perhaps unconscious spatial imagery increased brain activity? See ch1 lecture slide7)

A Pinna is...

Funnel-like external structure designed to catch sound waves in the surrounding environment and deflect them into the ear canal

In neurotransmission, Gap junctions (communicating junctions) are...

Fused presynaptic and postsynaptic membrane that allows an action potential to pass directly from one neuron to the next

ANTERIOR Pituitary

GLANDULAR tissue; SYNTHESIZES various HORMONES

Two other psychotropic drugs that produce schizophrenia-like symptoms, including hallucinations and out of body experiences, are phencyclidine (PCP or angel dust) and ketamine (Special K) Both drugs exert part of their action by BLOCKING...

GLUTAMATE receptors (suggesting the involvement of excitatory glutamate synapses in schizophrenia)

Neural Basis of Sex Differences: ______________ hormones influence the structures of neurons on the rat prefrontal cortex

GONADAL -Medial frontal cortex Neurons in male rats have larger dendritic fields -Orbitofrontal cortex Neurons in female rats have larger dendritic fields These DIFFERENCE are NOT SEEN when the rats have had their GONADS/OVARIES REMOVED

Neural Basis of Sex Differences: Relative to men, WOMEN have INCREASED CORTICAL ____________-________________ concentration in many regions of the cerebral cortex.

GRAY-MATTER

Witelson and Goldsmith (1991), found that the cross-sectional area of the corpus callosum was 11% ____________ in left-handed or ambidextrous individuals (no hand preference)

GREATER (Could be due to a greater number of fibers, thicker fibers, or more myelin)

Sulci...

GROOVES in the cerebral cortex

The ENTERIC Nervous System is the part of the PNS that controls the...

GUT

Scale of electromagnetic wavelengths measured in nm (nanometers) from tightest/shortest to longest in order...

Gamma rays, X-rays, Ultraviolet Rays, Visible Light, Infrared, Microwaves, Radio Waves

These are the 2 types of _______________ cells: 1. Magnocellular cell (M-cell) Magno = large Receives input primarily from rods Sensitive to light and moving stimuli 2. Parvocellular cell (P-cell) Parvo = small Receives input primarily from cones Sensitive to color

Ganglion

(see visual of two paths connected by pain gate on slide 67 of lecture 11) In Gate Theory the interneuron is the __________.

Gate

What is this an example of? -When you stub your toe, you feel pain because the pain pathway to the brain is open. -Rubbing the toe activates the haptic-proprioceptive pathway and reduces the flow of information in the pain pathway because the pain gate partly closes, relieving the pain sensation.

Gate Theory (see visual of two paths connected by pain gate on slide 67 of lecture 11)

What are the treatments for Stroke?

General Answer: Drug therapy (e.g., noradrenergic, dopaminergic, cholinergic agonists) combined with behavioral therapy provides equivocal gains in stroke patients. In early stages: -Clot-busting drug called tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) t-PA must be administered within 3 to 5 hours to be effective. -Neuroprotectant Drug used to try to block the cascade of poststroke neural events Other: -Therapies (e.g., speech, physical) are often used to facilitate plastic changes in the brain following a stroke. -Constraint-induced therapy Intact limb is held in a sling for several hours per day, forcing the patient to use the impaired limb. An important component of these treatments is a posttreatment contract in which the patients continue to practice after the formal therapy is completed. -TMS can be used in combination with behavioral therapy as a stroke treatment.

Genes, Cells, and Behavior. How do they relate?

Genes > Proteins > Cells > Behavior

Stedman and Colleagues (2004) stated that Changes in Hominid Physiology were caused by...

Genetic Mutation which led to Smaller Facial Muscles & Bones which led to Change in Diet which led to Increased Brain Size

Why Doesn't Everyone Abuse Drugs?

Genetics: -Despite some evidence of a genetic contribution, no gene or set of genes related to alcoholism have been found -Any satisfactory explanation of drug abuse will require genetic and learning components Personality Traits: -Unusual risk-taking may be trait common to drug abusers?

Who mapped the responsiveness of the basilar membrane to different frequencies?

George von Békésy (1960s) -FAST wave frequencies: caused maximum displacement near the BASE of the membrane -SLOWER wave frequencies: caused maximum displacement near the membrane's APEX

Which animal's axons were large and used by Hodgkin and Huxley in the '30's and 40's because they were easier to experiment on?

Giant Axon of the Squid-Much larger in diameter than human axons Humans: 1 to 20 micrometers Squid: Up to 1 millimeter (1000 micrometers)

Myelin...

Glial coating that surrounds axons

Amino Acid Transmitters...

Glutamate: main excitatory transmitter GABA: main inhibitory transmitter GABA is formed by a simple modification of the glutamate molecule

Primates that walk upright (includes all forms of humans, living and extinct) are called?

HOMINIDS

Glucocorticoids are another _________________ that affects plasticity.

HORMONE -Released from the adrenal cortex in times of stress -Assist in the metabolism of proteins and carbohydrates and the control of sugar levels in the blood and cells -Steady levels of glucocorticoids that are seen with prolonged stress may be neurotoxic -Stress can kill HIPPOCAMPAL cells

Electrical stimulation of different nuclei in the __________________ will produce GOAL-directed BEHAVIORS.

HYPOTHALAMUS Examples: Eating and drinking Digging Displaying fear Predatory or attack behavior Reproductive behavior

Massage, acupuncture, and immersion in warm water may produce pain-relieving effects by selectively activating _______________ and _________________ fibers to close the pain gate.

Haptic and proprioceptive (see visual of two paths connected by pain gate on slide 67 of lecture 11)

Cerebellum function

Has two hemispheres: -Homuncular organization -Lateral parts: Controls movement of limbs, hands, feet, and digits -Medial parts: Controls movement of face and midline of body

BRAIN...

Having a true brain and spinal chord (chordates) i.e. Frog, Human, etc.

Heterozygous...

Having two different alleles for the same trait

Homozygous...

Having two identical alleles for a trait

Cerebral "Cortex"...

Heavily folded outer layer of brain tissue composed of neurons ("cortex"=BARK)

Intelligence B...

Hebb's term for observed intelligence, which is influenced by experience as well as other factors in the course of development and is measured by intelligence tests

Relatively Fixed (Innate) Behaviors in animals are dependent on what?

Heredity

The rate at which sound waves vibrate is measured as cycles per second which is called....

Hertz (Hz) (A lower frequency has fewer cycles per second and a higher frequency has more.)

Primary auditory cortex (A1) lies within ____________ gyrus

Heschl's

Who won the Nobel Prize for describing the neuron's electrical activity by disecting the Giant Neuron of a Squid and keeping it in salty liquid for functionality?

Hodgkin and Huxley

Genetic Mutation leading Facial Changes which caused a change in diet is the reason Stedman and Colleagues (2004) believe that what changed?

Hominid Physiology/Brain Size (increase)

Which humans used more sophisticated tools than H. Habilis and were around 1.6 million years ago in Europe and Asia?

Homo Erectus "Upright Human"

Blindness of an entire left or right visual field is called...

Homonymous Hemianopia (Caused by an Injury to the Pathway Leading to the Cortex)

Glucocorticoids...

Hormones secreted in times of stress; important in protein and carbohydrate metabolism

Heartbeat quickens if you are excited or exercising; if you are resting, it slows. (Chemicals relay excitatory messages to say "speed up" and inhibitory messages to say "slow down.") This is an example of...

How Neurons communicate through a CHEMICAL MESSAGE

How nerves can turn energy, such as light waves, into nerve impulses is understood. The pathways those nerve impulses take to reach the brain are also known. What is less understood?

How we end up perceiving one set of nerve impulses as a representation of the world.

The characteristic of language separates what "genus" out of the "family" of Great Apes?

Human

What is this describing? -Chemicals in the air we breathe dissolve in mucosa to interact with cilia. -Metabotropic activation of a specific G protein leads to an opening of sodium channels and a change in membrane potential

Human RECEPTORS for SMELL

The GREAT APES are members of the "order" of Primates that are closest on the evolutionary scale to...

Humans (they include Gibbons, Orangutans, Gorillas and Chimpanzees, in that order with Chimpanzees as the closest)

The mirror drawing task is used to measure...

Humans' Procedural Memory. (Participant is asked to trace two outlines of a star while looking only at their hand in a mirror. Crossing a line constitutes an error.)

The Corsi Block Taping Test is used to measure...

Humans' Short-term recall of spatial position. (Examiner taps out a sequence of blocks. block numbers are visible on the examiners side but not the participants.)

Woodie Guthrie died from...

Huntington's (his mother also had it but was not diagnosed)

Increased local connections between two related brain regions is called...

Hyperconnectivity (was listed in the TRACTOGRAPHY section so implies you can see hyperconnectivity with this imaging)

Presbyopia is a common form of which vision issue seen specifically in older adults?

Hyperopia (farsightedness)

In the neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior: Limbic Systems and Frontal Lobe -> HYPOThalamus-> Behavior So, which is considered most critical to the process?

Hypothalamus

Neurotransmission of hormones (order/example)...

Hypothalamus > Pituitary Gland > Hormones > Target Organs and Glands

Neural Darwinism...

Hypothesis that cell death and synaptic pruning are, like natural selection in species, the outcome of competition among neurons for connections and metabolic resources in a neural environment

The Gollin Figure Test (dots covering an image that are gradually reduced) is an _________________ visual memory test.

IMPLICIT (-Gradually reveal an image, and record point at which participants first identify it -When repeated some time LATER, people RECOGNIZE it EARLIER -AMNESIC participants show IMPROVEMENT too)

A neurotransmitter may bind to a METABOTROPIC receptor and have an...

INHIBITORY effect on the target cell. (Example: Acetylcholine activates metabotropic receptors on heart to inhibit)

(Guiding Principles of Brain Plasticity) 6. Experience-Dependent Changes ________________ (Metaplasticity)

INTERACT

Example of Voltage Gradient...

If a salty solution is poured into water, the positive and negative ions will flow down their electrostatic gradients until over time positive and negative charges are everywhere equal.

How is an action potential generated?

If the summated EPSPs and IPSPs on the dendritic tree and cell body charge the membrane threshold at the axon hillock, an action potential is generated and travels down the axon membrane in an all-or-none fashion

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)...

In Pavlovian conditioning, CS is an originally NEUTRAL stimulus, in this case a TONE played, that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) like the puff of air in the eye, triggers a conditioned response like blinking

In which stage of sleep do VIVID dreams occur?

In a horse: R-sleep, in which all postural and muscle tone is lost.

Where is "central pain" experienced?

In a part of the body that is not obviously injured

Unconditioned Response (UCR)...

In classical conditioning, the UNlearned, naturally occurring response to the UNconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth (or BLINK to air puff in the eye)

Extinction is defined as...

In neurology, neglect of information on one side of the body when it is presented simultaneously with similar information on the other side of the body

Cognition...

In psychology, used to refer to thought processes

In Recovery from Brain Injury What is the New-Circuit Solution?

In response to injury, the brain can form new connections and "do more with less" (The amount of recovery is increased significantly if the person also engages in some form of intervention: -Behavioral Therapy Examples: Speech or physiotherapy -Pharmacological Therapy Examples: Nerve growth factor, amphetamine)

What is Aphasia?

Inability to speak OR comprehend language despite the presence of normal comprehension or intact vocal mechanisms

Using the Brainbow process (which is very colorful utilizing fluorescent proteins)...

Individual cells can be visualized offering a way to describe where each neuron sends its processes and how it interconnects with other neurons

Night vision devices make use of which light waves?

Infrared

In the Central Nervous System Neuron Repair does not take place, regrowth may even be...

Inhibited

Example of Concentrating Gradient...

Ink dropped into water diffuses from initial point of contact until over time it is equally distributed throughout the water.

Hebb's term for innate intellectual potential, which is highly heritable and cannot be measured directly is called...

Intelligence A

Neuroeconomics...

Interdisciplinary field that seeks to understand how the brain makes DECISIONS

Cerebellum: "Little brain" is...

Involved in the coordination of motor and possibly other mental processes

Lack of blood to the brain as a result of stroke is called...

Ischemia (Sets off a cascade of cellular events that cause the real damage to the initial site and surrounding areas)

What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

It includes all neurons and nerve processes OUTSIDE the Central Nervous System/CNS.

According to scientists what is an important reason for our sense of smell (olfaction)?

It is designed to discriminate whether information is safe or familiar i.e. Is the smell from an edible food? From a friend or from a stranger?

Plants isolated from light and temperature cues continued to have leaf up and then leaf down movement within a day. What does this prove?

It proves that the movement of the plant does not come from external cues. Scientifically called ENDOGENOUS caused by an INTERNAL CLOCK (rather than EXOGENOUS/EXternally motivated)

Who is responsible for the following research and theory? -The cortex is bombarded with signals from the brainstem, producing the pattern of waking EEG -In response, the cortex generates images, actions and emotions from personal memory stores -In the absence of external verification, these dream events are fragmented and bizarre and reveal nothing more than that the cortex has been activated -Dreams are personal in that memories and experiences are activated, but they have no meaning

J. Allan Hobson: Activation-Synthesis (Dreams = Meaningless Brain Activity)

Fatigue and disorientation from rapid travel through time zones an exposure to a changed light-dark cycle is called...

Jet Lag

Human predisposition to SEQUENCE movements may have encouraged ______________________ development.

LANGUAGE

In relation to drug administration, what kind of molecules are UNABLE to pass out of capillaries into the brain (UNLESS transported by something else)?

LARGE and ELECTRICALLY Charged molecules (i.e. fat, glucose, amino acids)

In "Brain-Body Orientation" Structures towards the brain's SIDES are...

LATERAL

(Regarding the Epigenetics of Memory) Epigenetic mechanisms mediate synaptic plasticity broadly, but especially in __________________ and memory.

LEARNING

Analysis of SPEECH takes place largely in the ________________ hemisphere.

LEFT

Most right-handed people have language localized in their ____________ hemisphere, but the opposite is NOT true of left-handed people.

LEFT Left handed people: -About 70% also have language localized in their LEFT hemisphere. -About 15% have language localized in their right hemisphere -About 15% have bilateral representation of language.

These conditions are causes when there is damage to which brain area? -Aphasia: impairment in the use of LANGUAGE -Apraxia: general impairment in making VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS in the absence of paralysis or a muscular disorder (Inability to complete a plan of action accurately (LIKE COPYING A MOVEMENT)

LEFT Parietal

In "Anatomical Orientation" a SAGITTAL section is cut...

LENGTHWAYS from front to back, and viewed from the SIDE (imagine the brain split by an arrow-in Latin Sagitta) A cut in the midsagittal brain divides the brain in to equal halves-a MEDIAL view.

In HABITUATION, LESS Ca2+ influx results in...

LESS neurotransmitter being released

Parkinson and Alzheimer diseases have something in common is that they are characterized by ____________ bodies.

LEWY

(Guiding Principles of Brain Plasticity) 4. Prenatal Events Can Influence Brain Plasticity Throughout _______________.

LIFE

In general, neurons with LARGE cell bodies have extensions that are very...

LONG

Which length of memory involves the TEMPORAL lobe?

LONG-Term Memory (indefinite duration)

The "class" of mammals has what characteristics?

Large brains and social behavior

Nerve...

Large collection of axons coursing together outside the central nervous system

Tract...

Large collection of axons coursing together within the central nervous system

Action Potential..

Large, brief reversal in polarity of an axon Lasts approximately 1 millisecond (ms)

What is the worst time for brain injury in humans?

Last half of intrauterine period and the first few months after birth

When viewing a picture of the brain from the side, what separates the frontal lobe from the temporal lobe?

Lateral Fissure

In the Geniculostriate Pathway, as visual information passes through the right side of each retina it goes to the right Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN). and from the left side of each retina to the left....

Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)

Of the six layers in the motor and sensory cortices, which handle integrative functions?

Layers 1-3

Give a specific example used to support the theory of Evolutionary Psychology, by showing ENVIRONMENTAL influences on behavior?

Learned Taste Aversion: -Acquired association between a specific taste or odor and illness -Leads to an aversion to foods having that taste or odor (Example: Garcia (1966) Coyotes were killing sheep Poisoned a sheep carcass, made coyotes ill Most coyotes learned never to eat sheep again)

Relatively Flexible Behaviors in animals are dependent on what?

Learning

HABITUATION response refers to...

Learning behavior in which a response to a stimulus WEAKENS with repeated stimulus presentations (Example: Gill withdrawal response in the marine snail Aplysia californica)

SENSITIZATION response refers to...

Learning behavior in which the response to a stimulus STRENGTHENS with repeated presentations of that stimulus because the stimulus is novel or stronger than normal

Consciousness can be defined as...

Level of responsiveness of the mind to impressions made by the senses

__________ is electromagnetic energy that we perceive.

Light

What is the Coding Location in the Retina?

Light shone in one place on the retina will activate one ganglion cell, and light shone in another place will activate a different ganglion cell.

Regarding control of emotion, ____________ __________ concept is vague but still useful. Allocortex - cingulate gyrus in mammals Hippocampal formation

Limbic Circuit (See diagram on page 55 of lecture 12)

Is Fetal Tissue Implantation successful? (In Recovery from Brain Injury, an example of the Lost-Neuron-Replacement Solution.)

Limited success to date; more suited for situations where only a small number of cells are needed (Example: Dopamine-producing cells in the substantia nigra for Parkinson's disease patients)

Associative Learning is...

Linkage of two or more unrelated stimuli to elicit a behavioral response

Please put these in order: Genus, Phylum, Class, Kingdom, Order, Species, Family

Living Organisms are categorized by: 1. Kingdom (for people: Animals) 2. Phylum (for people: Chordates) 3. Class (for people: Mammals) 4. Order (for people: Primates) 5. Family (for people: Great apes) 6. Genus (for people: Human) 7. Species (for people: Modern Human)

What prevents synaptic transmission?

Local Regional Cooling (this is a type of intentional therapeutic hypothermia to stop a seizure, stroke, etc.)

Contrary to LTP (Long-Term Potentiation) is another form of Neuroplasticity, LTD ___________-_____________ _______________. Which is decrease in EPSP size (unlike LTP which is a way of CREATING memories) and is a way of CLEARING OUT MEMORIES.

Long-Term Depression (LTD) (-Neuron becomes less active in response to repeated stimulation -Involves NMDA receptors -Requires Ca2+ entry: -Decreased responsiveness of AMPA receptors -Decreased numbers of AMPA receptors)

What plays a part in associative learning that can be defined as: "In response to stimulation at a synapse, changed amplitude of an excitatory postsynaptic potential that lasts for hours to days or longer"?

Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

Paralysis...

Loss of sensation and movement due to nervous system injury

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)...

MAIN paceMAKER of CIRCADIAN rhythms located just above the OPTIC chiasm (A small brain structure that uses input from the retina to synchronize its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark; the body's way of monitoring the change from day to night.)

In "Brain-Body Orientation" structures towards the brain's MIDLINE are...

MEDIAL

Which relatively inexpensive, yet potentially devastating, drug is an amphetamine derivative?

METHamphetamine

In SENSITIZATIO, MORE Ca2+ influx results in...

MORE transmitter being released

These are typical _____________ behaviors of an infant: 2 Months: Orients hand toward object and gropes to hold it 4 Months: Grasps appropriately shaped object with entire hand 10 Months : Uses pincer grasp with thumb and index finger opposed

MOTOR

_________________ pathways are EFFERENT.

MOTOR. MOVEMENT information travels out of the Central Nervous System via a parallel, EFFERENT MOTOR system.

The somatosensory cortex plays an important role in confirming that _________________ have taken place.

MOVEMENTS (Damage does not disrupt plans for making movements, but DOES DISRUPT HOW the MOVEMENTS are PERFORMED, leaving their execution fragmented and confused.)

With PROPRIOCEPTION receptors (body awareness), what produces action potentials?

MOVEMENTS STRETCH the RECEPTORS to MECHANICALLY stimulate the dendrites within them to produce action potentials.

Fibers leaving the spinal cord's ventral side carry information out from the spinal cord to the ________________. They bundle together as the fibers exit the spinal cord, forming a ventral root.

MUSCLES

Group of motor-cortex neurons known to control finger movements ____________________ about the time pincer grasp develops in an infant

MYELINATE

What is the Renshaw loop?

Main axon projects to muscle, axon collateral (branch in axon) remains in spinal cord and synapses with Renshaw inhibitory neuron. Both contain ACETYLCHOLINE (ACh). When motor neuron is highly excited it can modulate its activity thought the renshaw loop

HOMEOSTATIC Hormones...

Maintain a state of internal metabolic balance and regulation of physiological systems

The HPA axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis) is relevant which disorder?

Major Depression The feedback loop that disengages cortisol gets shut off and creates chronic activation causing chronic stress: -Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal circuit; controls the production and release of hormones related to stress -When we are stressed, the HPA axis is stimulated to secrete corticotropin-releasing hormone, which stimulates the pituitary to produce adrenocorticotropic hormone. -If stress is intense, excessive cortisol can wield a negative influence on the brain, damaging the feedback loops the brain uses to turn off the stress response.

Serotonergic Drugs are used to treat ...

Major Depression. -Mood disorder characterized by Prolonged feelings of worthlessness and guilt -Disruption of normal eating habits Sleep disturbances -General slowing of behavior -Frequent thoughts of suicide -Common: 6 percent of adult population -Twice as common in women as in men

Cerebrum is...

Major structure of the forebrain, consisting of two virtually identical hemispheres (left and right)

What causes impaired cognitive functioning due to abnormal brain development?

Many causes: -Genetic abnormalities (e.g., Down syndrome) -Prenatal exposure to infections (e.g., rubella) or toxins such as alcohol (e.g., fetal alcohol syndrome) -Birth trauma, such as anoxia (e.g., cerebral palsy) -Chronic malnutrition -Environmental abnormality, such as sensory deprivation (e.g., Romanian orphans)

What is a Cytoarchitectonic Map?

Map of neocortex (part of the cerebral cortex within the forebrain) based on the organization, structure, and distribution of the cells

Behavioral effects of brain damage to a certain area are often not seen until the time at which that particular area...

Matures Example: The frontal lobes continue to develop into adulthood, therefore, the behavioral effects of frontal lobe damage may not be seen until adolescence

Are All Degenerative Dementias Aspects of a Single Disease?

Maybe Alzheimer and Parkinson symptoms may be similar because the two have similar origins. There is an Idea that several diseases marked by brain degeneration—including Huntington disease, MS, and ALS—may have a similar origin is central to PRION theory.

What is Encephalization Quotient (EQ)?

Measure of brain size obtained from the ratio of actual brain size to the expected brain size for an animal of a particular body size

In which partS of the BRAIN do we detect LOUDNESS?

Medial Part of the Superior Olivary Complex -Cells in each hemisphere receive inputs from both ears and calculate the difference in arrival times between the two ears. -When we detect no difference in arrival times, we infer the sound is coming from directly in front of us or behind us. AND.. Lateral Part of the Superior Olive and Trapezoid Body -Source of sound is detected by the RELATIVE loudness on the left or on the right side of the head Since high frequency sound waves do not easily bend around the head, the head acts as an OBSTACLE. As a result, higher frequency sound waves on one side of the head are louder than on the other.

Which view of the brain shows the relation of the brainstem to the cerebral hemisphere?

Medial view

What is the hormone called that is secreted by the pineal gland during the dark phase of the day-night cycle which influences daily and seasonal biorhythms?

Melatonin Example: -Hamsters In winter: melatonin levels decrease, gonads shrink, testosterone levels decrease, and sexual behavior decreases -In summer: melatonin levels increase, gonads grow, testosterone levels increase, and sexual behavior increases

In the structure of a Chemical Synapse, the Storage granule (presynaptic) is...

Membranous compartment that holds several vesicles containing the neurotransmitter(s)

Sleep plays a role in solidifying and organizing events in __________________.

Memory

The ability to recall or recognize previous experience is called...

Memory

People with damage to the temporal lobes often complain of...

Memory Disturbance

Surface features of the brain include...

Meninges, Cerebrum, Cerebellum "little brain", Gyri, Sulci, Fissures, Brainstem, and Surface Blood Vessels

Air-filled chamber that comprises the ossicles is called...

Middle Ear

Cells in the primate premotor cortex that fire when an individual OBSERVES a specific action taken by another individual. What are these neurons called?

Mirror Neurons

Which of the kingdoms are considered "True Cells" or Nuclei and Organelles?

Monera (bacteria) and Protista (single cells)

Major Depression, Mania, and Bipolar disorder are three examples of what category of disorders?

Mood Disorders

Do drugs that injected into muscle encounter fewer or more barriers that drugs that are inhaled?

More

There is a Somatosensory Homunculus in the Somatosensory Cortex (just like there is a Homunculus within the Motor Cortex). Penfield's original studies suggested that there was a single homunculus, just as with the motor cortex. What does current theory suggest?

More recent work suggests that there are four separate somatosensory homunculi: Area 3a: Muscles Area 3b: Skin (slow) Area 1: Skin (fast) Area 2: Joints, pressure

HTT gene (huntingtin)...

More than 40 repeats of CAG increases likelihood of Huntington's

Which Neurons are with you for life?

Most CNS neurons are with you for life and are never replaced.

What is a Motor Sequence?

Movement modules preprogrammed by the brain and produced as a unit

In regard to processing auditory input in the inner ear, when movement of cilia in one direction DEPOLARIZES the cell, causing calcium influx and release of neurotransmitter, which stimulates cells that form the auditory nerve, as a result nerve impulses INCREASE. What happens when the cilia are moved in the other direction?

Movement of cilia in the other direction HYPERPOLARIZES the cell, resulting in LESS neurotransmitter release, so ACTIVITY in auditory neurons DECREASES

Diffusion...

Movement of ions from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration through random motion

Disease characterized by a loss of myelin in the motor and sensory nerves...

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) (Oligodendroglia that forms the myelin sheath, and in some cases the axons, is destroyed.)

The 7th stage of Brain Development is...

Myelogenesis (formation of myelin): -Birth of astrocytes and oligodendrocytes begins after most neurogenesis is complete and continues throughout life -Oligodendria form myelin in CNS -Myelination provides a useful rough index of cerebral maturation -Myelination of cortex begins after birth and continues until at least 20 years of age -Some areas are myelinated earlier (those that perform simpler functions) than others (that perform more complex functions)

What is most commonly caused by the normally round eyeball being elongated?

Myopia (nearsightedness) (can also be caused by excessive curvature of the front of the cornea)

In which stage of sleep does this occur? -Large range of activities take place -Examples: decrease in body temperature and increase in growth hormone release

N-Sleep Example in a horse: -N- sleep, standing with legs locked and head down. -N- sleep, lying down with head up.

Simple Nervous System (i.e. sea slug) equals

NARROW range of behavior

The shape of an adult human's head more closely resembles that of a juvenile chimpanzee's head than that of an adult chimp's head. This could be an example of...

NEOTENY

Research Challenges: The ______________ sytem is the most complex body system.

NERVOUS The brain has a wider variety of cell types than does ANY other body organ.

What is the 4th stage of Brain Development?

NEURAL MATURATION -After neurons migrate to their final destinations and differentiate into specific neuron types -Mature in two ways: Dendritic Growth: grow dendrites to provide surface area for synapses with other cells Axonal Growth: extend their axons to appropriate targets to initiate synapse formation

POSTERIOR Pituitary

NEURAL tissue; continuation of the hypothalamus

Research Challenges: The nervous system can adapt to extreme stress or injury. Signs of disease are not seen right away because of ____________________ plasticity.

NEURONAL (For example, only when the loss of dopamine neurons exceeds about 60% to 80% do investigators see clinical signs of Parkinson disease.)

What are the only elements in the brain that combine evidence and make decisions?

NEURONS

Neural Units of Thought: Newsome and Colleagues (1995), Trained monkeys on an apparent motion paradigm and performed single-cell recordings Found that the PERCEPTION OF apparent MOTION was INFLUENCED by INDIVIDUAL ____________________.

NEURONS (NOT by the summed activity of many neurons)

Product of a progenitor cell that gives rise to different types of NEURONS is a...

NEUROblast

Hippocampus CONSOLIDATES _________ memories (In the making of EXPLICIT memories)

NEW (In consolidation, or stabilizing a memory traceafter learning, memories move from the hippocampus to diffuse regions in theneocortex Once they move, hippocampal involvement is no longer needed)

spreading grasslands and fewer trees increased the adaptiveness of an upright posture and tool-building skills is an example of what?

NEW hominid species appearing after CLIMATE CHANGES

Elements (Basic Chemistry Review)...

Naturally occurring substances • Three main ones: - Oxygen - Carbon - Hydrogen These three make up more than 90 percent of a cell's composition

Polar Water Molecules surround Na+ and Cl- ions in a salt crystal dissolving it...

Negative Cl- ions attract the positive poles of water molecules. Positive Na+ ions attract the negative poles of water molecules.

Anions...

Negatively charged ions Examples: Chloride (Cl−), protein molecules (A−)

Association Cortex...

Neocortex outside the primary sensory and motor cortices that functions to PRODUCE COGNITION

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)...

Nervous system disorder associated with loss of myelin (Imagine an exposed wire with the rubber coating (myelin) partially eaten away).

3 weeks after fertilization, in the process from fertilization to embryo, this thickened region of the ectodermal layer that gives rise to the NEURAL TUBE (Structure in the early stage of brain development from which the brain and spinal cord develop) is formed...

Neural Plate

Overman and colleagues (1992) performed 2 types of tests on children and monkeys to determine the sequence in which the forebrain structures that are required for learning and memory mature: 1. Displacement Task 2. Non-Matching to Sample Learning Task What was their conclusion?

Neural structures underlying the concurrent discrimination task MATURE SOONER than those underlying the non-matching to sample learning task.

PLASTIC (in relation to the brain) can be described as...

Neural tissue has the capacity to adapt to the world by changing how its functions are organized

Dementia is a __________________ disorder that affects 1% to 6% of the population older than age 65 and 10% to 20% older than age 80.

Neurodegenerative

Combines ideas from economics, psychology, and neuroscience, in attempt to explain decision making processes by studying patterns of brain activity as people make decisions

Neuroeconomics

On the subject of the Structural Basis of Brain Plasticity: The synapse is where one neuron influences another ____________________.

Neuron

In the Peripheral Nervous System Microglia and Schwann cells help repair...

Neurons

What are the characteristics of the ANIMAL "kingdom"?

Neurons and Muscles used for locomotion

What is the Chemoaffinity Hypothesis?

Neurons or their axons and dendrites are drawn toward a signaling chemical that indicates the correct pathway (Sperry, 1963)

Stripped Branches...

Neurons that are bare like tree trunks are seen in advanced-stage Alzheimer's patients.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS)...

Neurosurgery in which one or more electrodes implanted in the brain stimulate a targeted area with a low-voltage electrical current to facilitate behavioral change. (-Used to treat Parkinson, TBI, OCD, depression (DBS remains an experimental option of last resort. -It is not a permanent cure: when the stimulation stops, beneficial effects are reduced. -Electrodes implanted in the brain are well tolerated and remain effective for several years. -Electrical stimulation can relieve depression or compulsive behaviors. -Stimulation may also make brain tissue more plastic and receptive to other treatments.)

Norepinephrine (NE, or noradrenaline)...

Neurotransmitter found in the brain and in the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system; accelerates heart rate in mammals

Neurotransmission Steps 1 and 2: Synthesis, Packaging and Storage...

Neurotransmitters are derived in two general ways: 1. Synthesized in the Axon Terminal Building blocks from food are pumped into cell via transporters: protein molecules embedded within the cell membrane 2. Synthesized in the Cell Body According to instructions contained in the DNA Transported on microtubules to axon terminal

Nerve Growth Factor (NGF)...

Neurotrophic factor that STIMULATES NEURONS TO GROW dendrites and synapses and, in some cases, promotes the survival of neurons

Complex Behavior in chordates is defined as...

New forms of locomotion on land, complex movements of the mouth and hands for eating, improved learning ability, and highly organized social behavior

Which psychoactive drugs are the CHOLINergic agonists?

Nicotine (recreational) and tacrine (Prescribed)

An example of an Cholinergic agonist is...

Nicotine: -Antiherbivore chemical in Nicotiana tabacum -Stimulates acetylcholine nicotinic receptors -Stimulant at low doses, but at very high doses dampens neural activity -Leads to dependence -Other components of tobacco lead to lung cancer and heart disease -Long-term effects of vaping are unknown

Are there psychological effects from sleep deprivation?

No marked physiological effects, at least in the periods that have been tested (up to 11 days) (But there are other individual differences in negative consequences)

Does the brain have a single system for understanding and producing any language, regardless of its structure, or are very different languages processed in different ways?

No? (They posed the question but did not answer it. They made a point to show the common facets of all languages. So I believe the implied answer is no there is not a single system the brain uses for understanding, but that languages have many similarities.)

What is behavior called that is unnecessary to meet the basic survival needs of the animal?

Nonregulatory Behavior NOT controlled by homeostatic mechanisms Most involve the frontal lobes more than the hypothalamus Strongly influenced by external stimuli

What is scale of change as you take more anxiety medication or alcohol (GABAergic agonists)?

Normal > Relief from anxiety > disinhibition > sedation > sleep > general anesthesia > coma > death

Which type of RGC does this describe? -Excited when light falls on the center portion of the receptive field; inhibited when light falls on the surround (periphery) of the receptive field -Light across whole receptive field produces weak excitation

On-Center Cells

Complete Dominance...

Only the dominant allele's trait is expressed in the phenotype

Channel...

Opening in a protein embedded in the cell membrane that allows the passage of ions (Ions can cross a membrane through an appropriately shaped channel)

Thorndike's puzzle box was a form of...

Operant Conditioning (-Cat is placed in the box with the food reward outside. -The hungry cat eventually learns that pressing on the lever will result in getting out of the box and getting to the food.)

In Gate Theory, the Interneuron that is the gate uses an endogenous opiate as an INHIBITORY neurotransmitter. How do opioids mimmic this?

Opioids relieve pain by mimicking the actions of endogenous opioid.

An Injury to the "How" Pathway can cause...

Optic Ataxia (Deficit in the visual control of reaching and other movements Damage to parietal cortex Can recognize objects normally)

Junction of the optic nerves from each eye is the...

Optic Chiasm (the visual pathways are like an x shaped structure) -Axons from the nasal (inside) halves of each retina cross over to the opposite side of the brain. -Axons from the temporal (outer) halves of each retina remain on the same side of the brain. -Information from left visual field goes to right side of brain; information from the right visual field goes to the left side of the brain.

Which technique causes the following? Channelrhodopsin (ChR2): when exposed to blue light, depolarizes, causing excitation. Halorhodopsin (NpHR): a green-yellow light hyperpolarizes the neuron, causing inhibition.

Optogenetics

What transgenic technique combines genetics and light to control targeted cells in living tissue?

Optogenetics. -Based on the discovery that light can activate proteins -Proteins can occur naturally or can be inserted into cells -Fiber-optic light can be delivered to selective brain regions such that all neurons exposed to the light respond immediately

The Frog Heart Experiment was done by...

Otto Loewi (1921) (In which a frog heart was placed in two glass jars and the jars were filled with water and connected so that the fluid was shared. One heart's VAGUS NERVE was stimulated electrically and then the heartbeat slowed down, then the heart in the 2nd jars slowed, too as it responded to the chemical acetylcholine (ACh) released by the 1st heart.)

Of the six layers in the motor and sensory cortices, which are layers 5-6?

Output to the other parts of the brain (efferent)-Efferents in layers V and VI connect to other parts of the cortex and to motor structures of the brain

These two takeaways were the result of whose research? 1. Children can learn a concurrent-discrimination task, believed to depend on the basal ganglia, around 12 months 2. Children can learn a nonmatching-to-sample task, believed to depend on the temporal lobe, around 18 months

Overman and Colleagues (1992) and their research on the Development of Problem Solving Ability

Set of higher frequency sound waves that vibrate at whole-number (integer) multiples of the fundamental frequency are called...

Overtones

Electrical stimulation of the ______________ suppresses pain

PAG (Periaqueductal Gray Matter)

"Rest and Digest" (which involves only acetylcholine (ACh)...

PARAsympathetic division of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Learning procedure whereby a neutral stimulus (such as a tone) comes to elicit a response because of its repeated pairing with some event (such as the delivery of food) which is also referred to as CLASSICAL conditioning or RESPONDENT conditioning, is called...

PAVLOVIAN CONDITIONING (as in Pavlov's dog)

Releasing Hormones are...

PEPTIDES that are RELEASED by the HYPOTHALAMUS and act to INCREASE or DECREASE the release of HORMONES from the ANTERIOR Pituitary

Which are the FUNCTIONAL brain imaging techniques?

PET scan, fMRI, rs-MRI, Optical Tomography

The brain is...

PLASTIC

(Guiding Principles of Brain Plasticity) 7. ________________ has pros and cons.

PLASTICITY

The SENSORY cortex lies _____________________ to the central fissure and extends to the parietal lobe.

POSTERIOR

Bachevalier and colleagues researched the _______________ Effects of Hormones and Brain Development in Monkeys and Humans.

POSTNATAL Monkeys: -Male and females showed different patterns of performance on tests at 2.5 months old -Males that had testes removed at birth performed more like females Humans: -Similarly, males and females showed different patterns of performance around 15 to 30 months of age -Sex differences disappeared at 32 to 55 months of age

Neural Basis of Sex Differences: WOMEN have LARGER VOLUMES of _______________ and MEDIAL PARALIMBIC REGIONS than men.

PREFRONTAL

Which brain regions are critical in self-regulation?

PREFRONTAL REGIONS Children are often poor at self-regulation, which probably reflects the slow development of prefrontal regions responsible for impulse control.

Animals with damage to the _______________ cortex cannot put motor sequences together.

PREMOTOR

With HAPSIS receptors (fine touch and pressure), what produces action potentials?

PRESSURE on the various types of TISSUE CAPSULES MECHANICALLY stimulates the dendrites within them to produce action potentials.

The ASSOCIATION cortex receives information that is more highly _________________ than information received by the primary cortices.

PROCESSED

Golgi Bodies (parts of a cell)...

Package proteins in membranes (vesicles) and give them a "label" indicating where they are to go

30% of visits to physicians are for __________ symptoms, as are 50% of emergency room visits.

Pain

Limb muscles are arranged in _________.

Pairs Extensor: -Moves (extends) the limb away from the trunk Flexor: -Moves the limb toward the trunk

Which condition is this describing? -Swollen optic disc -May be due to increased intracranial pressure (tumor or brain infection) or inflammation of the optic nerve (optic neuritis) -Can cause loss of vision

Papilloedema

Paraplegia is...

Paralysis and loss of sensation confined to legs and lower body due to spinal cord injury

Using an fcMRI scientists can map time based correlations in the brain. Parts of the brain light up in different color sections. This is called ______________________ of Cerebral Cortical Networks.

Parcellation (For example: Networks such as the blue auditory areas in temporal lobe are localized. Others are widely distributed, such as the yellow regions, which reveal prefrontal-posterior parietal connectivity.)

Damage to which association cortex can produce the attention deficit called contralateral neglect? Contralateral Neglect: Ignoring a part of the body or world on the side opposite (contralateral) that of the brain injury (Neglect is particularly severe in right hemisphere damage)

Parietal Association Cortex (With contralateral neglect a dog eats only half the bowl of dog food)

The area/system responsible for the visual ACTION system...

Parietal Visual Areas, Dorsal Stream, V3a (motion), V5 (form), V1

These are the symptoms of which disease? -Tremor in one hand and slight stiffness in distal parts of the limbs. -Movements may become slower, the face becoming masklike, with loss of eye blinking and poverty of emotional expression. -Body may stoop and the gait become a shuffle, with arms hanging motionless at the sides. -Speech may slow and become monotonous, and difficulty swallowing may cause drooling.

Parkinson's

COGNITIVE symptoms of _______________ disease: Can include impoverishment of feeling, libido, motive, and attention; cognitive slowing Thinking seems generally to be slowed and is easily confused with dementia because patients do not appear to be processing the content of conversations.

Parkinsons

Amnesia...

Partial or total loss of memory

Electrical Stimulation...

Passing an electrical current from the tip of an electrode through brain tissue, resulting in changes in the electrical activity of the tissue

A Radial Glial Cell is...

Path-making cell that a migrating neuron follows to its appropriate destination

Substance Abuse is...

Pattern of drug use in which people rely on a drug chronically and excessively, allowing it to occupy a central place in their lives

What is the origin of Neuropsychology?

Paul Broca discovered the link between specific damage located in the left frontal lobe region and language difficulties

What is this an example of? -Blinking is normal reaction to a puff of air to the eye -A tone is repeatedly presented along with the puff of air -After learning, the tone alone will elicit the blink

Pavlovian Conditioning

Evolution of Sex-Related Cognitive Differences: Why do males have better spatial skills?

Perhaps during evolution males had to tend over larger territories than females.

In the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, shifting response strategies is particularly difficult for people with frontal-lobe lesions; they may continue responding to the original stimulus (color) for as many as 100 cards until the test ends. What is this repeated response called?

Perseveration: tendency to emit repeatedly the SAME verbal or motor response to varied stimuli

Hypothalamic Circuit is involved in HORMONE SECRETIONS and its primary job is to regulate/control the...

Pituitary Gland

The Hierarchical Control of HORMONES: 1. Hypothalamus Produces neurohormones to stimulate the _____________ ____________, 2. which Secretes releasing hormones to influence:... 3. Target Endocrine Glands-which then Release appropriate hormones into the blood to act on ... 4. Target Organs and Tissues

Pituitary Gland

Which neurons that were maximally responsive to specific locations, were discovered in the hippocampus of rats?

Place cells

Which of the Kingdoms are considered multi-cell?

Plantae (plants) and Fungi (fungi)

Measuring Sleep in the Laboratory: A ___________________ is used to measure the electrical activity of the brain and body

Polygraph Types of tests administered: 1. Electroencephalogram (EEG) Record of BRAIN-WAVE activity 2. Electromyogram (EMG) Record of MUSCLE activity 3. Electrooculogram (EOG) Record of EYE movements)

For a membrane to become hyper polarized, its extracellular side must become more...

Positive. Which can be accomplished with an reflux of K+ (It can also become hyper polarized if there is an influx of Cl- ions.

Cations...

Positively charged ions Examples: Sodium (Na+), potassium (K+)

What is a PET scan?

Positron emission tomography (Imaging Technique used to map brain activity by injecting radioactive substances that detect changes in blood flow (uptake of compounds such as oxygen or glucose)

Neurons in which area are silent to visual stimulation when a person is under anesthesia?

Posterior Parietal Cortex

Some cells in which area process the visual appearance of an object to be grasped?

Posterior Parietal Cortex (These cells will fire when a monkey simply watches another monkey picking up an object)

In relation to movement, how do the the parts of the frontal lobes involved, perform an action?

PreFRONTAL cortex PLANS-> PreMOTOR cortex SEQUENCES-> MOTOR Cortex EXECUTES actions -Prefrontal Cortex: plans complex behavior -Premotor Cortex: produces the appropriate complex movement sequences -Primary Motor Cortex: specifies how each movement is to be carried out

What controls copulatory behavior in males, but not sexual motivation?

Preoptic Area of the Medial Hypothalamus

Within the Somatosensory Cortex, there is a Primary Somatosensory Cortex and a Secondary Somatosensory Cortex. Where do they get their sensory information from?

Primary Somatosensory Cortex Receives sensory information from the BODY. Secondary Somatosensory Cortex receives sensory information from the Primary Somatosensory Cortex.

Humans are a member of which "order"

Primate

Which "order" has the characterstic of visual control of hands?

Primates

Overman and colleagues (1992) researched the development of...

Problem Solving Ability.

A GLIOblast is...

Product of a progenitor cell that gives rise to different types of GLIAL cells

Geniculostriate System...

Projections from the retina to the lateral geniculate nucleus to the visual cortex

Tectopulvinar System...

Projections from the retina to the superior colliculus to the pulvinar (thalamus) to the parietal and temporal visual areas

Major depression...

Prolonged feelings of worthlessness and guilt; disruption of normal eating habits; sleep disturbances; general slowing of behavior; frequent thoughts of suicide

Enzymes...

Protein catalysts that facilitate the cell's chemical reactions

Pump...

Protein embedded in a cell membrane that actively transports a substance across the membrane (A pumps transporter changes shape to carry substances across a cell membrane)

Gate...

Protein embedded in a cell membrane that allows substances to pass only when open (A gated channel changes shape to allow the passage of substances when gates are open and to prevent passage when one or both gates are closed.)

In the Endoplasmic Reticulum, Ribosomes are...

Protein structures that act as catalysts for protein synthesis

Transmitter-Activated Receptors are...

Proteins embedded in the (Postsynaptic) membrane of a cell that have a binding site for a specific neurotransmitter (in step 4 of Neurotransmission: Receptor Site Activation)

Dendritic Spines (which are part of Dendrite which one of 3 parts of a Neuron) are ....

Protrusions from a dendrite that greatly increases its surface area and is the usual point of contact with axons of other cells (think leaves on branches or little branches of lightning off the big ones)

Idea, resulting from a set of impressions, that some mental ability exists as an entity; (examples include memory, language, and emotion) is called...

Psychological Construct (Difficult to locate constructs in the brain)

Which 2 words are the facts below describing? -Increased behavioral and cognitive activity -At certain levels of consumption, the drug user feels energetic and in control -Occurs with many drugs Is there a common target (such as dopamine neurons) for abused drugs?

Psychomotor Activation

Spatial Summation...

Pulses that occur at approximately the same location on a membrane are summed

In the Tectopulvinar pathway, as visual information reaches the retina, Magnocellular cells from the retina project to the superior colliculus, which then sends information to the.....

Pulvinar (located in the thalamus) Provides information regarding location ("where")

Paralysis and loss of sensation in the legs and arms due to spinal cord injury is called...

Quadriplegia

What is the Mind-Body Problem in Dualism?

Quandary of explaining a nonmaterial mind in command of a material body

Maquet and colleagues (2000) used a PET scan to research IMPLICIT memory and _____-sleep.

R-sleep -Used PET imaging to record brain activity while human subjects performed a serial reaction-time task -PET imaging during subsequent sleep revealed that the same brain regions that were active during the task were ALSO ACTIVE DURING R-sleep -Subjects were dreaming about their learning experience -R-sleep STRENGTHENED the memory of the task

What is the MAIN goal of epilepsy treatment?

RAISE SEIZURE THRESHOLDS by enhancing action of inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA and stabilizing inactive state of sodium channels (In 30% to 40% of people with epilepsy, however, antiseizure drugs fail to control the condition—intractable epilepsy.)

Moran and Desimone (1985) researched SELECTIVE ATTENTION. They found that NEURONS in areas V4 could be TRAINED to RESPOND SELECTIVELY to information in THEIR _________________ FIELD. (Respond to stimuli in one location but NOT other locations)

RECEPTIVE

Each retinal ganglion cell (RGC) responds to stimulation on just a small circular patch of the retina - the cell's......

RECEPTIVE FIELD

These are the three ways of doing what? -Learn new ways to solve problems -Reorganize the brain to do more with less -Generate new neurons to produce new circuits

RECOVERING FROM BRAIN INJURY

(Guiding Principles of Brain Plasticity) 5. Plastic Changes Are Brain-____________ Dependent

REGION

Peribrachial area initiates what?

REM sleep

Technological resolution is a ____________________ challenge because, Resolution of a tool may not show sufficient detail to detect subtle neuronal change. Consider behavioral problems after a brain trauma in a patient showing no obvious signs of brain damage on an MRI.

RESEARCH

What is the neural route from a subset of cone receptors in the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus which allows light to entrain the rhythmic activity of the SCN called?

RETINOhypothalamic Pathway

Analysis of MUSICAL SOUNDS takes place largely in the _______________ hemisphere.

RIGHT

Endoplasmic Reticulum is the site of...

RNA Synthesis

Information coming from SENSORY receptors comes into the CNS via Posterior ______________ fibers.

ROOT

We know that ENDOgenous (having an Internal cause) rhythm is not learned because...

Ralph and colleagues: Transplantation Studies in Hamsters: -After lesions to the SCN, eat and sleep a normal amount, but the rhythmic nature of these behaviors disappears -If SCN cells from embryos are transplanted into the lesioned animals, they will re-establish circadian rhythms

Somatosensory receptors can be either ___________________ adapting or ________________ adapting.

Rapidly or Slowly Rapidly Adapting Receptor: -Body sensory receptor that responds briefly to the beginning and end of a stimulus on the body -Proprioception receptors are all rapidly adapting receptors -Some Hapsis receptors are Rapid Slowly Adapting Receptor: -Body sensory receptor that responds as long as a sensory stimulus is on the body -Nocioception Receptors are all slowly adapting receptors -Some Hapsis receptors are rapid

In Neuroeconomics which system of decision making is defined as: fast, automatic, emotionallybiased (ventromedial prefrontal cortex)?

ReFLEXive system:

THICK Stripes which are located in V2...

Receive information from MOVEMENT-sensitive neurons

Orbital prefrontal cortex...

Receives input from the OLFACTORY bulb; damage may result in DECREASED EATING because of diminished sensory responses to food odor and perhaps taste

As it pertains to processing shape in the TEMPORAL cortex, what is Stimulus Equivalence?

Recognizing that an object is the SAME across different viewing orientations

The GLUTAMINergic antagonists are...

Recreational: Ketamine (Special K), PCP (angel dust) Prescribed: Memantine (Namenda)

Wildtype...

Refers to a normal (most common in a population) phenotype or genotype

What type of behavior are these an example of? -Internal body temperature -Eating and drinking -Salt consumption -Waste elimination

Regulatory Behavior

What is the homunculus?

Representation of the human body in the sensory or motor cortex; also any topographical representation of the body by a neural area

Forebrain...

Responsible for most of our CONSCIOUS behaviors and is prominent in mammals and birds.

-Stimulation of the ______________ ____________ ____________ produces a waking EEG; damage to it produces a slow-wave EEG -Damage to this area can result in a coma

Reticular Activating System (RAS) (Sensory information goes through the RAS into the Hypothalamus and into the Cortex, so if the RAS is damaged the messages may not make it to the next area)

_____________ may be a mechanism that evolved to help increase the adaptive fitness both of the entire species and of individual members of a species. (Maintain contact with some stimuli but not others)

Reward

What are Free-Running Rhythms?

Rhythm of the body's own devising in the ABSENCE of all EXTERNAL cues (-Without input from external cues, our bodies have their own rhythms with periods of 25 to 27 hours -Sleep-wake cycle shifts an hour or so everyday -Animals expand and contract their sleep periods as the sleep-related lighting period expands or contracts)

What are mainly used for night vision?

Rods

(On the subject of REWARD), Olds and Milner (1954) researched shows that: -Rats will press a bar to ___________-administer electrical stimulation to specific sites in the brain (intracranial ____________-stimulation) -Lateral hypothalamus and medial forebrain bundle are especially effective (part of mesolimbic dopamine system)

SELF (you can reference visual of mesolimbic dopamine system on page 64 of lecture 12)

Since people and rats make facial expressions when they like food, this experiment showed evidence of the ____________________ neural systems of Liking and Wanting: 1. Rats with lesion of ascending dopaminergic pathway do not eat -But, they still show facial responses to food -They still like food, they just don't want it 2. Stimulate lateral hypothalamus -They eat (they want food) -But they show fewer positive facial responses (they don't like it)

SEPARABLE

Neurons with SMALL cell bodies have...

SHORT extensions

NERVE NET...

SIMPLE nervous system with sensory and motor neurons i.e. Sea Anemone

In relation to drug administration, what kind of molecules are ABLE to pass thought the endothelial membrane of the capillaries and into the brain?

SMALL Uncharged molecules (i.e oxygen, carbon dioxide)

The Vestibular System

SOMATOSENSOR system that comprises a set of RECEPTORS in each INNER EAR that respond to body position and to the movement of the head (and effect BALANCE)

Music and language are perhaps the primary _____________ wave patterns that humans recognize.

SOUND Music = right hemisphere Language = left hemisphere

To predict BEHAVIOR...

STRUCTURAL development can be studied and correlated with the emergence of BEHAVIOR BRAIN development > predict > BEHAVIORAL development (Example: Frontal Lobe> predict > Social Development)

"Fight or Flight" (which involves both acetylcholine (ACh) and Norepinephrine)...

SYMPATHETIC division of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Language has __________. -Ways in which words are put together to form phrases, clauses, or sentences; proposed to be a unique characteristic of human language -Allows humans to have a language that moves beyond the concrete world of the "here and now"

SYNTAX

Dopaminergic ANTagonists can be used to treat...

Schizophrenia. Prescribed: (Thorazene), haloperidol (Haldol), clozapine (Clozaril), aripiprazole (Abilify, Aripiprex) Recreational: none listed

Small blind spot in the visual field caused by a small lesion or migraines of the visual cortex is called...

Scotoma (Caused by an Injury to the Pathway Leading to the Cortex)

Visual cortical areas outside the striate cortex are the...

Secondary Visual Cortex (V2-V5; Extrastriate Cortex)

Genes (within the Chromosomes, within the nucleus of a cell)...

Segments of DNA that encode the synthesis of particular proteins • Sequences of nucleotides determine which amino acids are to be joined to form the particular protein

Understanding Oneself: -Humans, apes, dolphins, elephants, pigs and magpies have the ability to recognize themselves in a mirror. -When we recognize our OWN faces versus the faces of familiar others, brain activity increases in the RIGHT LATERAL PREFRONTAL CORTEX and in the LATERAL PARIETAL CORTEX What is this called?

Self-Recognition

Density is important in determining the ________________ of a sensory system. (Examples: more tactile receptors on the fingers than on the arm)

Sensitivity

Of the six layers in the motor and sensory cortices, which is layer 4?

Sensory input (afferent)-Afferents connect to layer IV (coming from the thalamus) as well as to layers II and III

Olfactory System (process)...

Sensory input from the nose goes to the Olfactory bulbs >Pyriform >Cortex> Thalamus >Neocortex

What does damage to the primary somatosensory cortex impair?

Sensory thresholds, proprioception, hapsis (ability to identify objects by touch), and simple movements (e.g., reaching and grasping). (As with the motor cortex, REORGANIZATION following damage IS POSSIBLE. Example: Pons and colleagues (1991) Following damage to the arm, the cortex that was devoted to the arm becomes sensitive to the face.)

Codon...

Sequence of 3 bases on mRNA that codes for a particular amino acid

Juraska (1990) also studied the Postnatal Effects of Hormones and Brain Development, but in Rats reared in complex environments. Based on the following observations what was the summary of his research? -Males showed more dendritic growth in the visual cortex than females -Females showed more dendritic growth in frontal lobes than males

Sex differences in brain structure exist throughout development

A person's sexual attraction either to the opposite sex, the same sex or both sexes is

Sexual Orientation

What is this describing? -Female advantage in verbal fluency (Higher salivary levels of testosterone at 1-3 months lead to smaller expressive vocabulary at 18-30 months) -Male advantage for spatial navigation

Sexual differentiation of the brain

Unlike in V1, neurons in the TEMPORAL Lobe form columns that respond to categories of __________________.

Shapes

One example of genetic mutation and its effects is...

Sickle shape offers some protection against malaria but sickle cells also have poor oxygen-carrying capacity.

In the structure of a Chemical Synapse, the Postsynaptic receptor (postsynaptic) is...

Site to which a neurotransmitter molecule binds

What is BEHAVIOR according to Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt?

"Behavior consists of patterns in time."

Autoreceptors are...

"Self-receptors" on the PREsynaptic membrane that respond to the transmitter that the neuron releases (in step 4 of Neurotransmission: Receptor Site Activation)

Brendan Jordan is quoted as saying...

"Sexuality is who you go to bed with, and gender identity is who you go to bed as."

"Hebb Synapse" theory (Hebb, 1949)...

"The general idea is an old one, that any two cells or systems of cells that are repeatedly active at the same time will tend to become 'associated' so that activity in one facilitates activity in the other" (Hebb, 1949, p. 70) or more specifically... "When the axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased."

According Carl Jung's psychoanalytical theory of dreams, our dreams are expressions of our "_______________ ________________" (history of the human race)

"collective unconscious"

Spearman (1920s) referred to general intelligence a the "____" factor. (Hard to localize general intelligence in the brain)

"g" (factor)

How do smart brains differ from brains with lower IQ's?

"intelligence is associated with brain VOLUME, however, also with a LOW NEURITE DENSITY and dispersion, supporting the hypothesis that NEURAL Efficiency is important for intelligence)." (It is the opposite in other brains high neurite density in lower IQ subjects)

Caudal and Posterior both mean...

"tail"

Dermatomes (part of the SNS) are...

(Area of the skin supplied with afferent nerve fibers by a single spinal-cord dorsal root)

What happens during Cell Differentiation, the 3rd stage of Brain Development?

(Differentiation is dependent upon genetic instructions, timing, and signals from other cells in the local environment) -Neuroblasts become specific types of neurons -Begins after cells have begun to migrate -Essentially complete at birth although neuron maturation, which includes the growth of dendrites, axons, and synapses, goes on for years and, in some parts of the brain, may continue throughout adulthood

Complexity...

(One of the 3 Properties of Sound Wave Energy) -Corresponds to our perception of timbre or uniqueness (i.e. The way we can distinguish between a trombone and violin playing the same note)

Amplitude...

(One of the 3 Properties of Sound Wave Energy) -The intensity or loudness of a sound stimulus, usually measured in decibels (dB) -The magnitude of change in air molecule density -Corresponds to our perception of loudness Soft sound: low amplitude Loud sound: high amplitude

The RetinohypothalamicTract and the SCN...

(See visual on page 17 of lecture 13) -SCN drives slave oscillators and receives signals form other brain and body areas -Signal from SCN core neurons entrains shell neurons -Retinohypothalamic tract carries information about light changes to core cells in the SCN -Photosensitive retinal ganglion cells respond to blue light

Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)...

(a protein in the nervous system that promotes survival, growth, and the formation of new synapses) -May ENHANCE PLASTIC CHANGES, such as the growth of dendrites and synapses -Increased levels when animals learn to solve problems

Four Ventricles...

(cavities in the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) -Two lateral ventricles (left and right) -Third ventricle -Fourth ventricle

Hyperopia...

(farsightedness) -Inability to focus on near objects -Focal point of light falls beyond the retina

Myopia...

(nearsightedness) -Inability to bring distant objects into clear focus -Focal point of light falls short of the retina

Epigenetics is viewed as a second code...

- Describes how a single genetic code produces each different somatic cell type - Explains how a single genome can code for many different phenotypes - Describes how cells go astray in their function to produce diseases ranging from cancer to brain dysfunction

Selective Breeding...

- Effective way to alter gene expression - Maintaining spontaneous mutations is one objective of selective breeding - Selective breeding of dogs has produced breeds that can run fast, haul heavy loads, retrieve prey, dig for burrowing animals, etc.

CRISPR...

- Faster and easier modification of genes - CRISPR machinery discovered in immune system of bacteria. Creates RNA base sequence that can be used to identify DNA of an invading virus and cut it - Can be used to identify a specific part of DNA in any gene - Gene can be cut and portion replaced by another DNA sequence

Applications of CRISPR...

- Making plants or animals resistant to bacterial infections - Identifying cancer cells - Identify genes implicated in diseases, such as HTT

Genomics...

- Nucleus of each human somatic cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, or 46 in all - One member of each pair of chromosomes comes from the mother, and the other member comes from the father. - The chromosome pairs are numbered from 1 to 23

Cloning...

- Producing an offspring that is genetically identical to another animal - Clones can be used to preserve valuable traits, to study the relative influences of heredity and environment, or to produce new tissue or organs for transplant to the donor

Other regions of the motor system

- Subcortical basal ganglia helps to produce appropriate amount of force for grasping. - Cerebellum helps to regulate timing and accuracy of movement.

Salts e.g., NaCl (Basic Chemistry Review)...

- When formed, sodium (Na+) gives up an electron to chloride (Cl−) - Positively and negatively charged ions tightly held together by their electrical connection

Transcription is...

-"to copy" -Early phase of protein synthesis in which the DNA strands unwind and a complementary strand of messenger RNA (ribonucleic acid) is created

The DOPAMINergicSystem, one of the 4 activating systems in the Central Nervous System (CNS) uses DOPAMINE and...

-(In the Nigrostriatal Path:) -Helps coordinate movement; -Degenerates in Parkinson's disease -(In the Mesolimbic Path:) -Enhances responses to environmental stimuli -Implicated in addiction and schizophrenia

Approx. how many inner and outer hair cells are there in the inner ear?

-3,500 inner hair cells (auditory receptors) -12,000 outer hair cells (alters stiffness of tectorial membrane)

What is an Endorphin?

-A Peptide hormone that acts as a neurotransmitter and may be associated with feelings of pain or pleasure -Mimicked by opiate drugs such as morphine, heroin, opium, and codeine

What is a Neurotrophic Factor?

-A chemical compound that acts to support growth and differentiation in developing neurons -May help keep certain neurons alive in adulthood -Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF): Stem Cell -> Progenitor Cell -Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor (bFGF): Progenitor Cell-> Neuroblast

In a Metabotropic Receptor, a Second Messenger is...

-A chemical that carries a message to initiate a biochemical process -Activated by a neurotransmitter (the first messenger) -Examples: 1. Alter ion flow in a membrane channel 2. Formation of new ion channels 3. Production of new proteins through DNA

Amblyopia is...

-A condition in which vision in one eye is reduced as a result of disuse; usually caused by a failure of the two eyes to point in the same direction -Visual input from the "lazy eye" does NOT contribute to the fine tuning of neural connections

The Oscilloscope...

-A device that serves as a sensitive voltmeter -Used to record voltage changes on an axon

What is a Memory Engram?

-A mental representation of a previous experience -Physical CHANGE in the brain, both at SYNAPSES and in the NUCLEUS OF NEURONS

Neuropeptide...

-A multifunctional chain of amino acids that act as a neurotransmitter -Synthesized from mRNA on instructions from the cell's DNA -Do not bind to ion channels; do not have direct effects on the voltage of the postsynaptic membrane Indirectly influence cell structure and function

Gender Identity (on a spectrum) ...

-A person's feeling male vs. female -People who view themselves as transgender believe they were born the wrong sex

Status epilepticus...

-A seizure's driving force does not abate, often because of a brain insult or to drug withdrawal. -Drug intervention with a fast-acting GABA agonist or glutamate antagonist is required to end the seizure. -Death due to status epilepticus is much more common in adults than in children. -Recommended time limit before intervention is 5 minutes. (Longer-lasting seizures are unlikely to self-terminate.)

Microelectrodes...

-A set of electrodes small enough to place on or into an axon. -Can be used to: Measure a neuron's electrical activity or deliver an electrical current to a single neuron (stimulation)

Peptide Transmitters...

-Act as hormones that respond to stress -Enable a mother to bond with her infant -Regulate eating and drinking and pleasure and pain -Contribute to learning -Opiates such as morphine and heroin mimic the actions of natural brain peptides (there is a chart to show this on slide 44 of lecture 5)

Cerebellum...

-Active area of research -Interconnected with Neocortex -LARGER role in COGNITION that previously appreciated

Through Epigenetics we can understand more about addiction...

-Addictive drugs can influence gene regulation -Addictive drugs can selectively turn off genes related to voluntary control and turn on genes related to behaviors susceptible to addiction -Changes are relatively permanent and can be passed along, perhaps through the next few generations

According to Lashley (1951) how do we initiate movement or a sequence of movements?

-After we act, we wait for feedback about how well the action has succeeded, then we make the next movement accordingly. -Movements must be performed as motor sequences, with one sequence held in readiness while an ongoing sequence is being completed. -As one sequence is being executed, the next sequence is being prepared so that it can follow the first smoothly.

Glial Cells...

-Aid and modulate neurons' activities -Approximately 100 billion

Neuropsychological therapy...

-Aims to retrain people in the fundamental cognitive processes they have lost -Neurocognitive programs are being developed to improve functional outcomes following TBI and stroke.

Neural Relays....

-All receptors connect to the cortex through a sequence of intervening neurons. -Information can be modified at different stages in the relay, allowing the sensory system to mediate different responses. -There is no straight-through, point-to-point correspondence between one neural relay and the next -A recoding of activity in each successive relay -Sensory neural relays are central to the hierarchy of motor responses in the brain.

Drugs that have been associated with brain damage or cognitive impairments...

-Amphetamines MDMA ("ecstasy"): Serotonin neurons -Methamphetamine: Dopamine neurons -Cocaine: Blocks cerebral blood flow -Phencyclidine (PCP or "angel dust"): Blocks NMDA receptors

Stress in early life has been associated with...

-Amygdala increases in size -Hippocampus decreases in size -Later development of depression and anxiety disorders -Changes in genetic expression

Regarding Saltatory Conduction and the Myelin Sheath...

-An axon is insulated by (A) oligodendroglia in the CNS and (B) Schwann cells in the PNS -Each myelin sheath segment is separated by a gap, or node of Ranvier

Gynandromorph

-An individual organism that is Female on one side; male on the other. -Has a NEURAL (not gonadal) origin of sex differences -Example: seen in arthropods and birds, not humans

Treatments for Major Depression...

-Antidepressant drugs act to increase levels of norepinephrine and serotonin. *There is little evidence, however, that having low levels of these neurotransmitters causes depression. Lowering levels of these neurotransmitters in healthy adults does not produce depression.* Antidepressant medications alter the levels of these neurotransmitters within days, but it takes weeks for the drugs to start relieving depression.

So far, what is evidence is there to support "no adverse effects of R-sleep deprivation"?

-Antidepressants reduce the amount of R-sleep with no evidence of adverse consequences -Brainstem damage can result in complete loss of R-sleep without any apparent ill effects

White Matter...

-Areas of the nervous system rich in fat-sheathed neural axons -Corpus Callosum (Fiber system connecting the two cerebral hemispheres)

Neurotransmission Step 3: Neurotransmitter Release...

-At the terminal, the action potential opens voltage-sensitive calcium (Ca2+) channels -Ca2+ enters the terminal and binds to the protein calmodulin forming a complex -Complex causes some vesicles to empty their contents into the synapse, and others to get ready to empty their contents

What are the functions of Birdsong?

-Attracting mates -Demarcating territories -Announcing locations

Huntington's Disease is...

-Autosomal disorder that results in motor and cognitive disturbances - Caused by an increase in the number of CAG (cytosine-adenine-guanine) repeats on chromosome 4 -only one copy of the allele required to exhibit trait

According to Mishkin and colleagues (1982, 1997) the Proposed Neural Circuit for Implicit Memory includes...

-Basal Ganglia -Ventral Thalamus -Substantia Nigra -Premotor Cortex

How did the Prion Theory of Progressive Neurological Disease come about?

-Because Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, a rare human degenerative disease, progresses rapidly. -People were contracting a similar condition after eating beef from cattle that had displayed symptoms of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), a degenerative brain condition accompanied by muscle wasting. -BSE in turn is similar to a condition in sheep called scrapie. -The infectious agent in these conditions is a PRION. Prions are therefore believed to be instrumental in Alzheimers, ALS, MS, Parkinsons, etc.!

What is the effect of experience on a dendrite?

-Before an experience a dendrite was shown with a few singular synapses connecting. -After an experience a dendrite was shown with formation of multiple new synapses from new AND existing axon terminals (Visual on page 56 of lecture 14)

Facts about 1ST-generation antipsychotics such as chlorpromazine and haloperidol (for schizophrenia)...

-Block D2 dopamine receptor -Produce symptoms reminiscent of Parkinson's disease

Humans have a surprisingly acute sensitivity to smells that are BEHAVIORALLY relevant. So, what role does body odor play in human olfactory processing?

-Body odors activate brain regions involved in EMOTIONAL processing. -Humans can identify their own odor, the odor of kin versus non-kin, and the odor of friends versus strangers with accuracy well above chance -Processing body odors is mostly UNCONSCIOUS and represents an automatic process

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)...

-Brief depolarization of a neuron membrane in response to stimulation -Neuron is more likely to produce an action potential

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)...

-Brief hyperpolarization of a neuron membrane in response to stimulation -Neuron is less likely to produce an action potential

Cytoarchitectonic Map...

-Brodmann defined areas by organization and characteristics of the cells -The simplest sensory perceptions of touch (red), vision (purple), and hearing (orange)

Receptive Field Hierarchy...

-CELLS in the CORTEX have much LARGER receptive FIELDS than those of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). -The receptive FIELD of a CORTICAL NEURON must be composed of the receptive FIELDS of MANY RGCs.

What are some of the advantages of a PET scan?

-Can detect the decay of hundreds of radiochemicals -Can detect relative amounts of a given neurotransmitter, the density of receptors, and metabolic activities associated with learning, brain poisoning, and degenerative processes -Historically used to measure brain function

Genetic Mutations...

-Can have positive effects, neutral effects, or negative effects - Effects may be specific or wide spread - Most mutations have negative effects

A Neurotransmitter May Also...

-Carry a message from one neuron to another by influencing the voltage on the postsynaptic membrane -Change the structure of a synapse -Communicate by sending messages from postsynaptic to presynaptic membrane (These reverse-direction messages influence the release or reuptake of transmitters)

Neurons....

-Carry out the brain's major functions -Approximately 80 billion

Cerebral palsy

-Caused by brainstem trauma -Voluntary movements become difficult to make, whereas conscious behavior controlled by the cortex may remain intact

What is Opponent-Color-Contrast Response?

-Center of receptive field is excitatory (in some cells) or inhibitory (in other cells) -Stimulation to the periphery has the OPPOSITE effect (Center of cell responsive to one wavelength and the surrounding area to another)

What are two hypothesis regarding the idea of Sleep As a Restorative Process?

-Chemical events that provide energy to cells may be reduced during waking and are replenished during sleep -Fatigue and alertness may simply be aspects of the circadian rhythms and have nothing to do with wear and tear on the body

Neurotransmitter...

-Chemical released by a neuron onto a target with an excitatory or inhibitory effect -Outside the CNS, many of these chemicals circulate in the blood stream as hormones (have distant targets, action slower than neurotransmitter)

Acetylcholine...

-Chemical transmitter that the axon terminal releases at the muscle end plate -Attaches to transmitter-sensitive channels -Channels open allowing Na+ and K+ ions across the muscle membrane to depolarize the muscle to the threshold -Muscles then generate action potentials in order to contract

Small-Molecule Transmitters...

-Class of quick-acting neurotransmitters -Synthesized from dietary nutrients and packaged ready for use in axon terminals -Acetylcholine (Ach) -Amines: Dopamine (DA) Norepinephrine (NE) Epinephrine (EP) Serotonin (5-HT) -Amino acids: Glutamate (Glu) Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) Glycine (Gly) Histamine (H) -Purines Adenosine Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

In a Metabotropic receptor, a G protein...

-Consists of three subunits: alpha, beta, and gamma -Alpha subunit detaches when a neurotransmitter binds to the G protein's associated metabotropic receptor. -Detached alpha subunit binds to other proteins within the cell membrane or within the cytoplasm of the cell

Cerebellum (part of the hindbrain)...

-Controls complex movements and cognitive functions -Size increases with the physical speed and dexterity of a species

Although patients with visual-form agnosia cannot recognize objects, they can...

-Copy objects and even draw objects from memory, but they cannot later recognize these copied objects -Still appropriately shape their hands when grasping for objects, despite not being able to recognize those objects

Describe the Gustatory Pathways.

-Cranial nerves 7, 9, and 10 form the MAIN gustatory nerve, the SOLITARY TRACT. -Primary GUSTATORY cortex in the INSULA is dedicated to TASTE -Primary somatoSENSory region is responsive to TACTILE information (localizing tastes and textures ON TONGUE) -Amygdala and hypothalamus - possibly evaluate pleasantness and strength of flavors

Which resources below are used to classify behavioral disorders?

-Criteria for diagnoses in psychiatry -World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) -American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). (The DSM is to some extent ARBITRARY and depends on prevailing CULTURAL views. Classification depends on new perspectives. -The National Institute of Mental Health's Research Domain Criteria (RDoC).

Depolarization...

-Decrease in electrical charge across a membrane (more positive) -Usually due to the inward flow of sodium

3 types of experiences change the brain. Learning is common to all 3. What are they?

-Development -Culture -Coping

Regarding Homeostatic Hormones: Homeostasis of intracellular and extracellular environments are essential to life. Issues include...

-Diabetus mellitus: Caused by a failure of the pancreas to secrete enough (or any) insulin -Hyperglycemia: High blood-glucose levels; cells are not using glucose and therefore are not able to function properly -Hypoglycemia: Low blood-glucose levels

Voltage Gradient...

-Difference in charge between two regions that allows a flow of current if the two regions are connected Opposite charges attract Similar charges repel -Ions will move down a voltage gradient from an area of higher charge to an area of lower charge

Sexual Dimorphism...

-Differential development of brain areas in the two sexes influenced by gonadal hormones (testosterone, estradiol) -Estradiol masculinizes the male brain -Preoptic area of the hypothalamus is 5x as large in males as in females

Annttio Revonsuo: Evolutionary Hypothesis of Dreams as a Coping Mechanism in which...

-Dreams are highly organized and biased toward threatening images -Dreams are biologically important because they lead to enhanced performance in dealing with threatening life events (adaptive function)

Important Role of Dopamine in Drug Abuse...

-Drugs that are abused INCREASE mesolimbic dopamine activity, either directly or indirectly -Drugs that blunt abuse and addiction DECREASE mesolimbic dopamine activity

The Toilet Flushing Analogy helps us understand Action Potential...

-During the flush, the toilet is absolutely refractory: another flush cannot be induced at this time -During refilling of the bowl, the toilet is relatively refractory, meaning that reflushing is possible but harder to bring about

Touch as an example of sensory stimuli producing action potentials...

-Each hair on our body allows us to detect the slightest displacement -dendrite of a touch neuron is wrapped around the base of each hair -Hair displacement opens stretch-sensitive channels in the dendrite's membrane -When channels open, they allow an influx of Na1 ions sufficient to depolarize the dendrite to its threshold level

Equilibrium...

-Efflux of chloride ions down the chloride concentration gradient is counteracted by the influx (inward flow) of chloride ions down the chloride voltage gradient -Equilibrium is reached when the concentration gradient of chloride ions on the right side of the beaker is balanced by the voltage gradient of chloride ions on the left -concentration gradient = voltage gradien

Resting Potential...

-Electrical charge across the cell membrane in the absence of stimulation -A store of negative charge on the intracellular side relative to the extracellular side -The inside of the membrane at rest is −70 millivolts relative to the extracellular side

Metabotropic Receptor...

-Embedded membrane protein with a binding site for a neurotransmitter but NO PORE -Indirectly produce changes in nearby ion channels or in the cell's metabolic activity -Linked to a G-protein that can affect other receptors or act with second messengers to affect other cellular processes

Ionotropic Receptor...

-Embedded membrane protein with two parts: 1. A binding site for a neurotransmitter 2. A pore that regulates ion flow to directly and rapidly change membrane voltage -Allows the movement of ions such as Na+, K+ and Ca2+, across a membrane (When neurotransmitter attaches to binding site, the pore opens or closes changing the flow of ions)

Transgenic Techniques...

-Enable scientists to introduce genes into an embryo or remove genes from it -Knockout technology is used to inactivate a gene so that a line of mice fails to express it - e.g., line of rats that display the emotional and cognitive symptoms of human childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Lipid transmitters...

-Endocannabinoids are predominant -Anandamide and 2-AG, poultry and eggs are good source of precursor -Not soluble in water or stored in vesicles -Synthesized on demand -Target CB1 receptor Also by THC and CBD in cannabis

Pituitary Gland...

-Endocrine gland attached to the bottom of the hypothalamus -Its secretions control the activities of many other endocrine glands -Known to be associated with biological rhythm

You can map brain function with...

-Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) -Complex electroencephalographic waveforms related in time to a specific sensory event -To counter noise effects, the stimulus is presented repeatedly, and the recorded responses are averaged -Advantages Noninvasive Low cost

Type I Synapse...

-Excitatory -Typically located on dendrites -Round vesicles -Dense material on membranes -Wide cleft -Large active zone

Off-center cells are a type of RGC that are...

-Excited when light falls on the surround portion of the receptive field; inhibited when light falls on the center of the receptive field -Light across the whole receptive field produces weak inhibition

What is the trichromatic theory of color vision?

-Explanation of color vision based on the coding of three primary colors: red, green, and blue -The color we see is determined by the relative responses of the different cone types -Can explain different types of color blindness

What is a "Better" time for brain injury in humans?

-First few years after birth -More resilient to deficits (e.g., language impairments) than when damage occurs in adults

Brain Stimulation...

-First used by Wilder Penfield to stimulate the cerebral cortex of humans during neurosurgery -Rats with electrodes in the lateral hypothalamus will eat whenever the stimulation is turned on -Self-stimulation: Given the opportunity, rats will press a lever to obtain the current The stimulation affects a neural circuit involving both eating and pleasure

Focal Seizures...

-Focal seizures arise from a synchronous, hyperactive LOCAL brain region. -Focal seizures MAY have motor, sensory, autonomic, and/or behavioral features. -Further classified as to whether awareness is retained or altered (dyscognitive seizure)-

Convergent Thinking...

-Form of thinking that searches for a single answer to a question (such as 2 + 2 = ?) -Measured in traditional intelligence tests -People with temporal and parietal lobe lesions perform poorly on these types of tests.

Divergent Thinking...

-Form of thinking that searches for multiple solutions to a problem (such as, how many different ways can a pen be used?) -People with frontal lobe lesions perform poorly on these tests.

What are the limitations of the trichromatic theory of color vision?

-Four basic colors: red, green, yellow, and blue -Cannot explain afterimages

Anencephaly is a Genetic Abnormality where the...

-Front end of the neural tube does not close -Failure of the forebrain to develop -Infants typically die soon after birth

What is a Functional MRI or fMRI?

-Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging -When human brain activity increases, the increase in oxygen produced by increased blood flow actually exceeds the tissue's need for oxygen -Amount of oxygen in an activated brain area increases -Changes in the oxygen content of the blood alter the magnetic properties of the water in the blood -No ionizing radiation, safe

Voltage-Sensitive Ion Channels...

-Gated protein channel that opens or closes only at specific membrane voltages -Sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) -Closed at membrane's resting potential; ions cannot pass through -Na+ channels are more sensitive than K+ channels and therefore open sooner -When the membrane reaches threshold, channels open briefly, enabling ions to pass through, then close again to restrict their flow

What are the potential causes of behavioral disorders?

-Genetic abnormalities -Abnormalities in nervous system development over a lifetime -Environmental and epigenetic effects that modulate genetic and developmental expression

What are dissociative anesthetics? (Hint: they are glutaminergic antagonists)

-Group of sedative-hypnotics developed as anesthetics -Produce altered states and hallucinations (Examples: PCP/angel dust, ketamine)

AXONAL Growth, part of Neural Maturation involvess:

-Growth cones: Growing tip of axons (Filopod: Process at the end of a developing axon that reaches out to search for a potential target or to sample the intercellular environment) -Cell-adhesion molecule (CAM): On the target cell's surface or intercellular space Provide surface for growth cones to adhere Serve to attract or repel growth cones -Tropic molecule: Produced by targets being sought by the axons Tell growth cones to "come over here." Likely they tell other growth cones seeking different targets to "keep away."

According to the "Gate Theory of Pain" (Melzack & Wall, 1965), what can reduce pain?

-HAPTIC-PROPRIOCEPTIVE STIMULATION can REDUCE pain perception -the ABSENCE of such STIMULATE can INCREASE pain perception through INTERACTIONS at a PAIN GATE. (see visual of two paths connected by pain gate on slide 67 of lecture 11)

How does TONOTOPIC REPRESENTATION help us hear PITCH?

-Hair cells in the cochlea code frequency as a function of their location on the basilar membrane. -Hair-cell cilia at the base of the cochlea are maximally displaced by high-frequency waves that we hear as high-pitched sounds. -Hair-cell cilia at the apex are displaced the most by low-frequency waves that we hear as low-pitched sounds. -The tonotopic representation of the basilar membrane is reproduced in the cochlear nucleus. -This systematic representation is maintained throughout the auditory pathways and into the primary auditory cortex.

Where is the neuroanatomy of Emotion and Motivation found?

-Hypothalamus -Limbic System -Frontal Lobes

Patient J. K....

-IMPAIRED IMPLICIT Memory with INTACT EXplicit Memory -Developed Parkinson's disease in his mid 70s and started to have memory problems at 78 years of age -Damage to basal ganglia -Impaired ability to perform tasks that he had done all his life Example: turning off the radio -Could still recall explicit events

What happens if the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) is damaged?

-If SCN is damaged, daily activities occur HAPHAZARDLY -SCN cells are MORE metabolically ACTIVE during LIGHT period -CELLS more ELECTRICALLY active in LIGHT period -SCN neurons MAINTAIN rhythmic activity in ABSENCE of INPUT and OUTPUT -Cells in a dish retain periodic rhythm

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)...

-Imaging technique that detects changes in blood flow by measuring changes in the uptake of compounds such as oxygen or glucose -Used to analyze the metabolic activity of neurons -Radioactive molecules are injected into the bloodstream -Very expensive

Apraxia

-Inability to complete a plan of action accurately; to make a voluntary movement -A motor disorder caused by damage to the brain.

Hyperpolarization...

-Increase in electrical charge across a membrane (more negative) -Usually due to the inward flow of chloride ions or outward flow of potassium ions

What neural change take place during the years of language acquisition?

-Increased dendritic complexity and interconnections -Increased myelination of speech areas

Pharmacological Treatments for Parkinsons...

-Increasing the activity in whatever dopamine synapses remain L-Dopa, a precursor of dopamine, is converted to dopamine in the brain and enhances effective dopamine transmission. -Anticholinergic drugs Block the cholinergic systems that seem to show heightened activity in the absence of adequate dopamine activity

Therapy involving real-time fMRI...

-Individuals learn to change their behavior by controlling their own patterns of brain activation. (First used to treat intractable pain) -Form of neural plasticity in which the individual learns new strategies guided by brain activation information

Tay-Sachs Disease is...

-Inherited birth defect caused by the loss of genes that encode the enzyme necessary for breaking down certain fatty substances - Appears 4-6 months after birth and results in intellectual disability, physical changes, and death by about age 5 - Caused by recessive allele -two copies of the allele required to exhibit trait

Type II Synapse...

-Inhibitory -Typically located on cell body -Flat vesicles -Sparse material on membranes -Narrow cleft -Small active zone

Name the N-sleep disorders.

-Insomnia Prolonged inability to sleep Multiple causes (e.g., anxiety, depression) -Drug-Dependency Insomnia Condition resulting from continuous use of "sleeping pills"; drug tolerance also results in deprivation of either R sleep or N sleep, leading the user to increase the drug dosage -Narcolepsy Slow-wave sleep disorder in which a person uncontrollably falls asleep at inappropriate times May be due to mutations in the gene that produces hypocretin/orexin peptides -Sleep Apnea Inability to breathe during sleep; person has to wake up to breathe

The CHOLINergic System, one of the 4 activating systems in the Central Nervous System (CNS) uses acetylCHOLINE (ACh) and...

-Is responsible for normal waking behavior and is thought to function in attention and memory -Loss of cholinergic neurons associated with Alzheimer's disease

The Axon Hillock...

-Junction of cell body and axon -Rich in voltage-sensitive channels -Where EPSPs and IPSPs are integrated -Where action potentials are initiated

N-methyl-D-aspartate...

-Known as: NMDA -Doubly gated channels -Normally blocked by magnesium (Mg2+) ions (Part of the Neurochemistry of LTP)

Maintaining the Resting Potential...

-Large A- molecules cannot leave cell: make inside negative -Ungated channels allow K+ and Cl− to move into and out of cell more freely, but gated sodium channels keep out Na+ ions -Na+-K+ pumps extrude Na+ from intracellular fluid and inject K+

In discussing the Neural Bases of Sleep, the Reticular Activating System (RAS) is defined as...

-Large reticulum (mixture of cell nuclei and nerve fibers) that runs through the center of the brainstem -Associated with sleep-wake behavior and behavioral arousal

Hebb (1947) researched Experience and Cortical Organization. He compared rats raised in standard lab cages to those raised in "enriched environments" and found that they have...

-Larger and more synapses -Larger and more astrocytes Proving that cognitively stimulating environments help maximize intellectual development

Translation...

-Later phase of protein synthesis in which the messenger RNA (mRNA) travels from nucleus to the ER -mRNA is translated into a particular sequence of amino acids to form a protein

OPERANT Conditioning...

-Learning procedure in which the CONSEQUENCES (such as obtaining a reward) of a particular behavior (such as pressing a bar) INCREASE or DECREASE the PROBABILITY of the BEHAVIOR occurring again -also called INSTRUMENTAL conditioning

Model for Circadian Timing System...

-Light entrains the SCN pacemaker -SCN pacemaker drives "slave oscillators" each of which controls the rhythmic occurrence of one behavior (e.g., body temperature) -SCN pacemaker may drive the slave oscillators via hormones, proteins, or neurotransmitters (which in turn control functions that exhibit circadian activity)

Secondary Somatosensory Cortex...

-Located behind the primary somatosensory cortex -Brodmann's areas 5 and 7 -Refines the construction of perceptions, projects to the frontal cortex

Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB)

-Located in the lateral region of the Hypothalamus -Forms the activating projections from the brainstem to the basal ganglia and frontal cortex -Its DOPAMINE-containing fibers are involved in REWARD and therefore CONTRIBUTE to many MOTIVATED behaviors

There are 2 separate pathways that convey somatosensory information: 1. Haptic-proprioceptive 2. Nocioceptive. What happens when there is unilateral spinal cord damage?

-Loss of hapsis and proprioception occurs unilaterally on the side of the body where the damage occurred (LOSS of FINE TOUCH and PRESSURE sensation on the leg on the SAME side as the injury) -Loss of nocioception occurs contralaterally on the opposite side of the body. (LOSS of PAIN and TEMPERATURE sensation on the leg that is on the OPPOSITE side of the injury)

In Long-Term Potentiation (LTP), For the EPSP to increase in size...

-MORE NEUROTRANSMITTER must be released from the presynaptic membrane -Postsynaptic MEMBRANE must become MORE SENSITIVE to the same amount of transmitter -Or BOTH changes must take place

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS)...

-MRI method that uses the hydrogen proton signal to determine the concentration of brain metabolites -Useful in detecting persisting abnormalities in brain metabolism in disorders such as concussion

Frontal Lobe...

-Maturation extends far beyond age 20 -The frontal lobe is especially sensitive to epigenetic influences -The trajectory of frontal lobe development correlates with adult intelligence

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)...

-Measures movement of water molecules to image nerve fiber pathways in the brain -Used to delineate abnormalities in neural pathways

What does an EEG measure?

-Measures the summed graded potentials from many thousands of neurons -Reveals features of the brain's electrical activity -The EEG changes as behavior changes -An EEG recorded from the cortex displays an array of patterns, some of which are rhythmical -The living brain's electrical activity is never silent, even when the person is asleep or comatose

How Do We Study the Brain's Structure and Functions?

-Measuring and Manipulating Brain and Behavior -Measuring the Brain's Electrical Activity -Anatomical Imaging Techniques -Functional Brain Imaging -Chemical and Genetic Measures of Brain and Behavior -Comparing Neuroscience Research Methods -Using Animals in Brain-Behavior Research

Rods...

-More numerous than cones -Sensitive to low levels of light (dim light) -Used mainly for night vision -One type of pigment only

The corpus callosum CONNECTS the two hemispheres, but only certain brain structures.

-Most of the frontal lobes are connected to one another. -The occipital lobes have almost no callosal connections -Exception: Cells that lie along the midline of the visual field are connected to one another via the callosum so that their receptive fields overlap.

Morphine acts on 3 opioid-receptor classes...

-Mu, delta, and kappa (Mu receptor is critical for morphine's effect on pain and for its addictive properties)

Physical activity and music as therapy...

-Music affects arousal and activates the motor and premotor cortices. (Can improve gait in Parkinson and stroke patients) -Physical activity, including playing sports, combined with other therapies (Counteracts the effects of depression)

Gaseous Transmitters...

-Neither stored in synaptic vesicles nor released from them -Synthesized in cell, as needed -Easily crosses cell membrane -Examples: Nitric Oxide (NO) Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Magnetoencephalogram (MEG)...

-Neural activity, by generating an electrical field, also produces a magnetic field -Magnetic potentials recorded from detectors placed outside the skull -Permit a 3-D localization of the cell groups generating the measured field -Higher resolution than ERP -Disadvantage: high cost

In the Central Nervous System (CNS), what is an ACTIVATING System?

-Neural pathways that coordinate brain ACTIVITY through a SINGLE neurotransmitter -Cell bodies are located in a nucleus in the brainstem and their axons are distributed through a wide region of the brain -4 Systems: Cholinergic, Dopaminergic, Noradrenergic, and Serotonergic

Biological Clock

-Neural system that times behavior -Allows animals to anticipate events before they happen Example: Birds migrate before it gets cold

Cocaine is a dopaminergic agonist and other facts include...

-Obtained from coca plant -Blocks dopamine reuptake -Powder is snorted or injected -Crack vaporizes at low temperatures and the vapors -are inhaled (smoked) -Derivates such as Novocaine are used as local anesthetics (Reduce a cell's permeability to Na+ ions and so reduce nerve conduction)

In cases of Down Syndrome...

-One parent (usually the mother) passes on two copies of chromosome 21 to the child, rather than the normal single chromosome - Children with Down syndrome can learn to --compensate greatly for the brain changes that cause their mental handicaps

Iris...

-Opens and closes to allow more or less light in -The hole in the iris is called the pupil.

What is the Neural Circuit for Explicit Memories?

-Parahippocampal Cortex (Receives connections from PARIETAL cortex; believed to be involved in VISUOSPATIAL processing) -Perirhinal Cortex (Receives connections from the VISUAL regions of the VENTRAL stream; believed to be involved in VISUAL OBJECT memory) -Entorhinal Cortex (Receives projections from Parahippocampal and Perirhinal cortices; INTEGRATIVE function — first area to show cell death in Alzheimer's disease)

Node of Ranvier...

-Part of an axon that is not covered by myelin -Tiny gaps in the myelin sheath -Enables saltatory conduction

VENTRAL Visual Stream is....

-Pathway that originates in the occipital cortex and projects to the TEMPORAL cortex -The "what" pathway (identifies what an object is)

Evolution of Sex-Related Cognitive Differences: Why do females have better language skills?

-Perhaps during evolution females developed good language skills to engage in social interaction. -Females may have also been selected for fine motor skills (e.g., foraging for food, making clothes), which are related to language.

Addiction (aka substance dependence)...

-Persons are physically dependent on a drug in addition to abusing it -They have developed tolerance for the drug, so an addict requires increased doses to obtain the desired effect

Withdrawal Symptoms...

-Physical and psychological behaviors displayed by an addict when drug use ends Examples: muscle aches and cramps, anxiety attacks, sweating, nausea, convulsions, death (Time-course: Withdrawal symptoms from alcohol and morphine start within several hours of last dose and intensify over several days before subsiding)

In discussing NEURAL control of emotion, what is Constructivist Theory (James-Lange)?

-Physiological changes produced by the ANS come first; brain interprets these as an emotion -Evidence: Misinterpretation of body states (e.g., rope bridge experiment); Intensity of emotions in individuals with spinal cord damage depends upon the level at which the spinal cord is severed (the Lower down in the spine, the more intense fear or anger)

The NORadrenergic System, one of the 4 activating systems in the Central Nervous System (CNS) uses NORepinephrine and...

-Plays a role in learning by stimulating neurons to change their structure -may also facilitate normal development of the brain and organize movements -Responsible for Imbalances associated with depression or mania

The SEROTONergic System, one of the 4 activating systems in the Central Nervous System (CNS) uses SEROTONin and...

-Plays a role in wakefulness and learning -Responsible for Imbalances associated with depression, schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, sleep apnea

18-30% of population has one or more of the Anxiety Disorders Name them... (Drug treatments can be effective: Benzodiazepines)

-Posttraumatic stress disorder -Phobias -Generalized Anxiety Disorder -Panic Disorder -Obsessive-Compulsive disorder (Drug treatments can be effective: Benzodiazepines)

Progenitor Cell...

-Precursor cell derived from a stem cell; it migrates and produces a neuron or glial cell -Produce nondividing cells known as neuroblasts and glioblasts

Humpback whale songs...

-Predictable and regular sounds, like human music. -Hierarchical structure

Causes of Major depression...

-Predisposing factors related to BRAIN ANATOMY AND CHEMISTRY may contribute more to affective changes in some people, whereas LIFE EXPERIENCES contribute mainly to affective changes in others. -Factors include economic or social failure, circadian rhythm disruption, vitamin D and other nutrient deficiencies, pregnancy, brain injury, diabetes, cardiovascular event, and childhood abuse.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)...

-Procedure in which a magnetic coil is placed over the skull to stimulate the underlying brain -Used either to induce behavior or to disrupt ongoing behavior

Myelin...

-Produced by oligodendroglia in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS -Speeds up neural impulse

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)...

-Progressive degenerative disease caused by multiple concussions and other closed-head injuries, characterized by neurofibrillary tangles, plaques, cerebral atrophy, and expanded ventricles due to cell loss. (Preliminary examination of the brain of deceased professional football players who had a history of concussion and severe post-concussion symptoms revealed extensive, diffuse loss of cerebral tissue)

What does an electron microscope do?

-Projects a beam of electrons through a very thin slice of tissue -Varying structure of the tissue scatters the beam onto a reflective surface where it leaves an image, or shadow, of the tissue -Much better resolution than the light microscope 1950s: Revealed the structure of a synapse for the first time

Major depression...

-Prolonged feelings of worthlessness and guilt; disruption of eating and sleep; general slowing; -frequent thoughts of suicide -6% of population at any given time -Genetic component, suggesting biological abnormality -One of MOST TREATABLE disorders, through therapies and drugs

Nerve Impulse...

-Propagation of an action potential on the membrane of an axon -Refractory periods create a single, discrete impulse that travels along the axon in one direction only -Size and shape of action potential remain constant along the axon (All-or-none law)

Temporal Summation...

-Pulses that occur at approximately the same time on a membrane are summed

Primary Somatosensory Cortex...

-Receives projections from the thalamus -Brodmann's areas 3-1-2 -Begins the process of constructing perceptions from somatosensory information

What are the therapeutic uses of THC?

-Reduces nausea in chemotherapy patients -Stimulates appetite in anorexia-cachexia -Glaucoma, PTSD

Summation of Inputs...

-Refers to when a Neuron sums the EPSP's and IPSP's -A neuron sums all inputs close together in time and space -Provides an indication of the summed influences of multiple inputs -If the summed ionic inputs exceed the threshold (approx −50 mV) at the axon hillock, an action potential will be initiated

MONOsynaptic Reflex

-Reflex requiring ONE synapse between sensory input and movement (Example: knee-jerk reflex)

Fovea....

-Region at the center of the retina that is specialized for high acuity -Receptive field at the center of the eye's visual field

Cross-tolerance...

-Response to a novel drug is reduced because of tolerance developed in response to a related drug -Suggests that the two drugs affect a common nervous system target (Example: Barbituates (downers) and benzodiazepines (anti-anxiety medication) affect the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA)

Back Propagation refers to...

-Reverse movement of an action potential from the axon hillock into the dendritic field -Signals the dendritic field that the neuron is sending an action potential over its axon and may play a role in plastic changes in the neuron that underlie learning

Readings from an oscilloscope show...

-S stands for stimulation. -The horizontal axis measures time, -the vertical axis measures voltage

Saltatory Conduction...

-Saltare: "to dance" (Latin) -Propagation of an action potential at successive nodes of Ranvier

Henry Molaison (H. M.)...

-Seizures originated in the region that includes the amygdala, hippocampal formation, and associated subcortical structures, so SCOVILLE removed them bilaterally (bilateral medial-temporal-lobe resection) -Following the surgery, H. M. suffered from a severe AMNESIA -He could not recall anything that had happened after the surgery (NO EXPLICIT MEMORY) 0Despite this deficit, H. M. had an above average IQ, he performed well on perceptual tests, and he could still recall events from his childhood -H. M.'s performance on IMPLICIT memory tests was LEFT INTACT

Approaches to Genetic Engineering include...

-Selective breeding - Cloning - Transgenic Techniques - Knockouts

In the INNER ear, Hair Cells are...

-Sensory neurons in the cochlea tipped by cilia -When stimulated by waves in the cochlear fluid, outer hair cells generate graded potentials in inner hair cells, which act as the auditory receptor cells.

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) are...

-Serotonergic agonists whose Action is similar to first-generation antidepressants, but more SELECTIVE in action on the serotonin reuptake transporter proteins -Also called atypical antidepressants Block the reuptake of serotonin into the presynaptic terminal

Name the R-sleep disorders.

-Sleep Paralysis Inability to move when just falling asleep or waking up -Cataplexy Form of narcolepsy linked to strong emotional stimulation in which an animal loses all muscle activity or tone, as if in R sleep, while awake -Hypnogogic Hallucination Dreamlike event at the beginning of sleep or while a person is in a state of cataplexy

What are some observations that support the idea of Sleep as Biological Adaptation?

-Sleep is an energy-conserving strategy -Gather food at optimal times and sleep to conserve energy the rest of the time -Animals with nutrient-rich diets spend less time foraging for food and more time sleeping -Animals that are predators sleep more than animals that are prey -Nocturnal or diurnal (awake in the daytime) animals will sleep during those times in which they cannot travel easily (Example: humans cannot see well at night)

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)...

-Sodium chloride and other salts -Fills the ventricles and circulates around the brain and spinal cord in the subarachnoid space (located between the arachnoid layer and the pia mater) -Cushions the brain

Receptive Fields are...

-Specific part of the world to which the whole sensory-receptor organ, or a single sensory cell (e.g., photoreceptor), responds (Sample sensory information and help locate sensory events in space)

ALS, or Lou Gehrig's disease...

-Spinal motor neurons die (sometimes brain neurons) -Typically strikes at 50-75, and is fatal with 5 years -Stephen Hawking had rare early-onset that was slow to progress. Made great advances for cosmology

How do nerve impulses produce movement?

-Spinal motor neurons send nerve impulses to synapses on muscle cells -Axon of each motor neuron makes one or more synapses with target muscle

AMPA...

-Stands for: alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoa-zole-4-proprionic acid -Normally responds to GLUTAMATE (Part of the Neurochemistry of LTP)

What is Behavioral Neuroscience?

-Study of the biological basis of behavior -Includes the study of both humans and laboratory animals -Major challenge is to develop methods for studying both normal and abnormal behavior

Parkinson's Disease is characterized by...

-Symptoms: Tremor, slowed movement, rigid muscles, impaired posture, loss of automatic movements, speech and writing changes -Degeneration of substantia nigra in basal ganglia -Reduced dopamine (Support; medication; deep brain stimulation can help)

Retinohypothalamic Tract...

-Synapses in the tiny suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus -Role in regulating circadian rhythms and in the pupillary reflex

Heroin...

-Synthesized from morphine -More fat soluble and penetrates the BBB faster than morphine

Facts about Cannabis plants...

-THC is one of 84 cannabinoids -Alters mood by interacting with CB1 receptor on neurons and CB2 receptor on glial cells -Low toxicity, but mood and memory effects

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)...

-Technique that produces a static, three-dimensional brain image by passing a strong magnetic field through the brain, followed by a radio wave, then measuring the radio waves emitted from hydrogen atoms

What is the topographic organization of Region V1?

-The CENTRAL part of the visual field is represented at the BACK of the brain; the PERIPHERY is represented more ANTERIORLY. -The UPPER part of the visual field is represented at the BOTTOM of region V1 and the LOWER part at the TOP of V1.

Understanding Others: Theory of Mind (ToM)

-The attribution of mental states to others -We infer the minds of other animals in part by observing their behaviors and, in the case of people, by listening to their words. -UNDERSTANDING that OTHERS may HAVE FEELINGS and beliefs that are DIFFERENT FROM OUR OWN

Acetylcholine (ACh)...

-The first neurotransmitter discovered in the PNS and CNS -activates skeletal muscles in the somatic nervous system -and may excite or inhibit internal organs in the autonomic nervous system

Resting-State MRI (rs-MRI)...

-The living brain is always active -Used to infer brain connectivity by studying fMRI signals when participants are "resting," (i.e., not engaged in any specific task) -Correlated fluctuations in activity across brain regions indicates connectivity

Neuroplasticity is...

-The nervous system's potential for change that enhances its ability to adapt -Required for learning and memory

Regarding Glucocorticoids and Stress, a Stress Response is...

-The physiological and behavioral arousal and any attempt to reduce the stress -There are Two types (fast-acting and slow-acting)

Relative Refractory Period...

-The state of an axon in the later phase of an action potential during which increased electrical current is required to produce another action potential -Potassium channels are still open

Nucleus (Parts of a Cell)...

-The structure containing Chromosomes and Genes -The site of Gene Transcription

Behavior modification...

-Therapists apply the principles developed from laboratory studies of learning by reinforcement, including OPERANT and CLASSICAL CONDITIONING. -Systematic desensitization- Form of habituation that allows an individual to adapt to a repeatedly presented stimulus (treatment of phobias)

How do Neurons Integrate Information?

-Through dendritic spines, a neuron can establish more than 50,000 connections to other neurons -Nerve impulses traveling from other neurons bombard the receiving neuron with all manner of inputs (excitatory and inhibitory) -The cell body, located between the dendritic tree and its axon, can receive inputs from many other neurons

When using micro electrodes to measure voltage across the membrane...

-Tip of one microelectrode placed on (outside) an axon -A second microelectrode, used as the reference, inserted into the axon -Patch Clamp: Place microelectrode tip on the neuron's membrane and apply a little back suction until the tip becomes sealed to a patch of the membrane (Allows recording to be made from only the small patch of membrane that is sealed within the perimeter of the microelectrode tip)

Learning can change the number of synapses, by interacting with DNA, for example...

-Transcription and translation of nuclear DNA initiate structural changes (formation of new synapses and spines-less in the case of habituation and more in the case of sensitization. -Second messenger cAMP plays an important role in carrying instructions regarding structural changes to nuclear DNA

What does a retina do?

-Translates light into action potentials -Discriminates wavelengths (colors) -Works in a wide range of light intensities

Gazzaniga (1992), researched the Left Hemisphere, Language, and Thought. Because of this what is now believed about humans regarding thought and language?

-Unlike other animals, the speaking left hemisphere in humans acts as an interpreter: it is able to infer relationships among stimuli. -The language capability of the left hemisphere gives it a capacity for interpretation that the right hemisphere lacks. -Language may label and express the computations of other cognitive systems. -Humans are a "believing" species; we make inferences and have beliefs about sensory events.

functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging (fcMRI)...

-Uses resting-state fMRI (rs-fMRI) to measure functional correlations between brain regions -Identifies consistent PATTERNS OF CONNECTIVITY, or nerve tracts, in the brain -Does not measure static anatomical connectivity but rather uses temporal (TIME-BASED) CORRECLATIONS BETWEEN neurophysiological ACTIVITY IN DIFFERENT REGIONS TO INFER FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVITY

Threshold Potential...

-Voltage on a neural membrane at which an action potential is triggered -Opening of Na+ and K+ voltage-sensitive channels -Approximately −40 mV relative to extracellular surround

The Domino Analogy...

-Voltage-sensitive channels along the axon similar to series of dominoes -When one domino falls, it knocks over its neighbor, and so on down the line -There is no decrement in the size of the fall

In the Wanting and Liking Theory, Wanting (craving) and liking (pleasure) may be produced by different parts of the brain. For example...

-Wanting: Sensitizes with repeated drug use; craving increases Mesolimbic dopamine system -Liking: Tolerance develops with repeated drug use; pleasure decreases Opioid neurons

What is a "shared tune"?

-Whales sharing an area sing the same song, a "shared tune". -It is constantly changing, old combinations not reused -Areas are large but shipping noise is fracturing them

Computerized Tomography (CT scan)...

-X-ray beam passed through the brain at many different angles creating many different images -Images are combined with the use of computing and mathematical techniques to create a three-dimensional image of the brain

Ion Transmitters...

-Zinc ions (Zn2+) are a transmitter -Packaged in vesicles, usually with another transmitter (e.g., Glu) -Dysregulation associated with Alzheimer disease

What kind of deficit of Attention can be caused by damage to the Frontal Association Cortex?

-focusing excessively on external stimuli -difficulty shifting attention

Neural Stem Cell...

-is a self-renewing multipotential cell that gives rise to neurons and glia -They Line the neural tube and have an extensive capacity for self-renewal -When stem cell divides, it produces two stem cells; one dies and the other lives to divide again. -This process repeats again and again throughout a person's lifetime

In the nervous system, synapses vary widely, and each type is specialized in...

-location -structure -function -and target

List some NONregulatory behaviors

-sexual behavior -parental behavior -aggression -food preference -curiosity -reading

Behavioral disorders are traditionally classified as...

-social -psychological -psychiatric -neurological

The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) estimates that about _____ in 4 people in the United States has a diagnosable behavioral disorder.

1 -Only a minority receive treatment of any kind. -Even fewer receive treatment from a mental health specialist.

How common is schizophrenia?

1 in 100 people

Name the 12 cranial nerves and their functions.

1- olfactory, smell 2- optic, sight 3- oculomotor, eye movement 4- trochlear, eye movement 5- trigeminal, motor muscles of mastication, sensory head 6- abducens, eye movement 7- facial, motor facial expression 8- vestibular, hearing and balance 9- glossopharyngeal, sensory and motor of the pharynx and larynx 10- vagus, sensory and motor of the pharynx and larynx 11- accessory, motor muscles of the neck 12- hypoglossal, motor muscles of the tongue

Allocortex (part of the Cerebral Cortex in the Forebrain)...

1. 3 or 4 layers 2. Includes hippocampus, part of amygdala, cingulate cortex, olfactory system

Spinal Nerves (part of the SNS) include...

1. 8 cervical 2. 12 thoracic 3. 5 lumbar 4. 5 sacral

How Do Neurons Communicate and Adapt?

1. A Chemical Message 2. Varieties of Neurotransmitters and Receptors 3. Neurotransmitter Systems and Behavior 4. Adaptive Role of Synapses in Learning and Memory

How does the Monosynaptic knee-jerk reflex work?

1. A tap on the patellar tendon STRETCHES the quadriceps muscle 2. The sensory nerve RESPONDS to the MUSCLE STRETCH... 3. ...By sending a SIGNAL to the SPINAL CORD where it connects to a MOTOR NEURON through a SINGLE SYNAPSE 4. The MOTOR NEURON STIMULATES the quadriceps MUSCLE to CONTRACT and REDUCE the stretch 5. The quadriceps contracts, extending the lower leg

Neurochemistry of LTP (Long-Term Potential): GLUTAMATE acts on 2 different types of RECEPTORS on the postsynaptic membrane. Name them.

1. AMPA 2. NMDA

What are the downsides to pharmacological treatment?

1. Acute and chronic side effects top the list, and long-term effects may cause new problems. 2. Drugs do not provide the behavioral tools needed for coping. "A pill is not a skill" 3. Tardive dyskinesia-Inability to stop the tongue from moving (Motor side effect of neuroleptic drugs that can last long after person stops taking the drug)

Cranial Nerves...

1. Afferent functions, such as sensory inputs to the brain from the eyes, ears, mouth, and nose 2. Efferent functions, such as motor control of the facial muscles, tongue, and eyes 3. Both functions, such as the modulation of both sensation and movement in the face

Neurotransmission Step 4: Receptor-Site Activation...

1. After being released, the neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft to activate receptors on the POSTsynaptic membrane (transmitter-activated receptors) 2. On POSTsynaptic side, neurotransmitter may: -Depolarize the postsynaptic membrane causing excitatory action on the postsynaptic neuron (EPSP) -Hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane causing inhibitory action on the postsynaptic neuron (IPSP) -Initiate other chemical reactions that modulate either the excitatory or inhibitory effect, or influence other functions of the receiving neuro 3. Neurotransmitter may interact with receptors on the PREsynaptic membrane (autoreceptors)

Facts about Important Brain Principle #10: The Nervous System Works by Juxtaposing Excitation and Inhibition...

1. All neurons have a spontaneous rate of activity that can be either increased (excitation) or decreased (inhibition) 2. Some neurons excite others, whereas other neurons inhibit

These are the 6 MAJOR hormones produced by the ANTERIOR Pituitary...

1. Andrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH) (Controls secretions of the Andrenal Cortex) 2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) (Controls secretion of the Thyroid Gland) 3. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) (Controls secretions of the Gonads) 4. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) (Controls secretions of the Gonads) 5. Prolactin (Controls secretions of the Mammary Glands) 6. Growth Hormone (GH) (Promotes growth throughout the body)

In Darwinian NATURAL SELECTION what is the process/how are TRAITS selected naturally?

1. Appearance of New Trait (e.g., via mutation) 2. Trait Increases Reproductive Success 3. Increases Chances of Survival 4. Trait Passed on to Offspring

What are the functions of the Sympathetic Nervous System (a division of the Autonomic Nervous System which is part of the PNS)?

1. Arouses the body for action (e.g., increase heart rate and blood pressure) 2. Mediates the "fight or flight" response

Interneurons (aka Association Neurons)...

1. Associate sensory and motor activity within the central nervous system 2. The MANY branches of interneurons collect information from MANY sources

A Spinal Reflex is...

1. Automatic movement 2. Hard to prevent (brain cannot inhibit) 3. Example: Knee-jerk reflex (patellar tendon)

In a Neuron, the Axon (one of the 3 main parts that looks like a root or snake) contains the following in oder from top down...

1. Axon Hillock - Juncture of soma and axon where the action potential begins 2. Axon Collaterals - Branch of an axon 3. Teleodendria - End branches of an axon 4. Terminal button - Knob at the tip of an axon that conveys information to other neurons; also called an end foot

How do spots of light from retinal ganglion cells get converted into bars of light in the cortex?

1. Bar of light strikes the receptive fields of perhaps dozens of retinal ganglion cells 2. Input to a V1 neuron comes from a group of ganglion cells that happen to be aligned in a row. 3. V1 neuron is activated (or inhibited) only when a bar of light hitting the retina strikes that particular row of ganglion cells.

What are the Two Brainstem Systems that Influence Waking?

1. Basal Forebrain: Contains CHOLINERGIC cells that secrete acetylcholine onto neocortical neurons that stimulate a waking EEG (beta) rhythm 2. Median Raphé Nucleus (midbrain): Contains SEROTONIN neurons that project diffusely to the neocortex; also stimulates beta rhythms

The Brain Stem...

1. Begins where spinal cord enters the skull 2. Receives afferent nerves coming from senses and sends efferent nerves out to control movements 3. Three regions: -Hindbrain -Midbrain -Diencephalon

What do ALL chordate nervous systems have in common?

1. Bilaterally symmetrical and segmented 2. Brain and spinal cord encased in cartilage/bone 3. "Crossed" organization: Each hemisphere receives information from and controls the opposite side of the body

What are the four retinal neuron types? (for visual of how they connect together in graded layers see page 33 of lecture 9)

1. Bipolar cell Receives input from photoreceptors 2. Horizontal cell Links photoreceptors and bipolar cells 3. Amacrine cell Links bipolar cells and ganglion cells 4. Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) Gives rise to the optic nerve

Epigenetic mechanisms influence protein production by...

1. Blocking a gene so that it cannot be transcribed 2. Unlocking a gene so that it can be transcribed

How Do Any of Us Develop a Normal Brain? (THREE factors)

1. Brain has a substantial capacity to repair minor abnormalities that may occur during development (plasticity) 2. There is a "range of normality" with respect to brain development (Most of us develop a brain that falls within a certain range of normality) 3. Plasticity occurs into older adulthood

What are some facts relating to brain size and intelligence?

1. Brain size and intelligence do not seem to be particularly related 2. Research has shown that many smart people (e.g., Einstein) have average size brains 3. Women's brains weigh about 10% less than men, but the two sexes do not differ in measures of average intelligence

Sensory Neurons...

1. Bring information to the central nervous system 2. Collect information from A source

Hydrocephalus...

1. Build-up of pressure in the brain and swelling of the head caused if the flow of CSF is blocked 2. Can result in intellectual disability

AXON (one of the 3 basic subdivisions of a Neuron)...

1. CARRIES information (collected by the dendrite and integrated by the cell body or soma) to be passed on to other cells 2. Looks like a snake-like root on the tree (cell body) with branches (dendrites) 3. Includes Axon Hillock, Axon Collaterals, Teleodendria, Terminal Button/End foot

Gross Anatomy of the Nervous System (comprised of which 2 systems?)

1. CNS (Central Nervous System) 2. PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)

How does the cerebellum improve movement control?

1. CORTEX sends MOTOR instructions to the SPINAL cord 2. COPY of same instructions is sent to the CEREBELLUM 3. SENSORY receptors CODE the actual MOVEMENT and SEND a MESSAGE about it back to the CEREBELLUM. 4. Cerebellum has information about both versions of the movement—what you intended to do and what you actually did—and can CALCULATE the ERROR and TELL the CORTEX how to correct the movement. (see image of the paths this information takes on slide 47 of lecture 11)

What are the 7 Stages of BRAIN development?

1. Cell Birth (neurogenesis; gliogenesis) 2. Neural Migration 3. Cell Differentiation 4. Neural Maturation (dendrite and axon growth) 5. Synaptogenesis (formation of synapses) 6. Cell Death and Synaptic Pruning 7. Myelogenesis (formation of myelin)

What Are the Functional Units of the Nervous System?

1. Cells of the Nervous System 2. Internal Structure of a Cell 3. Genes, Cells, and Behavior

The FOREBRAIN includes:

1. Cerebral Cortex 2. Neocortex 3. Allocortex 4. Neocortical lobes: occipital, parietal, temporal, frontal 5. Neocortical Layers 6. Basal Ganglia 7. Hippocampus 8. Amygdala

Major components of the motor system:

1. Cerebrum (forebrain): conscious control of movement 2. Brainstem: automatic movements 3. Spinal cord: automatic movements

The Basal Ganglia (within the Cerebral Cortex and within Forebrain)...

1. Collection of nuclei just below the white matter of the neocortex -3 principal structures: caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus 2. Controls voluntary and involuntary movement -Related disorders: Parkinson's disease and Tourette's syndrome

Pons ("bridge") (part of the hindbrain)...

1. Connects cerebellum to the rest of the brain 2. Controls important movements of the body

The Spinal Cord...

1. Controls most body movements 2. Can act independently of the brain

CELL BODY or SOMA (one of the 3 basic subdivisions of a Neuron)...

1. Core region; contains the nucleus and nucleolus 2. INTEGRATES the information the Dendrite gathers 3. Looks like a tear drop shape/tree trunk

In "Anatomical Orientation" name the 3 planes of section...

1. Coronal section (vertical) 2. Horizontal Section (horizontal) 3. Sagittal section (through the center like an arrow)

The SOMATIC Nervous System (the part of the PNS that transmits sensation and produces movement) is comprised of...

1. Cranial Nerves 2. Spinal Nerves

With electricity...

1. Current flows from positive to negative (difference in volts) 2. Carried by negatively charged electrons going the other way

In Electrical Stimulation...

1. Current leaves the stimulator through a wire lead (red) that attaches to an electrode. From the uninsulated tip of the electrode, the current enters the tissue and stimulates it. The current flows back to the stimulator through a second lead (green) connected to a reference electrode. 2. A stimulating electrode delivers current (electrons) from 2-10 millivolts to produce a response without damaging the cells. 3. The reference electrode contacts a large surface area that spreads out the current and does not excite the tissue there.

Facts about Important Brain Principle #9: Functions in the Brain Are Localized and Distributed...

1. Damage to a small brain region produces only focal symptoms 2. Massive brain damage is required to completely remove some functions 3. A small injury could impair some aspectof language functioning, but it would take a widespread injury to completely remove all language abilities

Neural Basis of Addiction...

1. Decision to take a drug is made in the frontal cortex 2. Drug activates opioid systems related to pleasurable experiences 3. Wanting drugs springs from activity in the dopaminergic system 4. Voluntary control of drug taking gives way to unconscious processes — a "habit" (Striatum)

Diagnosing Schizophrenia: The DSM lists six diagnostic symptoms of schizophrenia....

1. Delusions: beliefs that distort reality 2. Hallucinations: distorted perceptions 3. Disorganized speech: incoherent statements 4. Disorganized behavior or excessive agitation 5. Catatonic behavior 6. Negative symptoms: blunted emotions or loss of interest and drive; the absence of some normal response

Various types of synapses include...

1. Dendodendritic 2. Axodendritic 3. Axoextracellular 4, Axosomatic 5. Axosynaptic 6. Axoaxonic 7. Axosecretory

What are the 3 basic subdivisions of the Neuron?

1. Dendrites 2. Cell Body or Soma 3. Axon

Describe features of the Neocortical Layers (part of the Cerebral Cortex within the Forebrain)...

1. Different layers have different cell types 2. Density of cells in each layer varies 3. Differences in appearance relate to function

(In relation to movement/MOTOR cortex) What are the 2 pathways in the basal ganglia?

1. Direct: When activated, the GPi is INHIBITED and the pathway is FREED to PRODUCE movement. 2. Indirect: When activated, the GPi is ACTIVATED and INHIBITS the THALAMUS, thus BLOCKING movement. (Diagram of these pathways is on slide 40 of lecture 11)

What are 2 important issues about using animals to do brain-behavior research?

1. Do animals actually contract the same neurological diseases that humans do? 2. How ethical is it to use animals in research?

How does the body eliminate drugs?

1. Drugs are broken down (catabolize) in the kidneys, liver, and intestines 2. Drugs are then excreted in urine, feces, sweat, breast milk, and exhaled air 3. Some substances that cannot be removed may build up in the body and become toxic

Facts about The Language of Neurons: Excitation and Inhibition...

1. Each neuron receives thousands of excitatory and inhibitory signals every second 2. Neurons "sum" these signals and respond accordingly: They become active or not 3. From the simple "yes-no" language of neurons emerges enormous possibilities for behavior (Example: Barbara Webb's Robot that turned towards a cricket making noise with yes/no input)

Hindbrain...

1. Evolutionarily the oldest part of the brain 2. Contains: -Cerebellum -Reticular Formation -Pons -Medulla 3. Controls various motor functions ranging from breathing to balance to fine movements

Facts about Important Brain Principle #8: The Brain Divides Sensory Input for Object Recognition and Motor Control...

1. Example: In the Occipital Lobe where the Dorsal processing stream which handles action and moves toward the parietal lobe and ventral processing stream which handles recognition and moves toward the temporal lobe, in the visual system 2. Animals with complex brains evolved separate systems for producing movement toward objects and for recognizing them

What do humans have in common with Primates?

1. Excellent color vision 2. Eyes in front of face: enhance depth perception 3. Females: Usually only one infant per pregnancy; infants require more care 4. Large brains for skilled movements and social behavior

Facts about Important Brain Principle #2: Neuroplasticity Is the Hallmark of Nervous System Functioning...

1. Experience alters the brain's organization, and neuroplasticity is required for learning and memory functions as well as for survival 2. Information is stored in the nervous system only if neural connections change

Tegmentum (anterior) (part of the midbrain)...

1. Eye and limb movements 2. Species-specific behaviors 3. Perception of pain

In "Anatomical Orientation" name the 3 views...

1. FRONTAL View (when it is cut vertically you see this view from the FRONT) 2. DORSAL View (when it is cut horizontally you see this view which is from the TOP DOWN 3. MEDIAL View (when it is cut through the center like an arrow you see this view from the SIDE)

What are the two Stress Responses sequences?

1. Fast-acting: primes the body immediately for fight or flight (epinephrine) 2. Slow-acting: both mobilizes the body's resources to confront a stressor and repairs stress-related damage (cortisol)

Describe the digestive process.

1. Food travels from the oral cavity to the stomach through the esophagus. 2. In the stomach hydrochloric acid breaks food into smaller particles and the enzyme pepsin breaks proteins down into amino acids. 3. Partly digested food moves through the duodenum to the upper small intestine, where enzymes produced in the gallbladder and pancreas break the food down further, allowing the bloodstream to absorb amino acids, fats, and simple sugars. 4. The large intestine absorbs most of the water and electrolytes remaining in food. 5. Waste passes out of the body through the anus.

Some thoughts on why the hominid brain enlarged has to do with facets of Primate Lifestyle such as...

1. Foraging behavior of Primates is more complex than other mammals 2. Fruit eaters having larger brains 3. The need for good sensory, spatial and memory skills to find fruit rather than vegetation lying on the ground

Molecules (Basic Chemistry Review)...

1. Formed when atoms bind together 2. Smallest units of a substance that contain all of that substance's properties

What are the 3 Properties of Sound-Wave Energy?

1. Frequency 2. Amplitude 3. Complexity

What are the functions of the Enteric Nervous System (a division of the Autonomic Nervous System which is part of the PNS)?

1. Functions largely independently of ANS 2. "Second brain" -Wide range of neuron types -Same chemical transmitters -Gut can influence brain 3. Microbiome important -More microbiota than host cells, critical for health

DENDRITES (one of the 3 basic subdivisions of a Neuron)...

1. GATHERS information from other neurons 2. Looks like tree branches or lightning 3. Includes Dendritic Spines

What causes Epilepsy?

1. GENETIC epilepsy results directly from a known genetic defect. 2. STRUCTURAL/METABOLIC epilepsy results from brain malformation or tumor, an acquired disorder such as stroke or trauma, or infection. 3. UNKNOWN category encompasses causes yet to be identified.

What is a Synapse?

1. Gap between one neuron and another neuron 2. Usually between an end foot of the axon of one neuron and a dendritic spine of another neuron

Explain the process of Hypothalamic involvement in hormone secretions.

1. HORMONES are synthesized in the HYPOTHALAMUS and sent to axon channels in the POSTERIOR Pituitary 2. HORMONES released by axon terminals in the POSTERIOR pituitary are picked up by capillaries and carried into the BLOODSTREAM 3. RELEASING HORMONES are synthesized in the HYPOTHALAMUS and and secreted into capillaries that carry them to the ANTERIOR Pituitary 4. RELEASING HORMONES then leave capillaries and act on hormone-secreting ANTERIOR pituitary cells (see visual on slide 30 of lecture 12)

Humans have 2 types of skin. What are they?

1. Hairy skin 2. Glabrous skin (Skin that does not have hair follicles but contains larger numbers of sensory receptors than do other skin areas.)

The parts of an embryo include...

1. Head {Forebrain and Brainstem (Midbrain and Hindbrain)} 2. Body {Neural Tube (forms Spinal Cord)}

There were 2 important patients regarding Implicit and Explicit Memory. Who were they?

1. Henry Molaison (H. M.) -Implicit memory intact (after surgery no EXPLICIT memory) 2. Patient J.K. -Explicit memory intact (after surgery no IMPLICIT memory)

What are the major structures responsible for birdsong?

1. Higher vocal control center (HVC) 2. Nucleus robustus archistriatalis (RA) -There is Asymmetry in some species (These structures are larger on the LEFT side.) -Structures are larger in males (sexually dimorphic). -Singing skill is related to size of structures. -Cells in these structures produce and respond to birdsong.

In Epigentics, An environmental influence can induce or remove one or more blocks, allowing the environment to regulate gene expression...

1. Histone modification: DNA may unwrap or be stopped from unwrapping from the histone 2. DNA modification: Transcription of DNA into mRNA may be enabled or blocked 3. mRNA modification: mRNA translation may be enabled or blocked

What are the problems with answering this question: Are people with larger brains more intelligent?

1. How does one measure brain size? 2. How does one measure intelligence? 3. Variables

Why Study Brain and Behavior?

1. How the brain produces behavior is a major unanswered scientific question 2. The brain is the most complex living organ on Earth 3. Many behavioral disorders can be explained and possibly cured by understanding the brain

Damage to the BASAL GANGLIA can produce which 2 main types of motor symptoms?

1. Hyperkinetic Symptom: When damage to the caudate putamen causes unwanted writhing and twitching movements called dyskinesias; seen in Huntingon's and Tourette's 2. Hypokinetic Symptom: When damage to the basal ganglia results in a loss of motor ability, leading to rigidity and difficulty initiating and producing movement; seen in Parkinson's

What are the 2 categories of MEMORY?

1. IMPLICIT Memory: UNconscious memory: subjects can demonstrate KNOWLEDGE, such as a skill, conditioned response, or recalling events on prompting, BUT CANNOT EXPLICITLY RETRIEVE the information 2. EXPLICIT Memory: CONSCIOUS memory: subjects CAN RETRIEVE an item and indicate that they KNOW that the retrieved ITEM IS the CORRECT item

Homo Habilis "Handy Human" were...

1. In Africa 2. 2 million years ago 3. Made Simple Stone Tools

Long Example of both Concentration and Voltage Gradients in the same experiment...

1. In a beaker of water divided in half by a cell membrane, salt is added on one side, it dissolves and positive and negative ions distribute themselves evenly through the half of the container, but cannot cross the barrier. 2. The ions diffuse down their concentration and voltage gradients until the water on the salt side is in equilibrium 3. This situation results in concentration and voltage gradients for both sodium and chloride ions across the membrane, that is from the salty to the freshwater side. 4. Protein molecules embedded in the cell membrane form channels like port to allow certain kinds of ions to pass to the other side. 5. With chloride channels chloride ions will diffuse across the membrane and move down their concentration 6. Because opposite charges attract, the negative chloride ions are attracted back toward the positively charged sodium ions so they come up close to the membrane on the negative side.

Description of the FAST-acting (stress response) pathway...

1. In the FIGHT or FLIGHT response, the hypothalamus sends a neural message through the spinal cord 2. The sympathetic division of the ANS is activated to stimulate the medulla of the adrenal gland 3. The adrenal medulla releases EPINEPHRINE into the circulatory system 4. EPINEPHRINE activates the body's cells, glands and the brain

Acetylcholine Synthesis...

1. In the PREsynaptic intracellular fluid, Acetyl coenzyme A carries ACETATE to the transmitter synthesis site 2. Choline acetyltransferace (ChAT) transfers acetate to CHOLINE to form acetylcholine (ACh)

Description of the SLOW-acting (stress response) pathway...

1. In the brain the Hypothalamus releases CRH into the PITUITARY GLAND 2. The PITUITARY GLAND releases ACTH which acts on the cortex of the ADRENAL gland 3. The ADRENAL cortex releases CORTISOL into the circulatory system 4. CORTISOL activates the body's cells, endocrine glands and the brain

Breakdown of acetylcholine (ACh)...

1. In the synaptic cleft, Enzyme: Acetylcholinesterace (AChE), detaches ACETATE from CHOLINE. 2. The products of the breakdown can be taken up to the PREsynaptic intracellular fluid and reused for ACETYLCHOLINE (ACh) Synthesis

Facts about Important Brain Principle #1: The Nervous System Produces Movement Within a Perceptual World the Brain Creates...

1. Individual realities are rough approximations of what is actually present 2. The brain produces a reality that is adaptive for that species to survive 3. The behavior that the brain produces is directly related to the world that the brain has created

Diencephalon...

1. Integrates sensory and motor information on its way to the cerebral cortex 2. Two principal structures: Hypothalamus, Thalamus

Corticospinal tracts make synaptic connections with 2 kinds of neurons located in the spinal column's anterior horns:

1. Interneurons -project to motor neurons 2. Motor neurons -project to muscles of the body -Laterally located motor neurons project to the muscles that control the fingers and hands. -Intermediately located motor neurons project to muscles that control the arms and shoulders. -The most medially-located motor neurons project to muscles that control the trunk. (see detailed image on page 32 of lecture 11)

According to the Canadian Council on Animal Care, the use of animals in research, teaching, and testing is acceptable only if...

1. It contributes to the understanding of environmental principles or issues, fundamental biological principles, or development of knowledge that can reasonably be expected to benefit humans, animals, or the environment 2. Optimal standards for animal health and care can result in enhanced credibility and reproducibility of experimental results 3. Acceptance of animal use in science critically depends on maintaining public confidence in the mechanisms and processes used to ensure necessary, human, and justified animal use 4. Animals are used only if the researcher's best efforts to find an alternative have failed. Researchers who use animals employ the most humane methods on the smallest number of appropriate animals required to obtain valid information

The motor homunculus maps the association of the CORTEX with BODY MEMBERS: 1. Because of the fine motor skills found in hands, lips, and face, they are represented as being _______________on the homunculus. 2. A part of the body with lower motor ability is represented to appear ________________.

1. LARGER 2. SMALLER

What are the 3 Properties of Musical Sound?

1. LOUDNESS (related to the amplitude of a sound wave) "Very loud" to some is only "moderately loud" to others 2. PITCH (position of each tone on a musical scale; sound-wave frequency) Defined as the fundamental frequency, regardless of timbre 3. QUALITY The timbre of a sound, regardless of pitch

What are the 3 regions of the Hypothalamus?

1. Lateral Region 2. Medial Region 3. Periventricular Region

What are the 2 ways of Disrupting of Posterior-root Ganglion Function and what are the results?

1. Local anesthetics block pain perception but also the ability to move facial muscles properly 2. Deafferentation- Loss of incoming sensory input usually due to damage to sensory fibers; also loss of any afferent input to a structure

What types of tolerance are there?

1. METABOLIC tolerance: Increase in number of enzymes used to break down substance 2. CELLULAR tolerance: Activities of brain cells adjust to minimize effects of the substance 3. LEARNED Tolerance: People learn to cope with being intoxicated

What are the 3 main points of Dualism according to Descartes?

1. Mind directs rational behavior Body and brain direct all other behavior via mechanical and physical principles (Examples: sensation, movement, and digestion) 2. Mind is located in the pineal gland of the brain, which sits beside ventricles filled with fluid 3. Mind regulates behavior by directing the flow of ventricular fluid to appropriate muscles

What are the 5 main kingdoms of Living Organisms?

1. Monera (bacteria) 2. Protista (single cells) 3. Plantae (plants) 4. Fungi (fungi) 5. Animalia (animals)

What are examples of behavior?

1. Movements 2. Vocalizations 3. Thinking

What does the Lateral Corticospinal Tract do and where is it?

1. Moves the digits and limbs on the opposite side of the body 2. Branches at the brainstem level, crossing over to the opposite side of the brain and spinal cord

What does the Anterior Corticospinal Tract do and where is it?

1. Moves the muscles of the midline body (trunk) on the same side of the body 2. Remains on the same side of the brain and spinal cord

Scientist, Cajal, believed...

1. Nervous system is made of discrete cells 2. "Neuron Hypothesis": Neurons are the units of brain function (He used the Golgi's stain to prove this)

What Are the Origins of Brain and Behavior?

1. Neuroscience in the Twenty-First Century 2. Perspectives on Brain and Behavior 3. Evolution of Brains and of Behavior 4. Evolution of the Human Brain and Behavior 5. Modern Human Brain Size and Intelligence

Name the 3 classes of sensory receptors in the somatosensory system.

1. Nocioception -Perception of pain, temperature and itch -Free nerve endings activated by chemicals 2. Hapsis -Perceive fine touch and pressure, and identify objects that we touch and grasp -Activated by mechanical stimulation of the hair, tissue, or capsule 3. Proprioception -Perception of the location and movement of the body -Sensitive to the stretch of muscles and tendons and the movement of joints

The Neocortical Lobes (part of the Cerebral Cortex in the Forebrain)...

1. Occipital Lobe: Vision 2. Parietal Lobe: Tactile functions 3. Temporal Lobe: Visual, auditory, and gustatory functions 4. Frontal Lobe: Motor and executive functions

Analogous to the visual system, there are two distinct pathways in the auditory system:

1. One for identifying OBJECTS by their sound characteristics 2. One for DIRECTING our MOVEMENTS by the sounds we hear.

Two visual paths emerge from striate cortex (part of the occipital lobe):

1. One route goes to vision-related regions of the Parietal lobe 2. One route goes to vision-related regions of the Temporal lobe

What are the 2 natural sources of opioids?

1. Opium: used for thousands of years to produce euphoria, analgesia, sleep, and relief from diarrhea and coughing 2. The brain: peptides in the body that have opioid-like effects are collectively called endorphins (endogenous morphines)

What are the functions of the Parasympathetic Nervous System (a division of the Autonomic Nervous System which is part of the PNS)?

1. Opposite of sympathetic: prepares the body to "rest and digest" 2. Reverses the "fight or flight" responses

Microglia (One of the 5 types of Glial Cells)...

1. Originate in the blood as offshoot of immune system 2. They look like an astrocyte with legs/tentacles 3. They Scavenge debris (e.g., dead cells) this is called: PHAGOCYTOSIS (if toxins show up only Microglia rush to the area to perform this)

What are the 2 Kinds of Thirst?

1. Osmotic Thirst: -Results from an increased concentration of chemicals, known as solutes, in body fluids -Drink water to restore ideal solute concentrations 2. Hypovolemic Thirst: -Produced by a loss of overall fluid volume from the body -Drink fluids, other than water, to restore nutrients

What are the 2 Neural bases of R-sleep?

1. Peribrachial Area: Cholinergic nucleus in the dorsal brainstem Initiates R sleep and R sleep-related behaviors 2. Medial Pontine Reticular Formation (MPRF): Nucleus in the pons participating in R sleep Receives projections from peribrachial area Projects to several other brain areas that produce R sleep-related behaviors Example: Produces the atonia of R sleep

What can stop plasticity during critical periods of the fine-tuning of neural connections?

1. Perineuronal Nets: Physical barrier to morphological plasticicity 2. "Molecular brakes" on plasticity (Epigenetic)

Which 3 areas of the brain are BBB free? (Can be easily treated with drugs)

1. Pineal Gland: Entry of chemicals that affect day/night cycles 2. Pituitary Gland: Entry of Chemicals that affect Pituitary Hormones 3. Area Postrema: Entry of Toxic Substances that induce vomiting

What are the 3 PROBLEMS with Descartes and Dualism?

1. Pineal gland is involved in biological rhythms, but not in intelligence or behavioral control 2. Fluid is not pumped from the ventricles to control movement 3. Nonmaterial influences on the body would violate the law of conservation of matter and energy

What are the 3 perspectives on BRAIN DEVELOPMENT?

1. Predict Emerging BEHAVIORS Associated with Emerging Brain STRUCTURES 2. Predict NEURAL Maturation Associated with Emerging BEHAVIORS 3. Identify INFLUENCES on BRAIN and BEHAVIOR

The Structure of CHEMICAL Synapses include:

1. Presynaptic Membrane (axon terminal) 2. Postsynaptic Membrane (dendritic spine) 3. Synaptic Cleft (space between) 4. Synaptic Vesicle (presynaptic) 5. Storage Granule (presynaptic) 6. Postsynaptic Receptor (postsynaptic)

Therapeutic treatment for Parkinsons...

1. Psychological factors influence parkinson's major symptoms. 2. Physical therapy consists of simple measures, such as heat and massage to alleviate painful muscle cramps, and training and exercise to cope with debilitating movement changes. 3. Music and exercise can improve other aspects of behavior, including balance and walking, and may actually slow the course of the disease.

NEOTENY...

1. Rate of maturation is slowed 2. Allows more brain cells to be produced 3. More gradual initial learning is possible 4. Adults retain some infant characteristics 5. Newly evolved species resemble the young of their common ancestors

In order to produce behavior the the brain must...

1. Receive information about the world 2. Integrate information to create a subjective reality 3. Produce commands to control the movement of muscles

What role do the Basal Ganglia play in MOVEMENT?

1. Receive input from -All areas of the neocortex -The nigrostriatal dopaminergic system from the substantia nigra 2. Project back to the motor cortex and substantia nigra 3. Subserve a wide range of functions, including association or habit learning, motivation, emotion, and motor control

Reticular Formation (part of the hindbrain)...

1. Reticular activating system 2. Netlike mixture of neurons (gray matter) and nerve fibers (white matter) 3. Stimulates the forebrain: (Regulation of sleep-wake behavior and behavioral arousal)

Name 3 other pathways that may carry pain information from the spinal cord to the brain...

1. Reticular formation associated with arousal 2. Amygdala associated with emotional responses 3. Hypothalamus associated with hormonal and cardiovascular responses

Medulla (part of the hindbrain)...

1. Rostral tip of spinal cord 2. Vital functions: Control of breathing and heart rate

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is comprised of...

1. SOMATIC Nervous System (transmits sensation, produces movement) 2. AUTONOMIC Nervous System (balances internal functions) 3. ENTERIC Nervous System (controls the gut)

Drug Action at Synapses...

1. SYNTHESIS of the neurotransmitter: in the cell body, axon, or terminal 2. STORAGE of the neurotransmitter in granules or in vesicles 3. RELEASE of the transmitter from presynaptic terminal 4. RECEPTOR interaction in the postsynaptic membrane 5. REUPTAKE into the presynaptic terminal OR Enzymatic degradation of excess neurotransmitter

How Do Neurons Use Electrical Signals to Transmit Information?

1. Searching for Electrical Activity in the Nervous System 2. Electrical Activity of a Membrane 3. How Neurons Integrate Information Into the Nervous System and Back Out

Motor Neurons...

1. Send signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles 2. Are distinctively large and pass information on to command muscles to move

Facts about Important Brain Principle #7: Sensory and Motor Divisions Exist Throughout the Nervous System...

1. Sensory and motor divisions in the Somatic Nervous System 2. Sensory and motor divisions in the Central Nervous System

Tectum (posterior) (part of the midbrain)...

1. Sensory processing (visual and auditory) 2. Produces orienting movements (e.g., turning head to see source of sound)

What are the 3 types of neurons in V1 (primary visual cortex)?

1. Simple Cells 2. Complex Cells 3. Hypercomplex Cells

Facts about Important Brain Principle #4: The Central Nervous System Functions on Multiple Levels...

1. Simple animals such as worms have a spinal cord, more complex animals such as fish have a brainstem as well, and yet more complex animals have evolved a forebrain 2. Each new addition to the CNS has added a new level of behavioral complexity without discarding previous levels of control

Ependymal Cells (One of the 5 types of Glial Cells)...

1. Small, ovoid; found in the walls of the ventricles (Looks like an egg) 2. Make and secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

What are the Five CLASSES of Neurotransmitters?

1. Small-molecule transmitters 2. Peptide transmitters 3. Lipid transmitters 4. Gaseous transmitters 5. Ion transmitter

Astrocyte (One of the 5 types of Glial Cells)...

1. Star shaped, symmetrical (Looks like an alien starfish) 2. Structural support for neurons 3. Transports substances between neurons and capillaries (blood-brain barrier) 4. Scar tissue formation 5. Enhance brain activity by providing fuel to active brain regions

Classes and functions of HORMONES...

1. Steroid Hormones 2. Peptide Hormones 3. Homeostatic Hormones 4. Gonadal (sex) Hormones 5. Glucocorticoids

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) believed that many complex behaviors are learned, and learning takes place in a brain that has been selected for evolutionary adaptations. What are 3 key points?

1. Suggested strong role of LEARNING in behavior 2. Belief in a REINFORCER (In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior that it follows) 3. EXPERIENCE shapes behavior by pairing stimuli and reinforcers

The AUTONOMIC Nervous System (the part of the PNS that balances internal functions) is comprised of 2 divisions...

1. Sympathetic Division (arousing) 2. Parasympathetic Division (calming)

The Autonomic Nervous System (part of the PNS) has 3 divisions:

1. Sympathetic Nervous System 2. Parasympathetic Nervous System 3. Enteric Nervous System

Neurotransmission in 5 steps: the neurotransmitter must be...

1. Synthesized somewhere inside neuron 2. Packaged and stored in vesicles at the axon terminal 3. Transported to the presynaptic membrane and released in response to an action potential 4. Binds to and activates receptors on the postsynaptic membrane 5. Degraded or removed, so it will continue to interact with a receptor and work indefinitely

What are the 2 primary functions of the Vestibular organs?

1. Tell the position of the body in relation to gravity 2. Signal changes in the direction and speed of head movements (see images of Vestibular organs and system on slide 74 of lecture 11)

When a Peripheral Axon is cut...

1. The Axon dies. 2. Schwann cells shrink and then divide forming glial cells along the axon's former path. 3. The neuron sends out axon sprouts, one of which finds the Schwann cell path and becomes a new axon. 4. Schwann cells envelop the new axon forming new myelin.

There are 10 Principles about the Brain that need to be memorized...

1. The Nervous System Produces Movement Within a Perceptual World the Brain Creates 2. Neuroplasticity Is the Hallmark of Nervous System Functioning 3. Many of the Brain's Circuits Are Crossed 4. The Central Nervous System Functions on Multiple Levels 5. The Brain Is Symmetrical and Asymmetrical 6. Brain Systems Are Organized Hierarchically and in Parallel 7. Sensory and Motor Divisions Exist Throughout the Nervous System 8. The Brain Divides Sensory Input for Object Recognition and Motor Control 9. Functions in the Brain Are Localized and Distributed 10. The Nervous System Works by Juxtaposing Excitation and Inhibition

The Somatic Nervous System (SNS)...

1. The SNS is monitored and controlled by the CNS 2. The cranial nerves by the brain 3. The spinal nerves by the spinal cord segments

Criteria for Identifying Neurotransmitters...

1. The chemical must be synthesized in the neuron or otherwise be present in it 2. When the neuron is active, the chemical must be released and produce a response in some target 3. The same response must be obtained when the chemical is experimentally placed on the target 4. A mechanism must exist for removing the chemical from its site of action after its work is done

Facts about Important Brain Principle #5: The Brain Is Symmetrical and Asymmetrical...

1. The left and the right hemispheres look like mirror images; they have some dissimilar features 2. Language is usually on the left side, and spatial functions are usually on the right

What are three main points of MENTALISM according to Aristotle?

1. The mind is a single entity having an autonomous existence 2. The mind is completely and wholly separate from the body 3. A manifestation of the soul that will survive the body's death and return to the creator of your choice (Theological origins)

Other thoughts on why the hominid brain enlarged came from Faulk in 1990 and his RADIATOR Hypothesis, which states...

1. The more ACTIVE the brain is, the more HEAT it generates 2. Homo species' skulls had more widely dispersed blood flow, which allowed for increased brain size

How do action potentials encode the features of particular sensations (e.g. purple vs. blue)?

1. The presence of a stimulus can be encoded as an increase or decrease in a neuron's firing rate. 2. The amount of increase or decrease can encode the stimulus intensity. 3. Different combinations of receptors when activate can give raise to different perceptions (i.e. we have three type of cones but we see many colours)

What Is the Neural Basis of Consciousness?

1. There are conditions in which people can process information without being aware of that information: Blindsight, form agnosia, visual neglect, amnesia 2. There are conditions in which people have conscious, awareness of events that are not actually present: Phantom limbs, hallucinations in schizophrenia 3. The representation of a visual object is likely distributed over many parts of the brain, and part of this neural circuit must produce awareness. 4. CONSCIOUSNESS is presumably a PROCESS THAT EMERGES FROM NEURAL CIRCUITS rather than from individual neurons: The GREATER THE COMPLEXITY IN NEURAL CIRCUITRY THE GREATER DEGREE OF CONSCIOUSNESS

What do the neurons and nerve processes in the PNS connect to?

1. There are sensory connectors to receptors in the SKIN 2. There are Motor connections to BODY MUSCLES 3. There are Sensory and Motor connections to INTERNAL ORGANS

What are the 2 main motor functions of the Cerebellum?

1. Timing -Movements and perceptions 2) Maintaining Movement Accuracy -Error Correction (Compares intended movement with actual movement and makes the necessary adjustments accordingly)

What are the 2 reasons scientists try to modify the brain and see how behavior is altered?

1. To develop hypotheses about how the brain affects behavior 2. To test the hypotheses

Symptoms and Outcome of Brain Trauma...

1. Trauma can disrupt the brain's blood supply, cause bleeding and swelling, expose the brain to infection, and scar the brain tissue. 2. Unconsciousness: brief or prolonged (coma) 3. Specific impairments may be the result of the coup (site of impact) and/or contrecoup (opposite side) lesion. 4. More generalized impairments may be due to widespread damage throughout the brain.

How is Shape Processed in the Primary Visual Cortex (V1)?

1. V1 neurons receive input from multiple RGCs 2. V1 neurons have much LARGER receptive fields than RGCs 3. Cells behave like orientation detectors. Excited by bars of light oriented in particular directions

Experiments with rats given drugs proved 2 types of sensitization...

1. Vigorous INCREASE of behaviors (given an agonist) 2. Slow DECLINE in behaviors (given an antagonist)

The movement of grasping a cup of coffee is sequentially organized. What are the steps?

1. Visual information is required to locate the target. 2. Frontal lobe motor areas plan the reach and command the movement. 3. Spinal cord carries information to the hand. 4. Motor neurons carry messages to the muscles of the hand and forearm. 5. Sensory receptors on the hand send message to sensory cortex saying that the cup has been grasped. 6. Spinal cord carries sensory information to the brain. 7. Basal ganglia judge grasp forces and cerebellum corrects movement errors. 8. Sensory cortex receives the message that the cup has been grasped.

How does sensory stimuli produce action potential?

1. We receive information about the world through: bodily sensations (touch and balance) auditory sensations (hearing) visual sensations (sight) chemical sensations (taste and olfaction) 2. Neurons related to these diverse receptors all have ion channels on their cell membranes. 3. These ion channels initiate the chain of events that produces a nerve impulse

In 1996, Nudo and colleagues proved that the damaged part of motor cortex that controlled the hand in monkeys showed different results with and without rehabilitation. What were they?

1. Without rehabilitation: -The hand area of the motor cortex became smaller whereas the elbow and shoulder area became larger -Monkeys lost most ability to move the hand 2. With rehabilitation: -The hand area of the motor cortex retained its size -Monkeys retained some ability to move hand

Where can new synapses form?

1. between neurons that are already connected OR 2. between neurons that were not previously connected

The body presents a number of barriers to the internal movement of drugs...

1. cell membranes 2. capillary walls 3. the placenta

Neocortex (part of the Cerebral Cortex in the Forebrain)...

1. composed of about six layers of gray matter 2. creates and responds to a perceptual world

What are the 5 types of Glial Cells?

1. ependymal cells 2. astrocytes 3. microglia 4. oligodendrocytes 5. schwann cells

Name the 4 lobes of the brain

1. frontal (executive function) 2. parietal (sensory integration) 3. temporal (auditory, taste, smell, memory) 4. occipital (visual)

What types of behavior do ANIMALS exhibit?

1. inherited ways of responding 2. learned behaviors

What are the 4 levels of protein structure?

1. primary structure (amino acid chain) 2. secondary structure (forms a pleated sheet or helix) 3. tertiary structure (sheets and helixes fold to form a protein) 4. quaternary structure (a number of proteins combine to form a more complete protein)

Somatosensory receptors tell us two things about a sensory event:

1. when it occurs 2. whether it is still occurring

Many names for nervous-system structures include information about anatomical locations, like...

1. with respect to other body parts of the animal 2. with respect to their relative locations 3. with respect to a viewer's perspective

What are the three layers of the Meninges?

1.Dura mater "hard mother"; tough outer layer 2. Arachnoid layer spider's web; delicate sheet 3. Pia mater "soft mother"; moderately tough inner layer

With each barrier eliminated en route to the brain, the dosage of a drug can be reduced by a factor of...

10

How many cranial nerves are there?

12

Language acquisition is largely complete by age...

12

How many hemispheres does the brain have?

2 (left and right)

By what age have humans have lost at least an estimated 50 percent of their taste receptors?

20 years old

Modern Human Brain when?

200,000 years ago

Human somatic cells have how many pairs of chromosomes?

23

First Brain when?

250 MILLION years ago

Forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain are visible in the human embryo at about...

28 days

Which Dopaminergic ANTagonists -Weakly block D2 receptors but also block serotonin 5-HT2 receptors -Affect motivation and reduce agitation but may result in weight gain?

2ND-generation antipsychotics used for schizophrenia such as clozapine

First Forms of Life when?

3.5 billion years ago

How is shape processed in V1? 1. Neurons are organized into functional columns (0.5 mm strip of cortex). 2. Neural circuits go between layers. 3. Comprises neurons with similar functions. 4. The Inputs of the Neural Circuit arrive in layer ________ and then connect vertically with other layers.

4 (see visual on page 83 of lecture 9)

Between birth and 12 years, how many stages does Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development include?

4 Stage 1: Sensorimotor Birth to 18/24 months Experiences the world through senses and action (looking, touching, mouthing) (object permanence and stranger anxiety) Stage 2: Preoperational about 2-6 years Represents things with words and images but lacks logical reasoning (Pretend play, egocentrism, language development) Stage 3: Concrete Operational 7-11 years Thinks logically about concrete events, grasps concrete analogies, and performs mathematical operations (Conservation, Mathematical transformations) Stage 4: Formal Operational 12+ years Reasons abstractly (Abstract Logic, Potential for Mature Moral Reasoning)

Hydrogen Bonds join water molecules to maximum of...

4 partners

Age of Earth is......

4.5 billion years

In taxonomy, living organisms are classified in how many main kingdoms?

5

How many spurts in brain growth did Epstein (1979) discover there are during development?

5 -First four coincide with onset of Piaget's stages, and the last occurs around 14 to 16 years (Likely due to growth of glial cells, blood vessels, myelin, and synapses)

Human taste-receptors respond specific things. How many taste-receptor types are there and what do they taste?

5 1. sweet 2. sour 3. salty 4. bitter 5. umami (which is especially sensitive to glutamate)

When did HOMINIDS evolve?

5 million years ago

How many layers are in the motor cortex and sensory cortex?

6

The left and right Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) is comprised of how many layers?

6 Layers 1, 4, and 6: input from contralateral retina Layers 2, 3, and 5: input from ipsilateral retina Layers 1 and 2: input from magnocellular cells Layers 3 to 6: input from parvocellular cells

The Occipital Cortex at the back of the brain is compose of how many different visual regions/cortices?

6 V1: Primary Cortex V2, V3, V3a, V4, V5: Extrastriate Cortex

First Human-like brain when?

6 MILLION years ago

Recovery from head trauma may continue for 2 to 3 years or longer. But most cognitive recovery occurs in the first _________-_____________ months.

6-9 months

First Brain Cells when?

700 MILLION years ago

There are as many as ____________ different kinds of pain fibers, judging from the peptides and other chemicals released by these nerves when irritated or damaged

8

Human nervous system contains how many NEURONS?

86 billion neurons (and 87 billion glial cells)

At what point in human fetal development does the brain look like an adults?

9 months

What percentage of drugs that may affect brain function and have therapeutic use, cannot cross the blood-brain barrier?

98%

Several AXON fibers running together form what when OUTSIDE the CNS?

A NERVE

A substance that acts to alter mood, thought, or behavior and is used to manage neuropsychological illness is.....

A Psychoactive Drug

Several AXON fibers running together form what when WITHIN the CNS?

A TRACT

What is an example of a Relatively Flexible animal behavior?

A baby roof rat must learn from its mother how to eat pine cones. This behavior is learned.

With an IRM (Innate Releasing Mechanism) the belief is that the brain must have a set of norms against which it can match stimuli so as to trigger an appropriate response. What is an example of this?

A cat is shown a drawing of a black cat with yellow eyes, a "Halloween" cat, and it innately stimulates cats to respond defensively -raised fur, arched backs, and bared teeth Same cat is shown a picture of an abstract "Picasso Cat" and it evokes no response at all

Allele...

A cell contains two copies of every gene, one inherited from your mother, the other from your father; matching copies are alleles

Treatments for Neurological Disorders: Pharmacological...

A chemical that affects the brain is either ingested or injected.

An Opioid is defined as...

A compound that binds to a group of brain receptors also sensitive to MORPHINE

What is an example of a Relatively Fixed (Innate) animal behavior?

A crossbill's beak is specifically designed to open pine cones. This behavior is innate.

Voltmeter...

A device that measures the difference in electrical potential between two bodies

Common Ancestor...

A forebearer from which two or more lineages or family groups arise (Example: Humans and apes are thought to share a common ancestor)

These are the syptoms of? -Normal EEG record before onset -Onset and tonic phase, in which the body stiffens -Clonic phase, in which the person makes rhythmic movements in time with the large, highly synchronized discharges -A depression period after the seizure

A generalized epileptic seizure

A Sulcus (pl. sulci) is...

A groove in brain matter, usually found in the neocortex or cerebellum

Nucleus (pl. nuclei)...

A group of cells forming a cluster that can be identified with special stains to form a functional grouping

Volt...

A measure of a difference in electrical potential

Chronotype...

A person's natural inclination with regard to the times of day when they prefer to sleep or when they are most alert or energetic. (Individual differences in circadian activities examples: -Lark: early to rise and early to bed -Owl: later to rise and late to bed -Differences in free-running rhythms differ between African-American and European Americans)

Prion...

A prion is an abnormally folded protein that causes progressive neurodegeneration.

Lateralization is...

A process whereby functions become localized primarily on one side of the brain (i.e. where we process music or language)

A BLOB is...

A region (located in V1) in the visual cortex that contains color-sensitive neurons (Revealed by staining for cytochrome oxidase)

In psychology, Learning is defined as...

A relatively permanent CHANGE in an organism's BEHAVIOR as a result of EXPERIENCE

Learning can be defined as...

A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience

A Gyrus (pl. gyri) is...

A small protrusion or bump formed by the folding of the cerebral cortex

Regarding Glucocorticoids and Stress, a Stressor is...

A stimulus that challenges the body's homeostasis and triggers arousal

Stereotaxic Apparatus...

A surgical device that permits a researcher or a neurosurgeon to target a specific part of the brain for ablation

A Fissure is...

A very deep sulcus

Zatorre and colleagues (1994) did another PET Study to try to LOCALIZE MUSIC in the BRAIN and discovered which 3 things?

A. Passively listening to NOISE BURSTS activates HESCHL's GYRUS. B. Listening to MELODIES activates the SECONDARY AUDITORY CORTEX C. Making RELATIVE PITCH judgments about two notes of each melody activates a RIGHT-FRONTAL-LOBE area.

Zatorre and colleagues (1992, 1995) used a Positron Emission Technology (PET scan) to MAP the AUDITORY CORTEX and determine the following 3 things...

A.Passively listening to NOISE BURSTS activates the PRIMARY AUDITORY CORTEX. B. Listening to WORDS activates the POSTERIOR SPEECH area, including WERNICKE's area. C. Making a PHONETIC discrimination activates the FRONTAL region, including BROCA's area.

In a general sense, there are at least six general causes of ______________ brain function: 1. Genetic errors 2. Epigenetic mechanisms 3. Progressive cell death 4. Rapid cell death 5. Loss of neural function and connections 6. Life stress

ABNORMAL

Caffeine is classified as a psychoactive drug which is an...

ADENOSINergic antagonist

Kyoto SHR rat Proposed as a good model for research of...

ADHD. (-Known abnormalities in prefrontal dopaminergic innervation that correlate with behavioral abnormalities such as hyperactivity -Dopamine agonists such as methyphendiate (Ritalin) can reverse behavioral abnormalities, both in children with ADHD and in SHR rats)

Dopaminergic agonists can be used to treat...

ADHD. Prescribed: Dextroamphetamine (Adderall), methylphenidate (Ritalin), L-dopa phenothiazines, chlorpromazine (Recreational: Cocaine, Amphetamine, Methamphetamine)

In Spinal Nerves (part of the SNS) POSTERIOR or DORSAL fibers are...

AFFERENT: they carry information from the body's sensory receptors

When can Nalorphine and Naloxone (Competitive Inhibitors) be used to treat opioid addiction?

AFTER the addicted person has recovered from withdrawal symptoms

(Guiding Principles of Brain Plasticity) 3. Plastic Changes Are _____________-Specific

AGE

JP had which condition affecting the frontal lobes? -Born in 1914, JP was a problem child -Found miles from home -Polite manners one moment, then socially unacceptable behaviour the next -X-ray showed ______________ of right frontal lobe and left frontal lobe was 50% of expected size -Unaware of his life situation despite otherwise normal function

AGENESIS

What can help us understand the brain?

AI! "Distributional reinforcement learning" developed to make computers play games better. DeepMind and Harvard recently showed mice use distributional reinforcement learning.

(Guiding Principles of Brain Plasticity) 2. _______________ Nervous Systems Are Plastic in the Same General Way.

ALL

Tonotopic theory does not explain how very low frequency sounds below 200 Hz are coded. Sounds in this range stimulate ____________ cells on the very APEX of the basilar membrane. (Rate of firing is proportional to frequency)

ALL

Neural Basis of Sex Differences: MEN have LARGER VOLUMES of MEDIAL and ORBITOFRONTAL CORTEX and the _____________ _____________.

ANGULAR GYRUS

GABAergic drugs (like benzodiazepines) are effective at reducing __________________.

ANXIETY

These are the best treatments for which condition? -Pharmacological treatments Benzodiazepines were once the primary treatment, but SSRIs (antidepressants) are now commonly used to this as well. -Cognitive-behavioral therapy: Focuses on challenging the reality of patients' obsessions and the behavioral necessity for their compulsions (As effective as medications in treating chronic forms of the disorder!)

ANXIETY

Neural Basis of Sex Differences: Kimura (1999) investigated people who had sustained cortical strokes in adulthood.Found that men and women were almost equally likely to be _________________ subsequent to left-hemisphere lesions of some kind.

APHASIC However... -Men were more likely to be aphasic and apraxic after damage to the left posterior cortex. -Women were far more likely to be aphasic and apraxic after lesions to the left frontal cortex.

Cortical areas not referred to as primary are collectively referred to as the __________________ cortex, which functions in thinking.

ASSOCIATION (affiliated with detailed knowledge about the external world and the internal world) *primary areas are considered: primary motor, sensory, auditory, visual, olfactory, and taste (in picture shown as top center of brain, back tip of brain, and a couple other small spots-what looks like wernicke's area-its not labeled, but visual is on slide 11 of lecture 15) *Looks like most of the rest of the brain is considered to be part of the association cortex

Selective narrowing or focusing of awareness to part of the sensory environment or to a class of stimuli, is called...

ATTENTION (Can be directed inward or outward)

With an AXOSOMATIC Synapse...

AXON TERMINAL ends on CELL BODY

With an AXODENDRITIC Synapse...

AXON TERMINAL of one neuron synapses on DENDRITIC SPINE of another

Self-Regulation...

Ability to control our emotions and impulses as a means for achieving long-term goals

Abnormal Cell Migration and Differentiation can cause...

Abnormal Brain Development -Faulty connections may produce a range of problems -Example: Schizophrenia (Disorganized pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus)

Range of electromagnetic energy that is visible to humans...

About 400 nanometers (violet) to 700 nanometers (red) (Nanometer (nm): one-billionth of a meter)

What are the three types of Cone Pigments?

Absorb light over a range of frequencies, but their maximal absorptions are: 419 nm ("blue" or short wavelength) 531 nm ("green" or middle wavelength) 559 nm ("red" or long wavelength)

Neurotransmission Step 5: Deactivation of the Neurotransmitter...

Accomplished in at Least Four Ways: 1. Diffusion away from synaptic cleft 2. Degradation by enzymes in the synaptic cleft 3. Reuptake into the presynaptic neuron for subsequent reuse 4. Taken up by neighboring glial cells

Cholinergic Neurons release what as its main neurotransmitter?

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Wha is Species-Typical Behavior?

Actions produced by every member of a species (e.g., hissing in cats)

After the Peribrachial area initiates R-sleep, The Medial Pontine Reticular Formation (MPRF) produces REM related ________________.

Activities (i.e. twitching movements)

What is the "Gate Theory of Pain" (Melzack & Wall, 1965)?

Activities in DIFFERENT sensory pathways play off against each other and so determine whether and how much pain is perceived as a result of an injury. (see visual of two paths connected by pain gate on slide 67 of lecture 11)

Genetic Engineering...

Adding or removing genes from a genome, or modification of a gene

SENSORY pathways send neural information and are always considered...

Afferent (INCOMING)

An Injury to the "What" Pathway can cause...

Agnosia = not knowing Visual-Form Agnosia Inability to recognize objects or drawings of objects Color Agnosia (achromatopsia) Inability to recognize colors Face Agnosia (prosopagnosia) Inability to recognize faces

Drugs affect synthesis, release, binding to the postsynaptic receptor, breakdown or inactivation. Some examples are...

Agonists: -Choline rich diet increases acetylcholine (ACh) -Black widow spider venom promotes release. -Nicotine stimulates receptors. -Physostigmine and organo-phosphates block inactivation. Antagonists: -Botulin toxin blocks release. -Curare blocks receptors.

There are a few ways to conceptualize space: 1. What is in your body space, grasping space, or distal space (outside your grasp) 2. Egocentric- from yourself to an object or vice versa 3. Allocentric-...

Allocentric- from an object to another object or vice versa

Mutation...

Alteration of an allele that yields a different version of that allele

Which disease represents approximately 65% of dementia cases?

Alzheimers

Which form of Dementia does this describe? Anatomical correlates: 1. Neuritic (amyloid) plaques -Located mostly in the cerebral cortex -Also found in other dementias 2. Neurofibrillary tangles -Paired helical filaments found in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus -Also found in patients with Down syndrome, Parkinson disease, and other types of dementia 3. Cortical degeneration -Most affected areas are the limbic cortex, inferior temporal cortex, and posterior parietal cortex. -The entorhinal cortex (link between neocortex and hippocampus) shows clearest evidence for cell loss, which may explain why memory problems occur early in the disease. -The primary sensory and motor areas are spared. -CEREBRAL ATROPHY may be due in large part to the LOSS OF DENDRITIC ARBORIZATION -Loss of neurotransmitters: Acetylcholi Noradrenaline Dopamine Serotonin NMDA and AMPA glutamate receptors

Alzheimers

Based on these definitions which categories would Alzheimers and Post Traumatic Dementia be in? Nondegenerative dementias: A heterogeneous group of disorders with diverse etiologies Degenerative dementias: Presumed to have a degree of genetic transmission)

Alzheimers is degenerative Post Traumatic Dementia is nondegenerative

Which drug: 1. Blocks dopamine reuptake transporter, leaving more dopamine available in the synaptic cleft 2. Stimulates release of dopamine from presynaptic membrane. (Both mechanisms increase the amount of dopamine available in synapses to stimulate dopamine receptors)?

Amphetamine (Which is a Dopaminergic Agonist)

What does the External Ear Canal do?

Amplifies sound waves somewhat and directs them to the eardrum, which vibrates in accordance with the frequency of the sound wave

Which part of the body is this describing? -Almond-shaped collection of nuclei located within the limbic system -Plays a role in emotional and species-specific behaviors -Receives input from all sensory systems -Many neurons respond to more than one sensory modality (multimodal) -Sends projections primarily to the hypothalamus and brainstem

Amygdala

A Hypothetical mechanism that detects specific sensory stimuli and directs an organism to take a particular action is called...

An IRM (Innate Releasing Mechanism)

What is a region that participates in perception of form and motion and separates blobs called?

An Interblob (located in V1)

What is a LEARNING SET?

An UNDERSTANDING of HOW a PROBLEM can be SOLVED WITH A RULE that can be APPLIED IN MANY DIFFERENT SITUATIONS

Stroke...

An interruption of blood flow from either blockage or bleeding of a vessel

Modeling Simplicity and Modeling Limitations Research Challenges specific to when scientists are investigating the causes of disorders using ______________ models.

Animal -the view of the neurobiology behind behavioral disorders that animal models provide can be OVERSIMPLIFIED. -and objectively identifying any COGNITIVE processes mimicked by a laboratory model is DIFFICULT.

Legislation concerning the care and use of laboratory animals in the United States is set forth in the...

Animal Welfare Act (In addition, the NIH administers the Health Research Extension Act and... All accredited North American universities that receive government grant support are required to provide adequate treatment for all vertebrate animals

Which of the kingdoms are comprised of muscles and neurons?

Animalia (animals)

Condition in which a person's speech zones are located in the right hemisphere or in both hemispheres is called...

Anomalous Speech Representation

Exaggerated concern with being overweight that leads to inadequate food intake and often excessive exercising (can lead to severe weight loss and even starvation), is called...

Anorexia Nervosa

What is Broca's area?

Anterior speech area in the left hemisphere that functions with the motor cortex to produce the movements needed for speaking

Which disorder is among the most common psychiatric condition?

Anxiety (The DSM-5 lists 10 classes of anxiety disorders that together affect an estimated 15% to 35% of the population at some point in their life.) Anxiety reactions certainly are NOT pathological; they are likely an evolutionary adaptation for coping with adverse conditions. Anxiety CAN BECOME pathological and make life miserable.

GABAergic agonists can be used to treat...

Anxiety. Prescribed: Benzodiazepines-Minor tranquilizers Antianxiety agents Drugs that reduce anxiety (e.g., Valium) Often used for temporary purposes (e.g., coping with stress due to a death in family) Recreational: Alcohol-Small amounts improve mood Lethargy, sedation, impaired judgement at higher doses

Rate-Limiting Factor...

Any enzyme that is in limited supply, thus restricting the pace at which a chemical can be synthesized (Example: Tyrosine hydroxylase in amine synthesis)

Genetically programmed cell death is...

Apoptosis

The ________________ of each neuron tells us something about the connections that it must make.

Appearance

In discussing NEURAL control of emotion, what theory is this describing? -Emotional episodes are the the activity of several biological subsystems -Often divided into dimensions of valence and arousal

Appraisal theory (See diagram on page 53 of lecture 12)

The serotonergic agonists that are Tricyclic Antidepressants...

Are 1st-generation antidepressants with a chemical structure characterized by three rings that BLOCK serotonin REUPTAKE transporter proteins

Gray Matter...

Areas of the nervous system predominately composed of cell bodies and blood vessels

Who is associated with MENTALISM?

Aristotle

In the _______________________ Cortex: -Temporal association regions tend to produce cognition related to visual and auditory processing. -The parietal cortex is closely related to somatosensation and movement control. -The frontal cortex coordinates information coming from the parietal and temporal association regions with information coming from subcortical regions.

Association (in one slide they gave another image that also referred to part of it as the "PREFRONTAL Association Cortex", which included: The dorsolateral, orbital, ventrodmedial, dorsomedial, and anterior cingulate cortices)

Water H20 (Basic Chemistry Review)...

Atoms held together by shared electrons - Polar molecule • Opposite charges at opposite ends • Chemical properties of water enable it to dissolve salt crystals into their component ions

William James (1890) is quoted as saying the following regarding the subject of what? "It is the taking possession by the mind in clear and vivid form of one out of what seem several simultaneous objects or trains of thought."

Attention

Developmental disorder characterized by core behavioral symptoms of impulsivity, hyperactivity, and/or inattention...

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

To understand the pathways to the auditory cortex see the diagram on slide 31 of lecture 10. The order is as follows...

Auditory cochlear nerve->Hindbrain-> Midbrain-> Thalamus-Cerebral Cortex (See graphic: There is a complicated mapping system that involves the Olivary Complex, Trapezoid Body, Inferior Colliculus, Medial Geniculate Nucleus, etc. which are within the Hindbrain, Midbrain, Thalamus. Within the Quizlet deck questions 1023-1027 are regarding these same pathways)

In the TECTUM (part of the Midbrain) the inferior colliculus receives...

Auditory input

Humans distant common ancestor is called...

Australopithecus

In timeline order, from oldest to most recent which Hominids are on the timeline?

Australopithecus "Common Ancestor", A. afarensis, A. africanus, A. robustus, H. habilis, H. erectus, H. neanderthalensis, H. sapiens

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is categorized as an __________________ disease. -Ability to discriminate between a foreign pathogen in the body and the body itself is central to immune system functioning. -If this discrimination fails, the immune system makes antibodies to a person's own body, in this case, to myelin. -The protein sequences of a foreign microbe may be homologous with structures found in myelin, which leads the immune system to attack the microbe and the person's own myelin.

Autoimmune

___________ from motor-cortex neurons MYELINATE about the time that reaching and grasping develop in an infant.

Axons

George von Békésy (1960s) believed sound waves produced a TRAVELING WAVE that moved all along the...

BASILAR MEMBRANE

The brain's primary function is to produce...

BEHAVIOR

There is NO simple one-to-one relationship between a single NEUROTRANSMITTER and a single...

BEHAVIOR

To predict BRAIN DEVELOPMENT...

BEHAVIORAL development can be analyzed and predictions can be made about what underlying circuitry must be emerging BEHAVIORAL Development > predict > BRAIN Development (Example: Language > predict > areas involved in language)

Philosophical question focused on how the brain ties single and varied sensory and motor events together into a unified perception or behavior.

BINDING PROBLEM

The serotonergic agonists that are Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) Inhibitors...

BLOCK the enzyme MAO from degrading neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline

"Spatial Orientation" Illustrates Brain-Structure Location in Relation to Other...

BODY PARTS

(Guiding Principles of Brain Plasticity) 1. BEHAVIORAL Change Reflects Change in the____________.

BRAIN

The FEWEST barriers are encountered if a psychoactive drug is injected directly into the...

BRAIN

Neural Units of Thought: (Newsome and Colleagues , 1995) Newsome's results show that the activity of individual cortical neurons is correlated with perception rather than perception being the property of a particular ________________ _________________.

BRAIN REGION

Central Nervous System (CNS)...

BRAIN is encased by the skull and the SPINAL CORD is encased by the vertebrae.

Which type of Aphasia is this describing? The inability to SPEAK fluently despite the presence of normal comprehension and intact vocal mechanisms.

BROCA'S aphasia

Gyri...

BUMPS on cerebral cortex

Cell Membrane (Parts of a Cell)...

Barrier and Gatekeeper • Separates intra- and extracellular fluid • Regulates movement of substances into and out of the cell (most cannot pass) • Proteins embedded within membrane allow substances into and out of cell • Made up of Phospholipids • Hydrophilic head: phosphorous • Hydrophobic tail: lipids (fat molecules)

What is the recurring cycle of temporal packets, about 90-minute periods in humans, during which an animal's level of arousal waxes and wanes called? (Examples: School classes, work periods, meal times, coffee or snack breaks, N-R cycles So fundamental that it cannot be turned off even at night, so the body is paralyzed during R sleep to prevent interruptions throughout sleep)

Basic Rest-Activity Cycle (BRAC)

Receptor surface in the cochlea that transduces sound waves into neural activity...

Basilar membrane

Why is it easy for substances, like drugs, to move into and out of the bloodstream?

Because endothelial cells in capillaries located throughout the body are NOT tightly joined

Why is this knowledge significant to the research of degenerative diseases like Alzheimers? -Prion Proteins are found in healthy cell membranes and may play a role in attaching one cell to another. -The proteins typically fold in a normal configuration but can also misfold. -The altered configuration causes disease. A misfolded prion protein will attach to a healthy prion protein and cause it to misfold. -Misfolded prions tend to clump together, forming protein aggregates that eventually result in cell death. -Misfolded prions can also infect neighboring brain and body cells, resulting in general brain degeneration and muscle wasting.

Because the "Prion Theory of Progressive Neurological Disease" may explain the COMMON central cause of ALL these neurodegenerative diseases

What is MATERIALISM?

Behavior can be explained as a function of the nervous system without explanatory recourse to the mind

What is Regulatory Behavior?

Behavior motivated to meet the survival needs of the animal: Homeostatic Mechanisms: Maintains body functions within a narrow, fixed range (analogy from your house: thermostat and boiler)

Motivation is defined as...

Behavior that seems purposeful and goal- directed

Escalating behavioral response to the repeated administration of a psychomotor stimulant, such as amphetamine, cocaine, or nicotine; is called...

Behavioral Sensitization (also called drug-induced behavioral sensitization)

Alcohol is an example a recreational psychoactive drug that is a GABAergic agonist. Which are the prescribed drugs in this classification?

Benzodiazepines: diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax), clonazepam (Klonopin)

"It is not the charge but the WAVE that travels along an axon", is attributed to which scientist?

Bernstein (1886)

SEGMENTED NERVE TRUNK...

Bilaterally symmetrical (the same on both sides of the body) Segmented (divided into a number of parts) i.e. Flatworm

Inherent timing mechanism that controls or initiates various biological processes is called...

Biological rhythm Examples: Circannual (yearly) Migratory cycles of birds Infradian (more than a day) Human menstrual cycle Circadian (daily) Human sleep-wake cycles Ultradian (less than a day) Human eating cycles

Quadrantanopia...

Blindness of one quadrant of the visual field (Caused by an Injury to the Pathway Leading to the Cortex)

V1, the Primary Visual Cortex/Striate Cortex, contains ___________ and _________________.

Blobs and Interblobs Interblob: Region that separates blobs Participates in perception of form and motion

Aristotle believed the brain cooled the...

Blood

Ossicles

Bones in the middle ear: -Hammer -Anvil -Stirrup Connects the eardrum to the oval window of the cochlea, located in the inner ear

Dualism...

Both a NONmaterial mind and the MATERIAL body contribute to behavior

In the AUTONOMIC Nervous System (ANS), Cholinergic neurons from the CNS (which most often release Acetylcholine (ACh), control...

Both divisions: -Sympathetic (fight-or-flight response) -Parasympathetic (rest-and-digest response) Norepinephrine is also involved in the fight-or-flight response!

What are emergent properties of the precise sequence of amino acids that compose the protein molecule?

Both the shape of a protein, and its ability to change shape

mapping functional CONNECTIONS in the living brain is called...

Brain CONNECTOME

Neural Migration, described below, is the 2nd stage of... -Begins shortly after first neurons are generated -Continues for 6 weeks in cortex and longer in hippocampus -Damage has more serious consequences -Ventricular zone contains a primitive map of the cortex that predisposes cells to migrate to certain locations -Cells migrate to inner layers and then to outer layers (layers 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1)

Brain Development

Jerison used body size to predict...

Brain Size

Jerison developed the index of what?

Brain Size (to allow comparison among different species)

Central Nervous System (CNS) is comprised of...

Brain and Spinal Cord

What evolved first in animals?

Brain cells, nervous systems, and muscles.

Treatments for Neurological Disorders: Electrophysiological...

Brain function is modified by stimulation through the skull. (Like electroconvulsive therapy and transcranial magnetic therapy)

Visual Information -> Eye -> Optic Nerve-> _______________

Brain: (simultaneously both below) 1. Geniculostriate system -> Lateral geniculate nucleus -> striate cortex ->Other Visual Cortical Areas ^ 2: Tectopulvinar System ^ -> Superior Colliculus ->Pulvinar -----------------^

Which part of the brain is responsible for most of our UNconscious behavior and is the source of behavior in simpler animals?

Brainstem

Microsleep is...

Brief period of sleep lasting a second or so (Confounding factor in cognitive performance following sleep deprivation)

How can we trace our lineage (through the idea of a Common Ancestor)?

By comparing the genes, brains, and behaviors of different animals

Hypothetical group of NEURONS that become functionally CONNECTED because they receive the SAME SENSORY INPUTS

CELL ASSEMBLY (Hebb proposed that cell assemblies were the basis of perception, memory, and thought.)

80% of the brain's neurons are in the...

CEREBELLUM

Majority of synapses in the mammalian nervous system are...

CHEMICAL Synapses

Evidence suggests each new hominid species appeared after new environments appeared due to...

CLIMATE CHANGES

Facts about Important Brain Principle #6: Brain Systems Are Organized Hierarchically and in Parallel...

CNS comprises multiple levels of function, these levels must be extensively interconnected to integrate their processing and create unified perceptions or movements

In Pavlovian (Classical/Respondent) conditioning, the LEARNED response to a formerly neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) (blink to tone) is called...

CONDITIONED Response (CR)

One of the key differences between association cortex and the primary sensory and motor cortices is the pattern of...

CONNECTIONS

Research on rats searching for food and then sleeping after, shows that EXPLICIT memory is formed in N-sleep. During the periods of N-sleep after food search task, activity of PLACE CELLS become ____________________. This is showing that NEURAL REPLAY occurred during N-sleep.

CORRELATED (PLACE CELL: Hippocampal neuron that fires when a rat is in certain location in an environment Recordings before search, during search, and after search showed correlation and neural replay, repaying the search for food, during N-sleep)

THINKING is due to the activity of many different systems which, in the mammalian brain, are located in the __________________.

CORTEX

In addition to the amygdala and hypothalamus, the ____________ must also have a role in controlling sexual behavior.

CORTEX * (*this was listed as COGNITIVE Influences on sexual behavior) -Role of the cortex in sexual behavior is poorly understood -Damage to the frontal lobes can result in a loss of inhibition about sexual behavior or a loss of libido (sexual interest)

The idea of fine-tuning being ACTIVITY DEPENDENT gives us direction on a developmental "window" during which some event has a long-lasting influence on the brain; often referred to as a sensitive period. What is this called?

CRITICAL PERIOD Example: IMPRINTING Process that predisposes an animal to form an attachment to objects or animals at a critical period in development (i.e. Enlargement of synapses in chick forebrain)

Which are the ANATOMICAL brain imaging techniques?

CT scan, MRI, DTI, MRS

An example of an adenosinergic antagonist is...

Caffeine: -Most widely consumed psychoactive drug -Binds to adenosine receptors without activating them: adenosine antagonist -Inhibits the enzyme the normally breaks down the second messenger cyclic AMP -Increase in cAMP leads to an increase in glucose production within cells, which makes more energy available and allows for higher rates of cellular activity

THC is an example of an...

Cannabinergic agonist.

What do posterior-root ganglion neurons do? (Each spinal cord segment has one POSTERIOR-ROOT GANGLION on each side. In the spinal cord, the axons of these neurons may synapse onto other neurons or continue up to the brain.)

Carry sensory information from the skin to the CNS via the spinal cord.

Caution! Correlation does not equal...

Causation. Just because two things correlate (take place together) does not prove that one of them causes the other

What causes Alzheimer's disease?

Cause is UNKNOWN but many have been proposed: -Genetic predisposition -Environmental toxins -High levels of trace elements, such as aluminum, in the blood -Autoimmune response -Slow-acting virus -Reduced blood flow to the hemispheres

What causes Korsakoff's Syndrome (Permanent loss of the ability to learn new information (anterograde amnesia) and to retrieve old information (retrograde amnesia)

Caused by diencephalic damage from chronic alcoholism or malnutrition that produces a vitamin B1 deficiency

The facts below are describing the 1st stage of Brain Development, which is called... -A chemical compound acts to support growth and differentiation in developing neurons; begins about 7 weeks after conception -Largely complete by 5 months -Exception: Hippocampus makes new cells throughout life -Brain can more easily cope with injury during this time (first 5 months of gestation)

Cell Birth (Neurogenesis; Gliogenesis)

The brain "chisels" away "pieces" by using...

Cell Death and Synaptic Pruning, the 6th stage of Brain Development: (Chisels: genetic signal, experience, reproductive hormones, and even stress) -Cortex becomes measurably thinner in a caudal-rostral (back-to-front) gradient, a process that is probably mostly due to synaptic pruning -Most regions thin, but major language regions of the cortex show an INCREASE in gray matter. -Synaptic connections that are not part of a functional network are pruned away in an experience-dependent manner

Nervous System is comprised of...

Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Brainstem definition...

Central structures of the brain, including the hindbrain, midbrain, thalamus, and hypothalamus, responsible for most unconscious behavior

What procedure/technology does this describe? 1. A small carbon fiber electrode and a metal electrode are implanted in the brain 2. Small current is passed through the metal electrode 3. Current causes electrons to be added to or removed from the surrounding chemicals 4. Changes can be translated into a measure of extracellular levels of specific neurotransmitters that are measured as they occur

Cerebral Voltammetry

In well-trained, habituated, and sensitized Aplysia (snail), Kandel saw that the number and size of sensory synapses...

Change

Epilepsy...

Characterized by recurrent seizures, which register on an electroencephalogram (EEG) as highly synchronized neuronal firing indicated by a variety of abnormal waves

MATERIALISM is related to the evolutionary theories of which 2 people?

Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace (Both were struck at the many similarities among species)

Wide variety of connections makes the synapse a versatile _____________ delivery system.

Chemical

Drugs are...

Chemical compounds administered to produce a desired change in the body

PEPTIDE hormones...

Chemical messenger synthesized by cellular DNA that acts to affect the target cell's physiology Examples: insulin, growth hormone

Epinephrine (EP, or adrenaline)...

Chemical messenger that acts as a hormone to mobilize the body for fight or flight during times of stress and as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system

How do STEM cells know what to become?

Chemical signal -> Turns genes on (gene expression) -> Specific proteins are made-> Specific Cells Chemical environment in the brain is different from skin, so different genes in these cells are activated, producing different proteins and different cell types

___________________________ (chemical signals) play a central role in motivated and emotional behavior.

Chemosignals They... -Identify group members -Mark territories -Identify favorite and forbidden foods -Form associations among odors, tastes, and emotional events

These points about the uniformity of language can be attributed to the research of ? 1. Language is universal in human populations. 2. Humans learn language early in life and seemingly without effort. There is likely a sensitive period for language acquisition that is from about 1 to 6 years of age. 3) Languages have many structural elements in common. Examples: syntax and grammar

Chomsky, Pinker

Which "phylum" has the characteristics of BRAIN and SPINAL CHORD?

Chordates

Symptoms of Huntington's include...

Choreas, changes in personality, leading to a nearly total loss in behavioural, emotional and intellectual function

Down Syndrome...

Chromosomal abnormality resulting in intellectual disability and other abnormalities, usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy)

What is a LEWY BODY?

Circular fibrous structure found in several neurodegenerative disorders; forms within the cytoplasm of neurons and is thought to result from abnormal neurofilament metabolism

Specialty in the field of neuroscience that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and disorders affecting the brain and central nervous system is called...

Clinical Neuroscience

What is the electronic device implanted surgically into the inner ear to transduce sound waves into neural activity and allow deaf people to hear called?

Cochlear Implant

Sleep deprivation does lead to decreased ________________ performance.

Cognitive (Performance on tasks that require attention declines as a function of hours of sleep deprivation)

What type of therapy is this describing? -Thoughts intervene between events and emotions. -Challenge a person's self-defeating attitudes and assumptions -Important for people with brain injuries

Cognitive Therapy

Chimpanzees and Humans shared a....

Common Ancestor (5-10 million years ago)

Epilepsy...

Common Neurological Disease: -Periods of excessive neural synchrony called electrographic seizures -Spikes visible in EEG -Treatments include drugs, diet, deep brain stimulation, surgery

Neuropsychological testing...

Compares the effects of injuries to different brain regions on particular psychological tasks

In V1, which type of neurons are maximally excited by bars of light moving in a particular direction through the receptive field?

Complex Cells

What is the main characteristic of the "species" Modern Human?

Complex Culture

Unlike the pure sound of a tuning fork, most sounds are a mixture of frequencies. The __________________ of a sound determines its timbre allowing us to distinguish between different instruments playing the same note.

Complexity

Which type of TBI is common in sports, especially contact sports, including American and European football, ice hockey, and rugby (Solomon, 2018)

Concussion

-Highly responsive to bright light -Specialized for color and high visual acuity -Most dense in the fovea only -Three types of pigment

Cones

What are responsible for color vision and our ability to see fine detail?

Cones

___________________ is likely a product of all cortical areas, their connections, and their cognitive operations.

Consciousness

Amino acids...

Consists of a central carbon (C) atom bound to a hydrogen (H) atom, an amino group (NH3+), a carboxyl group (COO2-), and a side chain (R) - Linked together by a peptide bond - Polypeptide chain: A series of amino acids

Gonadal (sex) Hormones...

Control reproductive functions; sexual development and behavior

What may explain "phantom limb pain"?

Cortical Reorganization Ramachandran (1993) -Indirectly measured the cortical maps in ,individuals with limb amputations (*seems like they are saying the body reassigns an area to represent the missing one like an area on the face for the arm) -When the face was stroked softly with a cotton swab, amputees reported sensations of being touched in the amputated hand

With NOCIOCEPTION receptors (pain, temperature, itch), what produces action potentials?

DAMAGE or irritation to the DENDRITE or to surrounding cells RELEASES CHEMICALS that stimulate the dendrite to produce action potentials

Changes in the number of __________________ can be used to infer synaptic changes

DENDRITES (More dendrites = more connections)

With a DENDODENDRITIC Synapse...

DENDRITES send messages to other DENDRITES

Purpura (1974), Examined children with DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITES who died from accidents or diseases unrelated to the nervous system. Compared with normal children, _____________ _______________ was reduced in children with various forms of developmental disability. (Suggests that there were FEWER CONNECTIONS in the brain)

DENDRITIC GROWTH

According to the research of Martin and colleagues (1995), Information from each sensory modality (e.g., vision, audition) is processed and stored in ___________ neural areas

DIFFERENT (Example: -Recall of COLORS activated a region in the VENTRAL TEMPORALlobe -Recall of ACTION WORDS words activated a region in the MIDDLE TEMPORAL GYRUS)

Eating ________________ entail being either overweight or underweight

DISORDERS

Each chromosome is a double stranded molecule of ...

DNA

Information flow contained in genetic code...

DNA ___transcription__> mRNA ___translation__> Amino Acid Chain

The development of Parkinsons is related to the degeneration of the substantia nigra and to the loss of the neurotransmitter _________________ released in the striatum

DOPAMINE -Loss of cells in the substantia nigra may result from disease, such as encephalitis or syphilis, or from drugs such as MPTP -Despite a common site of damage, symptoms vary enormously. (Many symptoms resemble the changes in motor activity that take place with aging.) (Idiopathic causes: may include environmental pollutants, insecticides, herbicides)

Neurochemical Correlates of Schizophrenia: _________________ abnormalities were the first to be linked to schizophrenia. Many other neurochemical abnormalities are also associated with schizophrenia.

DOPAMINE Some examples of other abnormalities that are indicative: -Decreased dopamine metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid -increased striatal D2 receptors -Decreased expression of D3 and D4 mRNA in specific cortical regions -Decreased cortical glutamate -Increased cortical glutamate receptors -Decreased glutamate uptake sites in cingulate cortex -Decreased mRNA for synthesizing GABA in prefrontal cortex -Increased GABAA−binding sites in cingulate cortex

What is the Pathway that originates in the occipital cortex and projects to the PARIETAL cortex? (The "how" pathway-how action is to be guided toward objects)

DORSAL Visual Stream

Which visual stream is important in SPATIAL cognition?

DORSAL visual stream (in the parietal lobes

Who is associated with MATERIALISM?

Darwin

Which theory of behavior do the following align with? 1. Because all animal species are related, their brains must be related 2. Because all species of animals are related, their behavior must be related 3. Can study and understand human behavior and brain function by comparing thegenes, brains, and behaviors of different animals

Darwin and MATERIALISM

What provides an Explanation for how new species evolve and existing species change over time?

Darwin's Concept of NATURAL SELECTION

In human neurological development, significant visual progress of the nervous system is seen in utero beginning on day 18....

Day 15: Embryonic Disc is formed Day 18: Neural Plate (Primitive Neural Tissue) is formed Day 21: Neural Groove forms in the Neural Plate Day 22: Neural Groove closes to form Neural Tube and ventricle Day 23: Anterior neural folds close to form the Brain Day 24: Neural Tube, Developing Brain, Developing Heart

Electrodes implanted in the brain stimulate a targeted area with a low-voltage electrical current to facilitate behavior (Used for Parkinson's, depression, OCD). This is called...

Deep Brain Stimulation

Which feature of the 4th stage of Brain development, Neural Maturation, is this describing? -Arborization (branching) -Growth of dendritic spines where most synapses occur -Slower (micrometers/day) than axonal growth (millimeters/day)

Dendritic Growth

Differences in receptor _________________ determine the special abilities of many animals. (Example: Olfactory ability of dogs)

Density

What can be produced by an influx of sodium ions and is produced by the opening of normally closed gated sodium channels?

Depolarization.

Who is associated with DUALISM?

Descartes

Monocular Blindness...

Destruction of the retina or optic nerve of one eye that produces loss of sight in that eye (Caused by an Injury to the Pathway Leading to the Cortex)

Concentration Gradient...

Differences in concentration of a substance among regions of a container that allows the substance to diffuse from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

Darwin's Concept of NATURAL SELECTION states that

Differential success in the reproduction of different characteristics (phenotypes) results from the interaction of organisms with their environment

Functional Asymmetry in Neurological Patients: Case G.H.- Damage to RIGHT parietal lobe What did this patient have difficulty with after brain damage in this area?

Difficulties copying drawings, assembling puzzles, and NAVIGATING around familiar places

Where is the flocculus and what is it?

Small but dense lobe in the cerebellum that is involved in eye movements and balance

In the structure of a Chemical Synapse, the Synaptic Cleft (space between) is...

Small gap where the chemical travels from presynaptic to postsynaptic membrane

In the structure of a Chemical Synapse, the Synaptic vesicle (presynaptic) is...

Small membrane-bound spheres that contain the neurotransmitter(s)

Atoms (Basic Chemistry Review)...

Smallest quantity of an element that retains the properties of that element • Contain a nucleus - Neutrons: neutral in charge - Protons: carry a positive (+) charge - Electrons: carry a negative (−) charge • Electrons orbit the nucleus

What is the interdisciplinary field that seeks to understand how the brain mediates social interactions called?

Social Neuroscience

Which system does the following? -Tells us what the body is up to and what's going on in the environment by providing bodily sensations such as: Touch, temperature, pain, position in space, and movement of the joints. -Allows us to distinguish between what the world does to us and what we do to it -Has a closer relationship with movement than the other senses do

Somatosensory System

Do left handed people process speech in the same part of the brain as right handed people?

Sometimes. -About 70% are similar to right-handers and have language in left hemisphere. -In the remaining 30%, speech is represented either in the right hemisphere or bilaterally.

Complex tones are...

Sounds with a mixture of frequencies

Pure tones are...

Sounds with a single frequency

What ability does this refer to? -Refers to a range of mental functions, from the ability to navigate from point A to point B, to the representation of complex visual arrays

Spatial Cognition

The Principle of Proper Mass (Jerison) purports that...

Species exhibiting more complex behaviors will possess relatively larger brains

Which Genetic Abnormality is this describing? -Spinal cord abnormality due to the failure of the neural tube to close completely -Associated with serious motor problems

Spina bifida

Research with which type of surgical patient, tells us the following? -The two brain hemispheres can act independently -role of left hemisphere in language -role of the right hemisphere in spatial tasks

Split-Brain (severed at corpus callosum)

How do we understand a spoken word?

Spoken word -> A1 -> Wernicke's area (contains sound images of words) ->Comprehension of Word

If a brain region is functioning abnormally or if it is diseased or dead, as occurs in TBI or after stroke, it should be possible to return this region to the embryonic state and regrow a healthy region. In laboratory rats stem cells can be induced by neurotrophic factors to generate new cells that can migrate to the site of an injury. This type of neurosurgical procedure is called...

Stem cell therapy (-Using appropriate manipulations, any cell can potentially be returned to a stem cell state. -Advantage is that the patient's own cells are not rejected by the immune system. -Extract stem cells, place them in a special culture medium to generate millions of cells, and place these stem cells in the damaged brain. -Cells would be instructed to differentiate appropriately and develop the correct connections.)

Auditory and Speech zones were mapped by Penfield using brain _________________ (with a weak current).

Stimulation

These are the effects of what harmful event? -Release of massive amounts of glutamate; prolonged opening of calcium channels -Toxic levels of calcium produce direct toxicity and instigate various second-messenger pathways. mRNA is stimulated, altering the production of proteins; these proteins may prove to be toxic to the neurons. -Energy crisis ensues as mitochondria reduce their production of ATP. -Neural shock (diaschisis) Areas distant from the damage are functionally depressed; areas related to the damaged region undergo sudden withdrawal of excitation or inhibition. -May be followed by changes in metabolism of the injured hemisphere, glucose utilization, or both, which may persist for days Metabolic changes can have severe effects on the functioning of otherwise normal tissue.

Stroke

GANGLIA...

Structures that resemble and function somewhat like a brain i.e. Squid

In "Brain-Body Orientation" VENTRAL is used to describe...

Structures toward the BOTTOM of the brain or one of its parts

Cognitive Neuroscience is defined as...

Study of the neural basis of cognition (Broad definition includes neuropsychological testing)

Neuropsychology is...

Study of the relations between brain function and behavior

What may also help us to understand some psychiatric and drug-induced conditions?

Studying sleep (Example: Are hallucinations related to dream events that occur during R sleep?)

Perception is...

Subjective interpretation of sensations by the brain (i.e. Our visual experience is not an objective reproduction of what is "out there," but rather is a subjective construction of reality that is manufactured by the brain.)

Antagonist...

Substance that BLOCKS/DECREASES the function of a synapse

Agonist...

Substance that ENHANCES the function of a synapse

Lining of neural stem cells surrounding the ventricles is the...

Subventricular Zone

Mind Model where parts of the brain are the id (unconscious), ego (preconscious), superego, and "repressed" areas...

Superego- Dorsal frontal cortex is locus of self-conscious thought Repressed- Ventral frontal cortex regulates inhibitions Ego- Posterior cortex generates sensory representations of the world Id- Limbic System and Brain stem regulate instincts and drives. (Visual on slide 6 of lecture 16)

When stimulated by Penfield, which area stopped ongoing speech completely (speech arrest)?

Supplementary speech area on the dorsal surface of the frontal lobes

Other pacemakers exist in the retina and pineal gland, but the _____________ _______________ is the main one/

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

Regarding Biological Rhythms, ___________________ _________________ is the MASTER clock -Nearly every cell in the body has its OWN clock -If ________________ _______________ neurons are isolated from one another, each remains rhythmic, but the rhythmicity of some cells is different from that of other cells

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

Split Brain...

Surgical disconnection of the two hemispheres in which the corpus callosum is cut

On the subject of the Structural Basis of Brain Plasticity: At the neural level, memory is associated with changes that take place at the _________________.

Synapse

What is the 5th stage of Brain Development?

Synaptic Development: -1014 synapses in the adult human cerebral cortex -Combination of genetic programming and environmental cues and signals -5th gestational month: Simple synaptic contacts -7th gestational month: Synaptic development of deep cortical neurons -After birth: synaptic development increases rapidly during the first year of life

Hypotheses regarding the neural basis of ____________________: -Extraordinary neural connections between different sensory regions -Increased activity in multimodal areas of the frontal lobes that receive input from more than one sensory area -Unusual patterns of cerebral activation in response to particular sensory inputs

Synesthesia

Ability to perceive a stimulus of one sense as the sensation of a different sense, is called... (such as when sound produces the sensation of color)

Synesthesia -Estimated incidence is 1 in 23 people -Tends to run in families -Most common form is colored hearing -Most pairings are in one direction only (Example: in colored hearing, seeing a color does not elicit the sound.)

Psyche...

Synonym for mind; an entity once proposed to be the source of human behavior

In V2, what receives information from COLOR-sensitive neurons?

THIN Stripes

FRONTAL LOBES are critical not only to organizing behavior but also to organizing ________________.

THINKING (People with frontal-lobe damage have difficulty generating novel solutions to problems.)

Microdialysis...

Technique used to determine the chemical constituents of extracellular fluid (1. Semipermeable membrane is placed in the brain 2.Fluid flows in where it passes along the membrane 3. Diffusion drives the passage of extracellular molecules across the membrane 4. Fluid containing the molecules from the brain exits through tubing to be collected for analysis)

Membrane overlying hair cells in the INNER ear is called...

Tectorial Membrane

Knowledge about what objects are is represented in the ___________________ association cortex, part of the ventral visual stream.

Temporal (If the temporal association cortex is destroyed, the person will develop visual agnosia.)

Language and music both convey meaning and evoke emotion: -The right ______________ _________________ analyzes MUSICAL SOUNDS for meaning. -The left ______________ ________________ analyzes SPEECH for meaning.

Temporal Lobe, Temporal Lobe

The area/system responsible for the visual RECOGNITION system...

Temporal Visual Areas, Ventral Stream, V3 (dynamic form) , V4 (color form), V2, V1

The presence of which sex hormone/s affect the development of the brain in the following ways: -Number of neurons formed -Number of neurons that die -Cell growth, -Dendritic branching -Synaptic growth -Activity of synapses (Not just areas of brain related to sexual behavior: hormone/s can affect "higher functions" such as cognition)

Testosterone and Estrogen

What does the fact that 20% of patients with depression fail to respond to antidepressants suggest?

That depression can likely have MANY causes

An experiment on Free-Running Rhythms in Human subjects, put people in a bunker with no natural outside light or dark. What did it prove?

That very gradually waking activity shifted incrementally over time and their sleep as well. Showing that without external stimuli wake cycle shifts by a little each day.

With and AXOSECRETORY Synapse...

The AXON TERMINAL ends on a tiny BLOOD VESSEL and SECRETES transmitter directly into blood

With an AXOAXONIC Synapse...

The AXON TERMINAL ends on another AXON

With and AXOSYNAPTIC Synapse...

The AXON TERMINAL ends on another TERMINAL

What projects to the hypothalamus; damage alters food preferences, and abolishes taste-aversion learning?

The Amygdala

Which is the main PAIN pathway to the brain?

The Anterior Spinothalamic Tract

What is the CNS composed of?

The BRAIN and the SPINAL CORD together make up the central nervous system (CNS)

Which part of the brain organizes many types of ADAPTIVE movement in various species?

The BRAINSTEM (i.e. Maintaining posture, standing upright, coordinating movements of the limbs, swimming and walking, grooming the fur, and making nests)

What inspired AI?

The Brain! State-of-the-art methods (deep neural networks that learn from big data) inspired by neuroscience.

Scientists Golgi and Cajal, were instrumental in our understanding of...

The Cells of the Nervous System

Nudo and colleagues (1997) also manipulated experience manually in their research. They: -Had monkeys retrieve food from small or large food wells -Small wells required dexterous movements of one or two fingers, whereas the monkeys could put their entire hand in the large wells What was the result on plasticity?

The DIGIT REPRESENTATION on the motor cortex was LARGER for animals that had to retrieve food from the smaller wells (where more dexterity was required-corresponding to the neuronal changes necessary for the acquired skill)

Which neocortical lobe in the cerebral cortex within the forebrain is responsible for MOTOR and EXECUTIVE functions?

The FRONTAL Lobe

At 7 months, what forms in utero in the human nervous system?

The Gyri and Sulci

Factors, such as language, injury, hormones, experience, or genes, can be studied do determine....

The Influences on Brain and Behavioral Development

Which part of the eye does the following? -Focuses light -Bends to accommodate near and far objects

The Lens

Which organ is especially involved in catabolizing (breaking down and removing) drugs?

The Liver (Liver is capable of catabolizing many different drugs into forms that are more easily excreted from the body)

When viewing a picture of the brain from above, what separates the right and left hemisphere?

The Longitudinal Fissure

Where do Neurons and Glia come from/what are the origins?

The Neural Stem Cell > Progenitor > Blasts (Neuroblasts and Glioblasts) > Specialized (Neurons and Glia differentiate) See helpful visual chart on page 18 of lecture 8

Which neocortical lobe in the cerebral cortex within the forebrain is responsible for VISION?

The OCCIPITAL Lobe

Which neocortical lobe in the cerebral cortex within the forebrain is responsible for TACTILE functions?

The PARIETAL Lobe

Jerison, in 1973, was a proponent of which principle?

The Principle of Proper Mass

Where does light energy initiate neural activity?

The Retina

What is the SNS?

The Somatic Nervous System

A Spinal reflex is an example of...

The Spinal Cord acting independently of the brain (i.e. knee jerk reflex/patellar tendon)

What is the primary visual cortex?

The Striate Cortex (Region V1) Seen on the extreme posterior tip of the occipital lobe.

Which neocortical lobe in the cerebral cortex within the forebrain is responsible for VISUAL, AUDITORY, and GUSTATORY functions?

The TEMPORAL Lobe

Electrical Potential...

The ability to do work through the use of stored potential electrical energy

Luminance Contrast is...

The amount of light reflected by an object relative to its surroundings that allows input from RGCs to tell the brain about SHAPE.

How do action potentials code the different kinds of sensations (e.g. vision vs. touch)?

The answer to this is more complex: -Different sensations are processed in different areas of the cortex. -We learn to distinguish the senses through experience. -Each system has a distinct wiring set up at all levels of neural organization.

What is arguably the best therapy for depression?

The best therapy is not biological intervention it is Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT): Problem-focused, action-oriented, structured treatment for eliminating dysfunctional thoughts and maladaptive behavior.

Electrical charge across a resting membrane creates a store of potential energy, so...

The charge is a store of potential energy (membrane's resting potential.

In electrical stimulation, Electrical Recording...

The difference in voltage between the tip of a recording electrode and a reference electrode deflects a needle that indicates the current's voltage.

What are these facts evidence of? -Antipsychotic drugs block D2 receptors -Amphetamine promotes release of dopamine and can also produce symptoms similar to schizophrenia

The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

Executive function is associated with which part of the brain?

The frontal lobes (see photo with detailed breakdown of parts on page 57 of lecture 12) Key roles: -Control and planning -Problem solving -Inhibitory control PREfrontal and PARIETAL regions work closely together as a network and there are Inputs from many brain regions (See photo also on pg 59 of lecture 12)

According to Giles (2004) Loss of function in one brain area (e.g., frontal or temporal region) sometimes can release new functions elsewhere. What concern does this raise?

The idea of Cognitive Enhancement and the moral and ethical concerns surrounding it.

In Recovery from Brain Injury, What is the Lost-Neuron-Replacement Solution?

The implantation or replacement of lost cells to try to recover function in damaged areas.

What is a Chemical Synapse?

The junction where messenger molecules (neurotransmitters) are released from one neuron to excite or inhibit the next neuron

Why is the LEFT hemisphere specialized for LANGUAGE?

The left hemisphere plays a role in the control of fine movements, and fine movements are necessary for the production of language.

Predominant view (of when the formation of new neurons occurs) prior to the mid-1990s:

The mammalian brain does not make new neurons in adulthood

Dominant Allele...

The member of the gene pair that is routinely expressed

Recessive Allele...

The member of the gene pair that is routinely unexpressed

Reciprocal Connections for EXPLICIT Memory...

The neocortex projects to the entorhinal cortex, which projects back to the neocortex (Benefits: -Keep sensory experience alive in the brain -Neocortex kept apprised of the information being processed in medial temporal regions)

Scientist, Golgi, believed that...

The nervous system is composed of a network of interconnected fibers: a "nerve net"

Neuroplasticity is...

The nervous system's potential for physical or chemical change that enhances its adaptability to environmental change and its ability to compensate for injury

Incomplete Dominance...

The phenotypic expression of the dominant allele's trait is only partial

According to Penfield's single homunculus model...

The primary somatosensory cortex is organized as a single homunculus with large areas representing body parts that are very sensitive to sensory stimulation.

According to the Four-homunculus model...

The primary somatosensory cortex is organized into 4 separate homunculi consisting of areas 3a, 3b, 1, and 2. Information is passed from other areas into area 2 with is responsive to combined somatosensory information.

What is a Fundamental Frequency?

The rate at which a COMPLEX waveform pattern repeats

In the structure of a Chemical Synapse, the Postsynaptic Membrane (dendritic spine) is...

The receiving side of the chemical message; EPSPs or IPSPs are generated

Why is the RIGHT hemisphere specialized for SPATIAL abilities?

The right hemisphere plays a role in the control of actual movements in space and in mental imagery of such movements (the elaboration of the functions of the dorsal stream).

Treatments for Neurological Disorders: Neurosurgical...

The skull is opened, and some intervention is performed on the brain. (Like tumor removal, deep brain stimulation, stem cell therapy)

Absolute Refractory Period...

The state of an axon in the repolarizing period during which a new action potential cannot be elicited (with some exceptions) because gate 2 of sodium channels, which is not voltage-sensitive, is closed

Ethology is...

The study of animal behavior

What acts to repress the id and to mediate ongoing interactions between the ego and the id?

The superego

Codominance...

The traits of both alleles of a gene pair are expressed completely in the phenotype

Chang and Greenough (1982) manipulated experience manually in their research. They: -Placed patches over one eye of each rat so that the contralateral hemisphere was deprived of visual input -Trained rats on a maze What was the result on plasticity?

The visual cortex of the "trained hemisphere" (that received input from the eye without the patch) had MORE EXTENSIVE DENDRITES

What Makes Explicit and Implicit Memory Different?

The way Memories are ENCODED: IMPLICIT information is processed in a "BOTTOM-UP" or DATA-DRIVEN manner (Information is encoded in the SAME WAY it was PERCEIVED) EXPLICIT information is processed in a "TOP-DOWN" or CONCEPTUALLY-DRIVEN manner (The SUBJECT REORGANIZES the INFORMATION BEFORE it is ENCODED)

What is this describing? 1. Fibers entering the dorsal root bring sensory information from sensory receptors. 2. Fibers leaving the ventral root carry motor information to the muscles. 3. Collateral branches of sensory neurons may cross to the other side and influence motor neurons there. 4. White matter fiber tracts carry information to and from the brain.

The way information is shared through the somatosensory and motor systems. (see picture on slide 8 of lecture 11)

What is this describing? 1. Posterior-root ganglion NEURONS that carry fine touch and pressure information have large myelinated AXON whose RECEPTORS are located in the SKIN, MUSCLES , and TENDONS. 2. The CELL BODY is located in a POSTERIOR-ROOT GANGLION. 3. Fine touch and pressure AXONS ASCEND in the ipsilateral SPINAL CORD, forming the POSTERIOR SPINOTHALAMIC TRACT.

The way sensory information travels from fingertip to the Somatosensory Cortex finger tip (receptors)-> axons (within the tissue of finger)-> cell body (within posterior-root ganglion of spinal cord) ->Brainstem->Thalamus->Somatosensory Homunculus

On the visual on page 47 of lecture 14, each dot (looks like a wave of them passing from the synapse) represents the amplitude of the EPSP in response to one weak test simulation. This (wave) shows FIELD POTENTIAL in the process of researching what?

The way they stimulate and then record LONG-TERM POTENTIATION (defined as "In response to stimulation at a synapse, changed amplitude of an excitatory postsynaptic potential that lasts for hours to days or longer")

What is this describing? -The greater the AMPLITUDE of the incoming sound waves, the greater the FIRING rate of bipolar cells in the cochlea. -More INTENSE sound waves trigger more intense movements of the basilar membrane, which results in GREATER shearing ACTION of the hair cells, which leads to MORE neurotransmitter release onto bipolar cells.

The way we detect LOUDNESS

What were early clues that linked electricity and neuronal activity..

The work of Galvani (18th century), Fritsch and Hitzig (Mid-19th Century), Bartholow (1874), Caton (Early 19th Century)

Current thoughts on if the formation of new neurons occurs in adult mammals...

There is now evidence that neurogenesis does occur in the mammalian brain: -Olfactory bulb, hippocampal formation, and possibly the neocortex (Reason for neurogenesis is still unclear)

How are these related? -Feedback Loops (Control the amount of hormone that is released) -Neural Regulation (Other brain regions (e.g., limbic system and frontal lobes) influence hormone release) -Experiential Responses (Experience can alter the structure and function of hypothalamic neurons)

They are factors involved in controlling hypothalamic hormone-related activity

Why should the GABAergic agonists acohol and anti-anxiety drugs (benzodiazepines) NOT be taken together?

They both work on the GABA receptor and their actions summate. Alcohol maximizes the TIME it is open (increased GABA binding) and benzodiazepines influences the FREQUENCY of pore opening.

After the olfactory receptor cells are engaged, what happens?

They project to the olfactory bulb, then... (there is more than one olfactory pathway) -Many olfactory targets (amygdala and pyriform cortex) have no connection through the thalamus -Thalamic connection does project to the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) (Emotional, social, and eating behaviors)

Where do neurons in the spinal cord that relay pain and temperature messages to the brain get their information from?

They receive two sets of signals: -the body's surface -internal organs This can be the cause of REFERRED pain: Pain in the heart associated with a heart attack is felt as pain in the left shoulder and upper arm

How do we go from thought to speech?

Thought -> Wernicke's area (contains sound images of words)-> Broca's area (stores motor programs for speaking words) -> facial area of motor cortex -> cranial nerves -> speak

Meninges...

Three layers of protective tissue around the brain

How do we hear PITCH?

Tonotopic Representation

What is the characteristic of the "family" of Great Apes?

Tool Use

Neural spatial representation of the body or areas of the sensory world perceived by a sensory organ is called...

Topographic Organization

TRACTOGRAPHY measures actual neuroanatomical pathways that can be related to specific ___________.

Traits (like perfect pitch) (Can be done quickly on many living brains, and measurements can be made simultaneously in the entire brain)

Which electrophysiological treatment is this describing? -A magnetic coil placed over the scalp induces an electrical current in underlying brain regions. -Can be applied to local brain regions (focal areas) thought to be implicated in specific disorders -Manipulation of the magnetic field can stimulate an area of cortex as small as a quarter—the cortical surface only or deeper layers of brain tissue.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) (Studies report positive effects treating DEPRESSION, but the required duration of treatment and the duration of beneficial effects remain under investigation. Promising studies have extended the possible benefits of TMS to SCHIZOPHRENIC auditory hallucinations, ANXIETY disorders, hemiparesis, neurodegenerative DISEASES, and PAIN syndrome.)

Microtubules (parts of a cell)...

Transport the vesicles to where they need to go within the cell or outside of the cell

Treatments for Neurological Disorders: Behavioral...

Treatment manipulates the body or the experience, which in turn influences the brain.

Among the various animal phyla, the nervous system has evolved considerably. True or False?

True

Because the term SUPERIOR can be used to describe structures DORSALLY and INFERIOR can be used to describe structures VENTRALLY the terms only have to do with location not importance. True or False?

True

Circuits that involve the amygdala take part in fear conditioning in rats (Pavlovian Conditioning utilizing shock). True or False?

True

Each hemisphere of the brain is divided into 4 lobes which define the broad divisions of the Cerebral Cortex. True or False?

True

In humans cases, If sensory or social deprivation is relatively short (e.g., less than a few months), the child may be able be to overcome some of the negative effects. True or False?

True

Most behaviors probably consist of a mix of inherited and learned actions.

True

Musical ability is generally a right-hemisphere specialization complementary to language ability, localized in the left hemisphere in most people. True or False?

True

Only Animalia, contains species with muscles and nervous systems. True or False?

True

Pale zones located in V2 Receive information from FORM-sensitive neurons. True or False?

True

Receptive fields of cells in the cortex are typically larger than those of RGCs. True or False?

True

The HOMINID brain was the size of that of a modern ape, about one-third the size of the modern human brain. True or False?

True

The chordate phylum display the greatest degree of encephalization: they have a true brain. True or False?

True

The exact reason we replaced neanderthals is unknown. True or False?

True

The modern human brain has the largest size relative to body weight. True or False?

True

The only input our brains receive from the "real" world is a series of action potentials passed along the neurons of our various sensory pathways. True or False?

True

There are approximately equal numbers of red and green cones, but fewer blue cones. True or False?

True

True or False? -There is some evidence that prenatal exposure to psychoactive drugs may increase the chance of later drug use and -Prenatal exposure to drugs such as nicotine and caffeine increase the chance of learning disabilities and hyperactivity

True

Place cells are used as part of the recording of action potentials of a single cell. True or False?

True (the picture showed what looked like 4 cells with different types of electrical patterns, sort of like the result of when you hold a magnet over magnetic fibers and they are moved in different shapes)

Amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) are used for radio. Whales use both for communication over long distances. True or False?

True! -AM works over longer distances -FM less prone to interference but impacted by physical barriers

A critical characteristic of human motor sequencing is our ability to create novel sequences with ease. True or False?

True.

A single neuron may use one transmitter at one synapse and a different transmitter at another synapse. True or False?

True.

About 1 person in 20 has at least one seizure in his or her lifetime, usually associated with an infection, fever, or hyperventilation during childhood. True or False?

True.

Are these statements regarding the Biological Clock true or false? -Behavior is not simply driven by external cues from the environment -Rhythms are endogenous (control comes from within)

True.

Basal Ganglia: control and coordination of movement patterns rather than in activating the muscles to move. True or False?

True.

Both EPSPs and IPSPs last only a few milliseconds before they decay and the resting potential is restored. True or False?

True.

Brain function depends upon ongoing expression of genes, interactions of myriad chemicals, and functioning and connections of glia and neurons. True or False?

True.

Drugs can be administered in many ways. True or False?

True.

Emotional Memory can me implicit or explicit. True or False?

True.

Endothelial cell walls in the brain are fused to form "tight junctions," so most substances cannot squeeze between them. True or False?

True.

Engaging in cognitively stimulating activities can keep neural networks and general cognitive function from declining with age. True or False?

True.

Every individual has a capacity to develop into more than one phenotype. True or False.

True.

Females are twice as sensitive to drugs on average Smaller body size, hormonal differences. True or False?

True.

Humans have a basic template for language that is programmed into the brain, and experience adds a variety of specific structural forms to this template. True or False?

True.

Increased motor dexterity is associated with a decrease in cortical thickness in the hand region of the left motor cortex of right-handers. True or False?

True.

It is rare for someone to be impaired in all forms of memory so each must be measured separately. True or False?

True.

It is thought that the ability to manipulate an object in the mind's eye probably flows from the ability to manipulate tangible objects with the hands. True or False?

True.

It is thought that the ability to mentally manipulate things likely evolved in parallel with our ability to navigate in space (spatial cognition). True or False?

True.

Karl Lashley searched in vain for the neural circuits underlying memories. True or False?

True.

Language gives humans an edge in thinking. True or False?

True.

Measuring Synaptic Change: Modifying Existing Circuits... Neurons change their structure in response to their changing experiences. True or False?

True.

Most governments regulate the use of animals in research and universities and other research organizations have additional rules governing animal use. True or False?

True.

Music processing is largely a right-hemisphere specialization. True of False?

True.

NEURONS: As you learn to recognize some of their different types, you will also see how their specialized structures contribute to their functions in your body. True or False?

True.

No one neurotransmitter is associated with a single receptor type. True or False?

True.

One of the examples of sexual difference between men and women is connectivity in the brain. True or False?

True.

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide are fat soluble and that aids in the ease of passing through the capillaries to the brain. True or False?

True.

Prozac, an SSRI, enhances neurogenesis in the hippocampus which might be part of therapeutic effect. True or False?

True.

Recent research shows women surpass men in incidence of addiction to many drugs. True or False?

True.

Regarding perception by the somatosensory system, areas with larger numbers of receptors are more sensitive to stimulation than areas with relatively fewer receptors. True or False?

True.

Retinal Ganglion Cells (RGCs) are in a concentric circle arrangement; center and surround (periphery), and include on-center cells and off-center cells. True or False?

True.

Sensitization may be related to the development of drug dependence. True or False?

True.

Similar tonotopic maps to the one that was described to process pitch can be constructed for each level of the auditory system. True or False?

True.

Some disorders are easy to model (e.g., stroke) in brain-behavior research on animals. True or False?

True.

Some kinds of neurotransmitters are inhibitory at one location and excitatory at another. True or False?

True.

Studying sleep and sleep-related disorders may help us to understand the neural basis of consciousness. True or False?

True.

Surgery and Transplantation have also been used to treat Parkinsons. True or False?

True.

The consequences of sleep deprivation may become apparent only some time after an experimental manipulation has taken place. True or False?

True.

The hippocampal formation in food-storing birds and rodents is larger than the hippocampal formation in birds and rodents that do not store food. True or False?

True.

The production of new neurons does take place throughout life and some behavior depends on new neurons. True or False?

True.

The sensitization induced by repeated exposure to amphetamine changes the structure of neurons in certain brain areas. True or False.

True.

There are also touch screen tests for mice, to analyze behavior. True or False?

True.

There are parallels between birdsong and human language. True or False?

True.

There has been great difficulty developing drugs that can pass through the BBB. True or False?

True.

There is cerebral assymetry in the brain which plays a role in thinking and language. True or False?

True.

There is no single place in the nervous system that can be identified as the location of memory or learning. True or False?

True.

True or False? Regarding the study of Neuroanatomy, there are dozens of techniques now available that allow researchers to identify molecular, neurochemical, and structural differences among neuronal types.

True.

Variations in gene sequences contribute to brain organization. True or False?

True.

We can discriminate thousands of odors, yet we have great difficulty finding words to describe what we smell. True or False?

True.

Research is directed toward making drugs more selective in targeting specific disorders while producing fewer side effects. True or False?

True. (-Improved drug chemistry will reduce side effects, as will improved delivery modes that bring a drug to a target system with minimal effects on other systems. -Liposomes consisting of a synthetic vesicle with a homing peptide on the surface can carry a drug across the blood-brain barrier and deliver it within the nervous system.)

MS symptoms can be improved or alleviated by cleaning or expanding veins from the brain. True or False?

True. (Insufficient blood drainage from the brain can be improved with "Liberation therapy": chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency CCSVI)

In humans and other animals with a severed spinal cord, spinal reflexes still function even though the spinal cord is cut off from communication with the brain. True or False?

True. (Paralyzed limbs may display spontaneous movements or spasms. The brain can no longer guide the timing of these automatic movements.)

Usually, wanting and liking occur together but this is not always the case. True or False?

True. (Robinson and Berridge (2008): Wanting and liking have SEPARABLE neural systems Wanting: Involves DOPAMINE Liking: Involves OPIOID and benzodiazepine-GABA systems) Visual of both systems available on page 68 of lecture 12

We do not yet understand all of the brain's parts and their functions, nor is it clear how the brain produces mind, a sense of well-being, and a sense of self. True or False?

True. (Significant advances have led to the realization that while in some circumstances the brain copes competently with life's challenges, in other circumstances, it is not up to the task.)

For every person diagnosed with dementia, it is estimated that several others endure undiagnosed cognitive impairments that affect their quality of life. True or False?

True. (The World Health Organization estimates that by 2050, incidence of dementia will balloon to 135.5 million people worldwide.)

Our sensitivity to sound waves is extraordinary. True or False?

True. (We can detect the displacement of air molecules of about 10 picometers)

Hormones can affect plasticity. True or False?

True. -High levels of estrogen: More dendritic spines in the hippocampus -Low levels of estrogen: More dendritic spines in neocortex but fewer dendritic spines in the hippocampus (related to memory decline in middle-aged females?) -Low levels of testosterone: More dendritic spines in neocortex (related to decrease in spatial ability?)

A distinctive aspect of Parkinson disease is its on-again/off-again quality: symptoms may appear suddenly and just as suddenly disappear. True or False?

True. -Partial remission may also occur in response to interesting or stimulating situations. (Simply playing familiar music can help an otherwise inactive patient get up and dance, for example.)

True or False? We hear variations of a sound as if they were identical.

True. -Unique to perception of speech sounds -The auditory system has a mechanism for categorizing sounds as the same, despite small differences in pronunciation. (Makes learning foreign languages later in life more difficult)

There is functional asymmetry in an undamaged normal brain.

True. 1. Dichotic Listening Experimental procedure for simultaneously presenting a different auditory input to each ear through stereophonic earphones shows -RIGHT-EAR advantage for VERBAL information -LEFT-EAR advantage for MUSICAL information 2. Visual System: RIGHT-VISUAL-field advantage for LANGUAGE-related information -LEFT-VISUAL-field advantage for nonverbal, SPATIAL information (Remember that the visual field is chiastic so the right visual field corresponds to the left side of the brain)

SENSORY pathways are AFFERENT. True or False?

True. AFFERENT somatoSENSory information travels from the body inward via the Somatic Nervous System

Chronic effects of TBI injuries often are not accompanied by any obvious neurological signs or abnormalities in CT or MRI scans. True or False?

True. Can cause: -Loss of complex cognitive functions, including reductions in mental speed, concentration, and overall cognitive efficiency -TBIs that DAMAGE the FRONTAL and TEMPORAL lobes also tend to significantly affect PERSONALITY and SOCIAL BEHAVIOR.

People raised in widely different cultures may acquire differences in brain structure that have lifelong effects on their behavior. True or False?

True. Culture is an important aspect of the human environment, so culture must help to mold the human brain

Cell assemblies provide the basis for cognition. True or False?

True. Different ensembles come together, much like words in language, to produce coherent thoughts.

(Regarding the Epigenetics of Memory) Specific sites in the DNA of neurons involved in specific memories might exist in either methylated on nonmethylated states. True or False?

True. Example: Fear conditioning is associated with rapid methylation, but if they blocked methylation, there was no memory

There are parallels between human language and birdsong. True or False?

True. In many bird species, song development is heavily influenced by experience during a critical period, just as language development is in humans. Birds also go through stages in song development, just as humans go through stages in language development

Sleep is not a passive process that takes place as a result of a decrease in sensory stimulation. True or False?

True. Sensory deprivation research has shown that people actually sleep LESS, not more, when placed in isolated environments (contrary to what one would expect)

More of the human brain is dedicated to vision than to any other sense. True or False?

True. Understanding the visual system's organization is therefore key to understanding human brain function.

Within the human species, clear differences in (food) taste thresholds and preferences are obvious. True or False?

True. i.e. Supertasters versus nontasters

The Brain is always electrically active. True or False?

True. (Electrical measures of brain activity are important for studying brain function)

Excessive stress early in life may be especially detrimental. True or False?

True. (During critical periods in early childhood, abuse or other severe environmental stress can permanently disrupt HPA axis reactivity: it becomes constantly overactive. Overactivity in the HPA axis results in oversecretion of cortisol, an imbalance associated with DEPRESSION IN ADULTHOOD.)

N-dreams are less vivid. True or False?

True. (N-dreams are less vivid except... Night terrors: Brief, very frightening dreams May be experienced by children Occur in N-sleep)

The Visual Field is divided into left and right halves. True or False?

True. -Information in left visual field goes to the right hemisphere -Information in the right visual field goes to the left hemisphere

According to findings based on Opponent-Process Theory, Ewald Hearing (1874), Opponent processing occurs in retinal ganglion cells. True or False?

True. On-off/center-surround receptive fields ~60% of retinal ganglion cells

True or False? Hormones affect almost every neuron in the brain.

True. (Hormones > Neurons > Genes > Proteins)

Fine-tuning of neural connections proceeds in an ACTIVITY-DEPENDENT manner. True or False?

True. An example of this is the vision development of an infant kitten: -In a kitten that is using both eyes the projections (see chart on page 59 of lecture 8) from both eyes overlap and begin to separate and mature in adolescence and are fully separated in adulthood. -With a kitten that had an eyelid sewn shut during a critical week of vision development the projection overlap in that eye does not continue to overlap for as long and the vision does not mature and develop properly.

Chordate nervous systems can vary. True or False?

True. But they all have some things in common.

Neurons continuously change their shape. True or False?

True. They grow and shrink.

Decrease in glucocorticoid receptors presumably renders the hippocampus less able to end stress responses. True or False?

True. This is seen in the reduced glucocorticoid mRNA and reduced number and/or density of these receptors in childhood sexual abuse victims. Which suggests epigenetic changes.

On the subject of the Structural Basis of Brain Plasticity: When we do the following what are we looking for? -Determine how synaptic changes are correlated with memory in the mammalian brain -Localize the synaptic changes to specific neural pathways -Analyze the nature of the synaptic changes themselves.

Trying to find find neural correlates of memory

Regarding epigenetics, Fraga and colleagues (2005) in their study of twins, showed that...

Twins have nearly identical patterns of gene expression early in life, but remarkably different by age 50

Studying _________ and adopted children allows us to tease apart environmental and genetic contributions to behavior.

Twins.

Water Molecule (Basic Chemistry Review)...

Two hydrogen atoms share electrons unequally with one oxygen atom creating a polar water molecule positively charged on the hydrogen end, and negatively charged on the oxygen end

Sequential Synthesis of Three Amines

Tyrosine --> L-Dopa --> Dopamine --> Norepinephrine --> Epinephrine

As part of their research Mishkin proposed a _________________ Neural Circuit for Implicit Memory.

UNIDIRECTIONAL -Mishkin believes that IMPLICIT memories are UNCONSCIOUS because the CONNECTIONS between the basal ganglia and cortex ARE UNIDIRECTIONAL -Basal ganglia receives information from the cortex, but does not project back to the cortex -For memories to be CONSCIOUS, there must be FEEDBACK to the CORTEX -Medial temporal lobe projects back to the cortex, so explicit memories are conscious

Diagnosing Schizophrenia: Genetics- -Concordance of schizophrenia in identical twins is high (up to about 50%) -It is _______________________ that a single gene or a mutation on that gene accounts for the condition.

UNLIKELY Mutations on A NUMBER OF of chromosomes (chromosomes 1, 6, 8, 13, and 22 are candidates) predispose an individual to schizophrenia.

In Pavlovian Conditioning, what is the following called? A stimulus that UNconditionally — naturally and automatically — triggers a response, like a puff of air in the eye

UNconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Brain tumors are...

Uncontrolled growth of new tissue that is independent of surrounding structures - Gliomas - from glial cells - Meningiomas - attach to meninges and grow outside of the brain - Metastatic tumors - cells from another body region

Electrophysiological Treatments: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)...

Uses electrical current to produce seizures as a treatment for severe depression (-Stimulates the production of neurotrophic factors (e.g., BDNF) that in turn restore inactive cells to a more active mode -Problems Need to medicate person to avoid the massive convulsions caused by the electrical stimulation ECT leads to memory loss that can show a cumulative effect with repeated treatments.)

Receptive Field Hierarchy: The receptive fields of many RGC's combine to make the receptive field of a single LGN cell. The receptive fields of many LGN cells combine to form the receptive field of a single __________ cell.

V1

The other regions of the visual cortex (such as V3, V4, and V5) have topographical maps similar to that of...

V1

Segregation of information about movement, color, and form is maintained at...

V1 and V2

Neurons in which Cortical Region do NOT respond to particular wavelengths, but are responsive to different perceived colors? (Center of the receptive field is excited by a certain color and the surround is INHIBITED. May be important for COLOR CONSTANCY Perceived color is CONSTANT relative to other colors, regardless of changes in illumination)

V4

What controls the female mating posture (lordosis)?

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Within each ear, there is a ___________________ organ that contains: -Three semicircular canals -Otolith organs (utricle and saccule)

Vestibular (see images of Vestibular organs and system on slide 74 of lecture 11)

In what type of therapy can a participant experience sights, sounds, and even smells that mimic situations related to the behavioral disorder (e.g., PTSD)?

Virtual Reality Therapy (In modified virtual reality therapy, the patient interacts with a virtual world like a character in a computer game.)

When processing shape in the TEMPORAL Cortex, Cells are maximally excited by complex ________________ stimuli.

Visual (May even be selective to particular faces seen head-on, to faces viewed in profile, to the posture of the head, or even to certain facial expressions)

In the TECTUM (part of the Midbrain) the superior colliculus receives...

Visual input

The Hippocampus is involved in the task described below. What is it called? "Using visual information to identify an object's location in space" (-Laboratory animals and human patients with selective hippocampal injury have severe deficits in various forms of spatial memory -Monkeys with hippocampal lesions have difficulty learning the location of objects)

Visuospatial Memory

What are the stages of sleep?

W - waking R - Rapid eye movement (R sleep) sleep N - N sleep, with three stages N1-N3

Although antidepressants affect synapses very quickly, their antidepressive actions take ___________ to develop

WEEKS

For many drug therapies, a drug must be taken for a number of...

WEEKS before it has beneficial effects (SENSITIZATION may underlie development of the drug's beneficial effects)

Which type of Aphasia is this describing? The inability to UNDERSTAND or to PRODUCE meaningful language even though the production of words is still intact.

WERNICKE'S aphasia

Complex Nervous System (i.e. human) equals

WIDER range of behavior

Neurons can convey information as a ______________ induced by stimulation on the cell body traveling down the axon to its terminal

Wave. (A voltmeter detects passage of the wave.)

Sound waves are...

Waves of pressure changes in air molecules/Undulating displacement of molecules caused by changing pressure

Posterior speech area at the rear of the left temporal lobe that regulates language comprehension is called...

Wernicke's area

In the SOMATIC Nervous System (part of the PNS), what do the Nicotinic ACh Receptors do?

When ACh (or nicotine) binds to this receptor, its pore opens to permit ion flow, thus depolarizing the MUSCLE fiber.

Regarding Recovery from Brain Injury, What is the Three-Legged Cat Solution?

When a cat loses a leg, it is usually able to compensate, not by growing a new leg, but rather, by learning how to walk with only three legs (The same ability to compensate is also present in humans: If someone loses a certain ability, such as being able to write with their right hand, they may be able to compensate by learning how to write with their left hand)

Tolerance can be defined as...

When a larger dose is required to maintain the drug's initial effect

In the structure of a Chemical Synapse, the Presynaptic Membrane (axon terminal) is...

Where the action potential terminates to release the chemical message

Who confirmed the role of primary motor cortex in producing movement in humans?

Wilder Penfield (Used electrical stimulation to map the cortices of human patients who were about to undergo neurosurgery)

Hyperpolarization due to K+ efflux...

With TEA surrounding the axon (blocks potassium channels), a smaller-than-normal action potential due entirely to a Na+ influx is recorded

Depolarization due to Na+ influx...

With tetrodotoxin (to block sodium channels), a slightly different action potential due entirely to the efflux of potassium is recorded.

When did the Homo Sapiens appear?

Within the last 200,000 years

Schwann Cell (One of the 5 types of Glial Cells)...

Wrap around PERIPHERAL nerves to form myelin/myelinates axons in the PNS

Will the consumption of alcohol produce tolerance?

YES. In a study after 15-20 days blood alcohol levels and signs of intoxication fell and more alcohol was required to produce intoxication.

Can you measure blood flow in different areas of the brain to indicate activity in that area when performing a task?

Yes. (i.e. bloodflow increases in the premotor cortex when subjects perform a sequence of movements)

Does the left hemisphere play some role in certain aspects of music processing?

Yes. (such as those involved in making music: -recognizing written music -playing instruments -composing)

Are there cerebral asymmetries in other species?

Yes. -Most mammals and many birds have asymmetries. -Cerebral asymmetry cannot be just for language. -Language simply took advantage of existing lateralized processes.

Are there areas outside the occipital cortex that are responsible for some portion of vision?

Yes. 1. Fusiform face area (FFA): recognizing faces 2. Parahippocampal place area (PPA): analyzing landmarks 3. Lateral intraparietal area (LIP): related to eye movements 4. Anterior intraparietal area (AIP): visual control of grasping

Are there sex differences in connectome?

Yes. However two major problems related to this study... -Effect size was very small, so although on average there is a M-F difference, distributions are largely overlapping -Widespread press coverage that was completely detached from any of the findings

Does having a Split Brain procedure affect Functional Asymmetry?

Yes. Language Abilities: -When objects are presented in the right visual field (information goes to left hemisphere-which can speak), split-brain patients can easily name them. -When objects are presented in the left visual field (information goes to right hemisphere-which cannot speak), split-brain patients cannot name them.

Can NEURONS learn to respond SELECTIVELY to stimuli?

Yes. Seen specifically in the visual neurons of V4 (neurons can learn to respond selectively to information in their receptive field)

Does the cerebellum help to make adjustments required to keep movements accurate?

Yes. Example: -Subject throws dart at target. -Subject then tries again after putting prism glasses on. -Prisms are removed and subject adapts. (A normal participant adapts when wearing the prisms and shows aftereffects when they are removed. A patient with damage to the cerebellum fails to make adjustments when prisms are on and shows no aftereffects when they are removed.)

Can Drugs Cause Brain Damage?

Yes. (However, It is difficult to determine if recreational drugs are harmful Is it the drug itself or factors associated with drug use? Do drugs initiate problems or aggravate pre-existing conditions? Hard to isolate which ingredients may be the harmful ones. But there is a list of known brain damaging drugs.)

What can serve as a guide of the brains left hemisphere and its lobes?

Your right fist (frontal lobe-fingers, parietal lobe-top of knuckles, temporal lobe-thumb, occipital lobe-wrist)

The sudden appearance of neurological symptoms as a result of severe interruption of blood flow is..

a Stroke (7,500 people per year in Ireland 500,000 per year in US)

Ion (Basic Chemistry Review)...

a charged atom

The Autonomic Nervous System is...

a component of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that regulates involuntary physiologic processes including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal

An ACTION POTENTIAL occurs when...

a large concentration of, first, Na+ ions, then, K+ ions crosses the membrane rapidly (the opening of Na+ channels produces Na+ influx, and the Opening of K+ channels produces a K+ efflux.)

In Spatial Summation, EPSP's produced at the same time and close together, add to form...

a larger EPSP

Epigenetic changes can persist throughout...

a lifetime and even across multiple generations. (From a wide range of experiential factors such as: Chronic stress, traumatic events, drugs, culture, disease.)

Topographic map is....

a neural-spatial representation of the body or of the areas of the sensory world perceived by a sensory organ

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test is...

a neuropsychological measure of planning and abstract reasoning that is sensitive to frontal lobe damage (Patients are given a card sorting task (with numbers on the cards), but the colors vary and those with frontal lobe injuries struggle to adjust strategy as the colors change)

Cortical Column

a small volume of neural tissue (six cortical layers deep and approximately 0.5 mm square) running through the layers of the cortex perpendicular to its surface

In "Brain-Body Orientation" DORSAL describes...

a structure ATOP the brain or IN the brain

Morris (1980) Analyzed the Behavior of Rodents through...

a swimming task. (There was a tiny submerged platform in a little round pool of water in the center of a room. Rodent had to find it.) Place learning:Rat must find platform using external cues Matching-to-place learning: Platform is in the same location each trial, but a different location each day Landmark version: Platform is identified by a cue on the wall

The cerebral cortex is...

a thin sheet of nerve tissue folded many times to fit inside the skull

"Anatomical Orientation" illustrates the direction of a cut, or section, through the brain from the perspective of...

a viewer

Now possible with high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU), Parkinson's disease can sometimes be treated with...

ablation.

Neural changes associated with learning must last long enough to...

account for a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior

In DORSAL Stream Neuronal Activity, the Posterior Parietal Cortex is involved in processing visual information for ________________: the "how" stream.

action

Living in a Social World: Our understanding of our "self " and our social interactions link together as a single mental _______________.

action -When we express attitudes (including prejudices) toward ideas or human groups, brain imaging shows activation in prefrontal, anterior cingulate, and lateral parietal regions. -Replication important

All sensory information from all sensory systems is encoded by _________________ __________________ that travel along peripheral nerves in the somatic nervous system to the CNS.

action potentials

One reason we are conscious may be because consciousness provides an _______________ advantage.

adaptive

The best approaches recognize that addiction will be a life-long problem for most people, thus...

addiction must be treated in the SAME way as other individual and medical problems are treated

Anterograde amnesia: Inability to remember events...

after disturbance of the brain

In the earliest stage of embryonic development all vertebrates look...

alike.

Encephalitis is...

an infection of the brain itself (One form, Rasmussen encephalitis, attacks one hemisphere in children. In most cases hemispherectomy is only effective treatment. In some children brain function adapts, but in others it leads intellectual disabilities. Vaccinations are highly effective against some forms of encephalitis.)

Audition is as important a sense to many _________________ as vision is to humans.

animals (Like humans, many animals also communicate with other members of their species by using sound.)

How many kinds of neurotransmitters have been identified?

approximately 50

what connects Wernicke's and Broca's area?

arcuate fasciculus

The Brain Stem, Forebrain, and Brain Stem...

are the 3 major components that mediate behavior

In the Skilled reaching task (Whishaw and Kolb, 2005), Rats...

are trained to reach through slot to obtain food (Movements can be broken down into segments, which are differently affected by different types of neurological perturbation)

Habitual drug users initially experience pleasure but then endure psychological and physiological withdrawal symptoms...

as the drug wears off.

Capillaries in the brain are different because they have tight junctions and are covered with...

astrocyte feet (which prevent materials from moving in and out easily)

In "Brain-Body Orientation" POSTERIOR is...

at the BACK

Chromosome pairs 1 through 22 are called...

autosomes (and they contain the genes that contribute most to our physical appearance and behavioral functions)

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) -Brain imaging reveals discrete lesions in the brain. -Proposed causes include... -Remissions and relapses are common

bacterial infection, a virus, environmental factors including pesticides, an immune response of the central nervous system, misfolded proteins, and lack of vitamin D.

Oral drug administration is easy and convenient but has the most...

barriers to the brain

Movement of the ________________ _________________ stimulates the hair cells of the inner ear via bending and shearing action.

basilar membrane

In Evolutionary Psychology, what is the reason that behaviors exist?

because the neural circuits producing them have been favored through natural selection

Retrograde amnesia: Inability to remember events that took place....

before the onset of amnesia

Emotion and Motivation are key factors in studying and understanding....

behavior

Caution!!!! against the assumption of a simple cause-and-effect relation between a neurotransmitter and a...

behavior!

We can also relate the alleles of specific genes to...

behaviors.

Within the cochlea, the basilar membrane has a narrow, thick base tuned for high frequencies and a wide, thin apex tuned for low frequencies. Sound waves at medium frequencies cause peak ________________ in the membrane in the middle.

bending

Pheromones are...

biochemicals released by one animal that act as CHEMOSIGNALS and can affect the physiology or behavior of another animal

This region has no photoreceptors...

blind spot (Region of the retina (known as the optic disc) where axons forming the optic nerve leave the eye and where blood vessels enter and leave)

Effects of a stroke depends on which artery is...

blocked

What does BBB stand for?

blood brain barrier

Drugs in adhesive patches are absorbed through the skin and into the...

bloodstream

Drugs that are weak acids pass from the stomach into the...

bloodstream

Sounds are products of the....

brain

Psychiatric disorders are assumed to be due to....

brain malfunction

Australopithecus' brain was the size of other living non-human apes but succeeding members of the human lineage saw an increase in...

brain size

What is the Histological technique for studying Neuroanatomy?

brains sectioned postmortem and tissue stained with different dyes

How do PAG neurons produce their pain-suppressing effect when stimulated?

by exciting pathways in the brainstem that project to the spinal cord where they inhibit neurons that form the ascending pain pathways.

Most of the 2 frontal lobes have _________________ connections. But the occipital lobes have almost none.

callosal

Examining how one cell works can be a source of insight that we can generalize to other...

cell types

Slow-moving animals such as the sloth have smaller...

cerebellums relative to their brain size

Emergence of complex behavior in chordates is closely related to the evolution of which two parts of the brain?

cerebrum and cerebellum

An ACTION POTENTIAL is produced by...

changes in voltage-sensitive K+ and Na+ channels, which can be blocked by TEA and tetrodotoxin, respectively.

Genes control the cell's production of...

chemicals (so it is possible to relate behavior to genes and to chemicals inside and outside the cell)

Inside the cochlea, the movement of the basilar me membrane in response to sound waves creates a shearing forces that bends ____________ in contact with and near the overlying tectorial membrane.

cilia (This bending generates NEURAL ACTIVITY in the hair cells from which the cilia extend)

Taxonomy...

classifies groups of living organisms into increasingly specific subordinate groups

Cochlear-nerve axons synapse in the...

cochlear nucleus

What projects to the superior olive (a nucleus in the olivary complex) and the trapezoid body?

cochlear nucleus (Projections from the cochlear nucleus connect with cells on the same side of the brain as well as with cells on the opposite side.)

Emotion is defined as...

cognitive interpretation of subjective feelings

Early deprivation of sensory experience (e.g., being placed in dark) has the opposite effect of...

cognitively stimulating environments: atrophy of dendrites

Investigations of Einstein's brain (which was a normal weight and size), imply that cerebral __________________ and high glia-to-neuron ratio may play important roles in intelligence. (Example: greater glia-to-neuron ratio in the inferior parietal cortex involved in mathematical reasoning)

connectivity

Jeannerod and Colleagues (1991), proved that it is possible to dissociate motor behavior and _____________ awareness. (Subjects made movements before they were actually aware of them.)

conscious

Nocioceptive (pain, temperature, itch) nerve fibers synapse with neurons whose axons cross to the ________________________ side of the spinal cord before ascending to the brain.

contralateral (see detailed description and visual on slide 58 of lecture 11)

Damage at the sit of impact in a TBI is called a coup. Force of injury creates a ________________ on the opposite side of the injury.

contrecoup

In mammals, each sensory system has at least one primary ______________ area. These may project to secondary areas.

cortical

From each LGN, information from each retina is sent to adjacent _________________ __________________, thus maintaining the separation of information from each retina.

cortical columns

Seeing Shape: Place before the eye a straight line positioned at a 45°angle. The cell could respond to this stimulus either by increasing or decreasing its firing rate. The cell could show excitation to one stimulus, inhibition to another stimulus or no reaction at all In either case, we would conclude that the cell is _________________ _________________ about the line. This shows that the cell's response to a particular stimulus is SELECTIVE.

creating information

In "Anatomical Orientation" a CORONAL Section is...

cut in a VERTICAL plane, from the crown of the head down, yielding a FRONTAL view of the brain's internal structures

In a chromosome, Adenine (A) binds with thymine (T). And Guanine (G) binds with ...

cytosine (C)

Intensity or loudness of sound is measured in...

decibels (dB)

Antagonists inhibit...

decreasing muscle tone

We perceive the shortest visible wavelengths as...

deep purple

In Neuroeconomics the ReFLECtive system (of decision making) is defined as...

deliberate, slow, rule-driven, and emotionally neutral (lateral prefrontal, medial temporal, and posterior parietal cortex)

How does information flow through a Neuron?

dendrite (tree branches) -> cell body (tear drop/trunk) -> axon (snake like root)-> end foot (end of root tip)

In Diagnosing Schizophrenia BRAIN CORRELATES are indicative: -Large ventricles and thinner cortex in the medial temporal and frontal regions -Composition of neurons and fibers of the temporal and frontal lobes changes -Abnormal _________________ fields in cells of the dorsal prefrontal regions, hippocampus, and entorhinal cortex

dendritic

Among other things, SEROTONergic agonists can be used to treat...

depression. Prescribed: Sertraline (Zoloft), fluoxetine (Prozac), imipramine (Tofranil) Recreational: mescaline (peyote), DMT, psilocybin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), MDMA (ecstasy)

Each spinal segment corresponds to a region of body surface called a......

dermatome

BEHAVIORS cannot emerge until the requisite neural machinery has...

developed. (When that machinery is in place, related behaviors develop quickly through stages and are shaped significantly by epigenetic factors)

The central goal in Pharmacological Treatment development?

developing drugs that can act as magic bullets to correct the CHEMICAL imbalances found in various disorders.

Complexity of behavior varies considerably in...

different species

The EVOLUTIONARY Approach Makes brain-behavior comparisons between...

different species

In spatial summation, EPSP's produced at the same time, but on separate parts of the membrane...

do NOT influence each other

Ganglion cells provide information about _______________ .

edges

The rational part of the mind is the _________.

ego (Believed to be unconscious, although experience (to Freud, our perceptions of the world) is conscious)

The direction of neural information flow to the CNS is important and can be described as...

either Afferent (INcoming) or Efferent (OUTgoing)

Auditory system converts the physical properties of sound-wave energy into ____________________ neural activity that travels to the brain.

electrochemical

The nucleus of an atom contains neutrons (no charge) and protons (positive charge). Orbiting the nucleus are...

electrons (negative charge)

The Hypothalamus acts on both the...

endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system (Controls variety of motivated behaviors, e.g., heart rate, feeding, sexual activity)

In an experiment where subjects were selectively woken up whenever they enter R sleep, subjects show an increased tendency to...

enter R sleep in subsequent sleep sessions (Became harder to keep depriving them of R-sleep)

BBB helps prevent most substances, including drugs, from...

entering the brain through the bloodstream

The absence of a corpus callosum results from an __________________ __________________ on whether the trait is expressed in a particular mouse

epigenetic influence

Scoville removed the hippocampus from H.M. to treat...

epilepsy. (Produced amnesia)

The total positive and negative charges in atoms are...

equal (example: Na atoms have 11 protons and 11 electrons)

Excessive ___________________ neurotransmission may enhance anxiety.

excitatory Brain imaging studies in anxiety patients showed: -Increased activation in the cingulate cortex and parahippocampal gyrus -Enhanced response to anxiety-provoking stimuli in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex

Song development in young birds is influenced not just by genes but also by early _________________ and __________________.

experience and learning -Gene-experience interactions are epigenetic mechanisms; (For example, brain areas that control singing in adult song sparrows show altered gene expression in spring as the breeding—and singing—season begins)

MENTALISM...

explanation of behavior as a function of the NONmaterial mind

MS is most common in ___________ northern and southern latitudes

extreme It is possible that inadequate direct sunlight, which is necessary for the body to synthesize vitamin D, is a factor in precipitating MS

In adult-onset schizophrenia, not all disorders show such obvious loss of tissue, but they may show abnormal blood flow or metabolism detectable by either _______________ or _____________.

fMRI, PET

A Cell can work like a...

factory

Cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) also have visual ____________.

fields

Relatively large cerebellums enable...

fine, coordinated movements such as flight and landing in birds and prey catching in cats

The MOTOR cortex lies in the frontal lobe just ANTERIOR to the brain's central......

fissure.

GENERALIZED seizures start at a ______________ location, then spread rapidly and bilaterally to distributed networks in both hemispheres

focal In primary generalized epilepsy, seizures begin in more widespread neural networks

Endoplasmic Reticulum (parts of a cell) is...

folded layers of membrane where proteins are assembled

Lateral hypothalamus signals "eating on" and Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH) signals "eating off", so in a rat experiment the VMH lesioned rat showed a dramatic increase in...

food intake and body weight

At the center of the retina the ___________ is the region of sharpest vision and has the densest distribution of photoreceptors specialized for color.

fovea

What are ocular dominance columns?

functional columns of cells that receive input from the left or right eye

In Epigenetics and the formation of specific cells from Stem Cells, Methylation alters...

gene expression dramatically during development. (Methyl groups M bind to CG base pairs to block transcription)

Szyf, Meaney, and colleagues (2008) in their study of epigenetics, showed that the amount of maternal attention given to newborn rat pups alters...

gene expression in their adult hippocampus

Neurons are regulated by

genes (that encode the synthesis of particular proteins within cells)

Genotype:

genetic make-up

According to (Chomsky, Pinker) All languages have common structural characteristics stemming from a...

genetically-determined constraint

The extent of our phenotypic variation, given the same _____________, can be dramatic

genotype

Volume Hypothesis: The internal ________________ ________________ (Gpi) acts like a volume control on the MOTOR cortex.

globus pallidus (If it is turned UP, movement is BLOCKED; if it is turned DOWN, movement is ALLOWED)

Repeated stimulation (as seen in Kandel's experiments with the Aplysia (snail) produces....

habituation and sensitization that can persist for months

Transduction of sound waves into neural activity takes place in the...

hair cells of the inner ear

Animals with especially good spatial memories should have bigger ___________________ than do species with poorer spatial memories.

hippocampi

The Recency memory task measures dissociations in familiarity and recall across patients. The task is comprised of...

human participants being asked which picture they saw most recently (looks like there is a stack of cards and each has two pictures on a each card and the patient is asked to choose)

Now it is known that the brain is composed of _________________ of interacting structures, not just three.

hundreds

Drugs that are injected into the bloodstream encounter the fewest barriers to the brain (other than direct injection to the brain), but the drugs must be...

hydrophilic.

Primitive functions, including "instinctual drives" of sex and aggression, arise in the _____________ (unconscious).

id

Considerable controversy remains over using animals in scientific research. The debate centers on issues of law, morals, custom, and biology. Because you, as students, encounter many experiments on animals in this course, these issues are...

important to you as well

With (drug-induced) Behavioral Sensitization: -Sensitization is associated with an ___________________ number of receptors, synapses, and dendrites -These changes were localized to regions (e.g., prefrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens) that receive a large dopamine projection

increased

Normally, stress responses are brief and Stress responses are turned on and off in the brain, but as confirmed by Sapolsky (2005) prolonged stress...

increases cortisol which reduces hippocamal neurons, which creates a vicious cycle (because the hippocampus typically detects cortisol in the blood and tells the hypothalamus to reduce blood cortisol levels)

After Australopithecus (our common ancestor with the Chimpanzee) as the brain size increased in the Homo species, so did the development of...

increasingly sophisticated tools

Bell's Palsy (Partial Facial Paralysis) which increased slightly from 1 in 65 due to Covid, in cause by...

inflammation in the 7th Cranial Nerve

Language provides the brain with a way to categorize _________________.

information

As part of the normal process, Spinal Motor Neurons are ___________ during R-sleep, because of loss of muscle tone .

inhibited

Hypercomplex Cells, like complex cells, are maximally responsive to moving bars but they also have a strong _______________ _________________ at one end of its receptive field.

inhibitory area

Like language, the capacity for music may be ___________.

innate -Infants show learning preferences for musical scales versus random notes. -Children and adults are very sensitive to musical errors: Biased toward perceiving regularity in rhythms?

Dementia is an acquired and persistent syndrome of...

intelectual impairment -Loss of memory and other cognitive deficits -Impairment in social and occupational functioning

Connections between ___________________ and motor neurons ensure that the muscles work together so that when one muscle contracts, the other relaxes.

interneurons (i.e. flexion and extension example: -The spinal cord ventral horn contains interneurons and motor neurons -Extensor motor neurons and flexor motor neurons project to muscles. -Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction -Biceps (flexor muscle) moves the lower arm toward the body. -Triceps (extensor muscle) moves the arm away from the body.)

Drugs that are weak bases pass into the bloodstream from the...

intestines

The cornea and lens of the eye, like the lens of a camera, focus light rays to project a backward ________________ __________________ on a light receptive surface.

inverted image

Chromosome disorders...

involve aberrations in part of a chromosome (or the entire chromosome) rather than a single defective allele

What are the 2 classes of receptors?

ionotropic receptors and metabotropic receptors

In what way do the haptic-proprioceptive axons for touch and body awareness ascend the spinal cord?

ipsilaterally (see detailed description and visual on slide 58 of lecture 11)

Optical Tomography...

is a form of computed tomography that creates a digital volumetric model of an object (like the brain) by reconstructing images made from light transmitted and scattered through an object. Used for medical imaging research

An AXOEXTRACELLULAR Synapse...

is a terminal with NO specific TARGET, so it secretes transmitter into EXTRACELLULAR FLUID

The Hypothalamus (part of the Diencephalon)...

is responsible for temperature regulation, eating, drinking, and sexual behavior

The Thalamus (part of the Diencephalon)...

is where information from all sensory systems is integrated and projected into the appropriate region of the neocortex

In human fetal development on day 49...

it begins to look like a miniature person

In the process of the development of the human nervous system from fertilization to embryo, on Day 1 it is fertilized and on Day 2...

it divides

We may feel _________________ when a foreign object is on our body. We also frequently feel a similar feeling in the absence of an obvious stimulus.

itchy

Alcohol has a selective depressant effect on the cortex (the region of the brain that controls....

judgement (while sparing subcortical structures-those areas of the brain responsible for more-primitive instincts, such as desire i.e. "Too drunk to know better"

In Broca's Area, Neurons in the left hemisphere have ________________ dendritic fields than neurons in the right hemisphere.

larger

Early deprivation of social experience (e.g., raised without maternal contact) has a profoundly negative effect on...

later intellectual and social behaviors

Which brain hemisphere is dominant for language?

left hemisphere: 1. Primary Auditory Cortex Larger on the right than on the left 2. Secondary Auditory Cortex Larger on the left than on the right 3. Sensory-Motor Cortex representing the face Larger on the left than on the right

In V1, Adjacent functional columns house neurons that are responsive to slightly different ____________ orientations, forming an array of 180 degrees.

line

visual agnosia...

loss of all visual knowledge about objects (e.g., what they are and what they are used for)

Under the influence of alcohol, people respond to a restricted set of immediate and prominent cues and ignore more remote cues and potential consequences. Immediate and prominent cues will differ according to the context. This explains...

many lapses in judgment that lead to risky behavior, including aggression, date rape, and reckless driving while intoxicated

Endorphins and their receptors are found in...

many regions of the brain and spinal cord

Understanding Others: Empathy is correlated with increased activity in the which area of the brain?

medial prefrontal cortex

Karl Lashley in the 1920's experimented with intentionally inducing lesions in the brain of rats and removing bits of cerebral cortex to try to find the area responsible for...

memory

Viruses, bacteria, fungi or protozoa can multiply in the meninges, leading to...

meningitis (resulting in cranial pressure, stiff neck, headache-treat with antivirals or antibiotics)

(In Protein packaging and shipment) Proteins formed in the Endoplasmic Reticulum enter the Golgi bodies where they are wrapped in a membrane and given a shipping address. Each protein package is attached to a motor molecule and moved along a ...

microtubule to its destination. (Destinations: A protein may be incorporated into the membrane, remain within the cell to act as an enzyme, or be excreted from the cell by exocytosis. )

an addict may abstain from a drug for _________, long after any withdrawal symptoms have abated, yet still be drawn back to using

months

Music is used as a treatment for...

mood disorders such as depression.

ELECTRICAL synapses are FAST, but CHEMICAL synapses are...

more FLEXIBLE (amplify or diminish signal)

Multisynaptic connections are...

more complex spinal reflexes involving connections among sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons

Below are bullet points from the Characteristics of _________________ _____________________ ____________________ research done in the 60's: -Planning and initiating movements: Discharge before and during movements -Code force of movements: Neurons increase their rate and duration of firing in response to heavier weights -Simple coding of movement direction: Flexor versus extensor muscles

motor cortex neurons (Evarts, 1968)

With impaired brainstem or spinal-cord function, the forebrain can imagine __________________ but can no longer produce them.

movements

Agonists excite...

muscles, increasing muscle tone

The cortex of the larger, right-hemisphere Heschl's gyrus has a special role in analyzing ___________.

music

Relative size of the hominid brain has increased...

nearly threefold

The occasional person born without pain receptors experiences body deformities through failure to adjust posture, and acute injuries through failure to avoid harmful situations, proving that pain is ____________________.

necessary

(Basic Chemistry Review) When an atom takes on an electron, it becomes...

negatively charged

The ____________________ represents the sensory field of each modality—vision, (hearing), touch, smell, or taste—as a spatially organized neural representation of the external world.

neocortex

To be effective, a psychoactive drug has to reach its...

nervous-system target

Too many synapses (failure of pruning) can also produce...

neural dysfunction

An organic form of disfunction seen in schizophrenia is disorganized (schizophrenic) pyramidal ________________ in the Hippocampus.

neurons

What are the two main types of cells?

neurons and glial cells

We are born with an overabundance of...

neurons and synaptic connections

Otto Loewi, in 1921, demonstrated that...

neurons communicate by releasing chemicals

Retina Light-sensitive surface at the back of the eye consisting of ____________ and _____________________ ______________

neurons, photoreceptor cells

You can classify drugs by the primary...

neurotransmitter of action.

What does the LATERAL region of the Hypothalamus contain?

nuclei and nerve tracts that connect the lower brainstem to the forebrain (including the MFB-Medial Forebrain Bundle)

Most behaviors are not the product of a single locus in the brain, but rather...

of many brain areas and levels

Pheromones are detected by a special ___________________ receptor system known as the vomeronasal organ (connected to the amygdala and hypothalamus)

olfactory

The cochlear nucleus and the superior ______________ end projections to the inferior colliculus in the dorsal midbrain.

olive

A small spot of light shining on the retina is likely to produce activity in both __________-_________ and _________-__________ ganglion cells.

on-center, off-center This is because neighboring retinal ganglion cells receive their inputs from an overlapping set of photoreceptors. Receptive fields overlap.

Where do inner hair cells synapse?

onto bipolar cells that form the auditory nerve (part of the 8th cranial nerve)

The _______________ _________________ where blood vessels enter the eye and the axons that form the optic nerve leave the eye has no receptors and thus forms a blind spot.

optic disc

In V1, Every neuron in the same functional column has the same ______________ bias.

orientation

Human brain is a complex mammalian brain, yet it still retains most of the features of...

other, less complex mammalian brains

The receptive fields of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) _______________ extensively, so any two adjacent fields look at almost the same part of the world.

overlap

OPIODergic agonists can be used to treat...

pain Prescribed: morphine, codeine, oxycodone (Percocet), fentanyl, methadone Recreational: opium, morphine, heroin

Medial Pulvinar Sends connections to the ...

parietal lobe

Research Challenges: Compensatory plasticity....

people can change their behavior to adapt to neural change, just as they can display disordered behavior without obvious brain pathology. (Consider multiple sclerosis: brain lesions do NOT ALWAYS produce behavioral symptoms and are not always linked to obvious neuropathology.)

Aging is associated with declines in...

perceptual functions, especially vision, hearing, and olfaction, and declining motor, cognitive, and executive (planning) functions. Decrease in white matter volume probably related to myelin loss

Phenotype:

physical and behavioral traits

Research Challenges: Nervous system cells and their connections are ________________: they change with experience. These features add a whole new dimension to understanding healthy and disordered functioning.

plastic

(Basic Chemistry Review) When an atom gives up an electron it becomes...

positively charged

Movement of cilia on hair cells of the inner ear changes membrane _______________ and alters neurotransmitter release.

potential

Diagnosing Schizophrenia: Development- Diagnosed in young adulthood, but a body of evidence suggests that it originates much earlier in development, even ____________________.

prenatally Environmental factors acting through epigenetic mechanisms are likely to influence brain development.

On the topic of Sleep and Memory Storage, Consolidation is defined as...

process of stabilizing a memory trace after learning (May involve a memory "moving" from an initial coding site in one part of the brain to a permanent location in another part)

What is the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia?

proposed that schizophrenia is caused by an excess of activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine

Movement abnormalities result from selective damage to neurons that carry ____________________ information.

proprioceptive "Proprioception is like the eyes of the body, the way the body sees itself. And if it goes... it's like the body's blind." (Sacks, 1998, p 46)

As light enters the eye, it is bent first by the cornea, travels through the __________, then is bent again by the lens. The curvature of the cornea is fixed, whereas small muscles adjust the curvature of the lens to focus nearby or far away.

pupil

Primary Visual Cortex (V1; Striate Cortex)...

receives input from the lateral geniculate nucleus

In V1, Simple Cells have a ____________________ ______________ with a rectangular on-off arrangement.

receptive field

Adult female sexual behavior varies across the estrous cycle: -High estrogen levels are associated with sexual __________________. -Rats: high estrogen is also associated with more dendritic spines on neurons in the hippocampus

receptivity

Sensitivity to different somatosensory stimuli is a function of the kinds of ___________________.

receptors

What is one THEORIZED solution to the BINDING PROBLEM?

regions of the association cortex are MULTIMODAL. (These neurons respond to information from more than one sensory modality.) A possible example is multi sensory areas found in monkey's brains.

Music helps us to ________________our emotions and affect the emotions of others.

regulate

In comparing the layers of the neocortex, layers 1-3 of the motor and sensory cortices handle "integrative functions", layer 4 is AFFERENT and handles "sensory input", though it is relatively thick in the sensory cortex and thin in the motor cortex, and layers 5-6 are EFFERENT handling "output to other parts of the brain". Based on the understanding of layer 4, Layer 5 is thicker in which cortex?

relatively thick in the MOTOR cortex and relatively thin in the sensory cortex.

Ablation is...

removal or destruction of tissue

The occasional drug-taker may experience an increased responsiveness to successive equal doses, whereas tolerance generally develops with....

repeated use of a drug (sensitization is much more likely to develop with occasional use)

Michael Graziano (2006) did recent experiments that suggest that the motor cortex represents not muscles, but rather a....

repertoire of fundamental movement categories.

Each ganglion cell tells the brain about the amount of light hitting a certain spot on the retina compared with the rest of the ______________. (This can be measured by shining a light on various areas of the retina and recording the neuronal stimulation, (excitation and inhibition) on a timeline.)

retina

In normal vision the lens focuses incoming light directly on the...

retina

A1 is surrounded by...

secondary cortical areas (A2) (Secondary cortex lying behind Heschl's gyrus is called the planum temporale.)

The registration of physical stimuli from the environment by the sensory organs is called...

sensation

Gustation...

sense of taste

Vision is our primary ______________ experience.

sensory

Types of Neurons...

sensory, motor, interneurons

Amygdala controls...

sexual motivation in males and possibly in females, as well (outside of their estrous cycle)

Retinal Ganglion Cells: Respond only to the presence or absence of light in their receptive field, not to ______________.

shape

Some proteins change ____________ when chemicals bind to them

shape

Sometimes hyperopia (farsightedness) is caused by the eyeball being too ______________ or the lens too flat.

short

When Penfield stimulated A1 it produced...

simple tones (e.g., ringing sounds)

With TBI's recovery of memory functions appears to be _____________ than recovery of general intelligence. (Final level of memory performance is lower than for other cognitive functions.)

slower

Penfield determined that stimulation of the FACIAL areas in the MOTOR cortex and the SOMATOSENSORY cortex produces...

some VOCALIZATION related to MOVEMENTS of the MOUTH and TONGUE.

When Penfield stimulated Wernicke's area it was apt to cause...

some interpretation of a sound (e.g., buzzing sound to a familiar source such as a cricket)

GABA agonists can be used to "increase local inhibition" (the effect is the reduction of....

spasms/has anti-convulsant properties.

Hess (1950s) Stimulated different areas within the brainstem to produce different......

species-specific behaviors (Some sites produced head turning, others produced walking or running, and still others elicited displays of aggression or fear.)

What types of sounds does Ventral pathway decode...

spectrally-complex (auditory object recognition) including the meaning of speech sounds for people

The cortex of the left planum temporal forms a ____________ zone known as Wernicke's area.

speech

Best evidence of the effectiveness of Music as Therapy lies in studies of motor disorders such as...

stroke and Parkinson's disease. -Listening to RYTHYM activates the MOTOR and PREMOTOR CORTEX and can improve GAIT and ARM training after stroke. -Parkinson's patients who STEP to the BEAT of music can improve their GAIT length and walking SPEED.

ERPs can be used not only to detect which areas of the brain are processing particular stimuli but also to...

study the order in which different regions play a role. (Subject puts on a geodesic helmet of sensors and a correlating computer gris shows the areas used after stimuli)

Most common treatment for INTRACTABLE epilepsy in adults is...

surgical resection of epileptogenic tissue. (70% success rate)

More than one neurotransmitter may be active at a single....

synapse.

Most psychoactive drugs exert their effects by influencing ___________ chemical signaling

synaptic

Odor and ____________ play a fundamental role in the biology of emotional and motivated behavior

taste

LEARNED Behaviors can be passed on culturally from one generation to the next by...

teaching and learning (enabled by our big brains).

The Midbrain includes...

tectum (posterior) and tegmentum (anterior)

Lateral Pulvinar Sends connections to the...

temporal lobe

In adult males, ___________________ levels influence the motivation to seek sexual behavior and the production of copulatory behavior

testosterone

What kind of memory tests can people with amnesia perform normally on?

tests of IMPLICIT memory (but NOT explicit memory)

Inferior colliculus goes to the medial geniculate nucleus (lies in the ___________).

thalamus

Where is the LGN located?

thalamus

Through connections to the dendrites, cell body, or axon of a neuron, TRANSMITTERS can control....

the ACTIONS of the NEURON in different ways.

Which part of the muscle membrane is contacted by the axon terminal in the process of nerve impulses producing movement?

the END PLATE

Read the questions below and answer the following: What would scientists who ask these questions potentially be researching? -Why does the sight or smell of a bird or a mouse trigger stalking and killing in a cat? -Why does the human body stimulate sexual interest?

the EVOLUTIONARY and ENVIRONMENTAL influences on BRAIN-CIRCUIT ACTIVITY that contribute to BEHAVIOR

"Brain-Body Orientation" terminology illustrates brain-structure location from the frame of reference point of...

the FACE

In "Brain-Body Orientation" ANTERIOR is used to describe...

the FRONT

In a Neuron, the Cell Body or Soma (one of the 3 main parts that looks like a tear drop or tree trunk) contains...

the Nucleus and inside that, the Nucleolus

Eric Kandel was awarded a Nobel Prize in 2000 for his descriptions of...

the SYNAPTIC BASIS of LEARNING using Aplysia California (a snail) (He used enduring changes in simple defensive behaviors to study underlying changes in the snail's nervous system)

Neurons function as...

the basis for information processing

There are fewer barriers for a drug destined for the brain if the drug is injected directly into...

the bloodstream

Testosterone (Androgren) is Released during a brief period in the course of prenatal brain development and subsequently acts to alter...

the brain as much as it alters the sex organs

In human fetal development on day 100...

the brain looks distinctly human

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), and functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging (fcMRI) are two promising tools for mapping...

the brain's CONNECTIVITY

Phenotypic plasticity:

the capacity of the genome to express a large number of phenotypes

Proteins are...

the cell's product

The cells that form the NEURAL TUBE can be thought of as the nursery for the rest of...

the central nervous system. (The open region in the center of the tube remains open and matures into the brain's ventricles and the spinal canal)

Cornea...

the clear outer covering of the eye

Which enzyme family is involved in drug catabolism (breaking down and removing drugs)?

the cytochrome P450 enzyme family

The optic nerve conveys information from.....

the eye to the brain

In the Evolution of Complex Neurotransmission Systems, Chemical transmission may have had its origins in...

the feeding behavior of single-celled creatures. (Digestive juices are secreted onto prey via exocytosis (release of neurotransmitter) and Prey is captured via endocytosis) It is important because, this process parallels the use of neurotransmitters for communication.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): -Children and older adults are most likely to injure their brain in a fall. -However, The most common form of brain damage in people younger than 40 results from...

the head hitting other objects; also follows blows to the chest that result in a rapid increase in blood pressure, which can damage the brain indirectly (Most TBIs in males 15 to 30 result from automobile and motorcycle accidents.)

The evolution of animals having nervous systems displays...

the increasing complexity of movement (from nerve net, to segmented nerve trunk, to ganglia, to brain)

Epigenetics:

the influence of environment in selecting one or another phenotype

Neuroplasticity:

the nervous system's potential for PHYSICAL or CHEMICAL change that enhances its ADAPTABILITY

IPSPs are associated with...

the opening of potassium channels (allows an efflux of K+) or with the opening of chloride channels (allows an influx of Cl−)

EPSPs are associated with...

the opening of sodium channels: allows influx of Na+

Reconsolidation is...

the process of restabilizing a memory trace after the memory is revisited

On the topic of Sleep and Memory Storage, Reconsolidation is defined as...

the process of restabilizing a memory trace after the memory is revisited

The visual field is..

the region of the visual world that is seen by the eyes

Researchers test spatial cognition by giving subjects pairs of the same stimuli (like pictures of 3d geometrics shapes arranged facing different ways) and asking if the shapes are...

the same or different

Whether a polypeptide chain forms a pleated sheet or a helix and its ultimate three-dimensional shape is determined by...

the sequence of amino acids in the primary structure

The 23rd chromosome pair comprises...

the sex chromosomes (which contribute to our physical and behavioral sexual characteristics)

Psychopharmacology is...

the study of how drugs affect the nervous system and behavior

Neurons of the motor homunculus in the right-hemisphere cortex control...

the trunk on both sides of the body and the limbs on the body's left side.

Neurons of the motor homunculus in the left-hemisphere cortex control...

the trunk on both sides of the body and the limbs on the body's right side.

In "Anatomical Orientation" a HORIZONTAL Section is so called because...

the view or cut falls along the HORIZON, is usually viewed looking down from the brain from above-a DORSAL view.

In human fetal development on day 60...

there is sexual differentiation in the brain and genital regions

In _________________ , as in habituation, a learned behavior results when a response to a stimulus weakens with repeated presentations

tolerance

Each LGN cell represents a particular place. The cells project to V1, forming a ____________________ map.

topographic

Amphetamine uses include...

treatment for ADHD, Weight Loss, and Asthma

No not confuse tropic (used in axonal growth) and trophic molecules...

tropic (guiding) molecules trophic (nourishing) molecules

At what age is language onset in a child?

usually between 1 and 2 years of age

Imaging studies of childhood-onset schizophrenia suggest that the condition begins in _________________ and is characterized by excessive pruning of short-distance cortical connections.

utero

Research Challenges: (Systemic complexity) Multiple receptor systems serve widely ____________ functions.

varied (Meaning: most drug treatments may improve a target behavior but at the same time produce varied side effects.)

When Penfield stimulated the Auditory cortex patients often reported hearing...

various sounds (e.g., ringing that sounded like a doorbell, a buzzing noise, birds chirping)

As wavelength increases we see color shift from...

violet to blue to green to yellow to orange to red (all the colors of the rainbow)

Early HOMINIDS were among the first primates to show distinctly human characteristics, including...

walking upright and using tools

Reward has two independent processes:

wanting (incentive) and liking (evaluation of pleasure)

H+ and O2- in each water molecule are attracted to nearby...

water molecules

In a visual graph charting mammals' ability to detect various frequencies, which two had the most expansive ranges?

whales and dogs

At the University of Wisconsin in 1954 they did a study called the "persistence of visual exploration in monkeys", which had to do with...

what motivates behaviors. (-Rhesus monkeys in dimly lit room -Small door to adjoining room could be opened -Monkeys spend lots of time doing this and will even perform tasks for the opportunity to look)

There was a debate between fellow scientists Golgi and Cajal in the early 1900's about...

whether nerve cells were discrete (Cajal) or fused to make a network or "nerve net" (Golgi)

The sclera forms the eyeball the "_________" of the eye.

white

NEOTENY has to do with...

why the hominid brain may have enlarged

Rizzolatti theorized that the human capacity to communicate with ________________ may have resulted from the progressive evolution of mirror-neuron system.

words