Neuroscience Final Review
Clinical trials are conducted in three separate phases, in the following order
1. screening for safety, 2. establishing the testing protocol, and. 3. final testing
Brains of human males and females exhibit the following general difference: Male brains tend to be
15% larger
About what proportion of pregnancies is associated with clinical depression?
19 percent
How many hours per day do horses usually sleep?
2 or 3
Humans have __________ pairs of chromosomes
23
Pairs of spinal nerves are attached to the spinal cord at _________ different levels of the spine
31
Sodium-potassium pumps transport ____ sodium ions out of the cell for every ___ potassium ions they transport into the cell
3; 2
About ___of the axons of retinal ganglion cells become part of the retina-geniculate-striate pathways
90 percent
Ketamine is
A NMDA- receptor antagonist
Translational bottleneck
A barrier keeping promising ideas and treatments from becoming the focus of translational research; largely created by the massive cost of such research
Aphasia
A brain damage-produced deficit in the ability to produce or comprehend language
Haloperidol
A butyrophenone used as an antipsychotic drug
Atypical antidepressants
A catch all class for antidepressant drugs that do not fit into the other categories of antidepressants (ex. monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants) Each of the drugs in this class has its own unique mechanism of action
Bipolar disorders
A category of psychiatric disorders that involves alternate bouts of depression and mania or hypomania
Engram
A change in the brain that stores a memory
Exaptation
A characteristic that evolved because it performed one function but was later co-opted to perform another.
Bullying
A chronic social threat that induces subordination stress in members of our species
Imidazopyridines
A class of GABA(a) agonists that were marketed for the treatment of insomnia.
Benzodiazepines
A class of GABA(a) agonists with anxiolytic, sedative, and anticonvulsant properties; drugs such as chlordiazepoxide (Librium) and diazepam (Valium)
Benzodiazepines
A class of GABA(a) agonists with anxiolytic, sedative, and anticonvulsant properties; drugs such as chlordiazepoxide (Librium) and diazepam (Valium).
Mammals
A class of animals whose young are fed from mammary glands.
Phenothiazines
A class of antipsychotic drugs that bind effectively to both D1 and D2 receptors
Butyrophenones
A class of antipsychotic drugs that bind primarily to D2 receptors
Nucleotide bases
A class of chemical substances that includes adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine—constituents of DNA.
Endorphins
A class of endogenous opioids
Endorphins
A class of endogenous opioids.
Endocannabinoids
A class of unconventional neurotransmitters that are chemically similar to the active components of marijuana
Soluble gas neurotransmitters
A class of unconventional neurotransmitters that includes nitric oxide and carbon monoxide
Executive function
A collection of cognitive abilities (e.g., innovative thinking, lateral thinking, and insightful thinking) that appear to depend on the prefrontal cortex.
Limbic system
A collection of interconnected nuclei and tracts that ring the thalamus
Limbic system
A collection of interconnected nuclei and tracts that ring the thalamus; include the amygdala, the fornix, the cingulate cortex, and the septum
Basal ganglia
A collection of subcortical nuclei that plays a role in the performance of voluntary motor responses and decision making (includes the striatum, globus pallidus, caudate, and putamen)
Sleep apnea
A condition in which sleep is repeatedly disturbed by momentary interruptions in breathing.
Burger's disease
A condition in which the blood vessels, especially those supplying the legs, are constricted whenever tobacco is smoked. The disease can progress to gangrene and amputation
Transsexualism
A condition where a person has a gender identity that is inconsistent with their anatomical sex
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
A congenital deficiency in the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex, which leads to the excessive release of adrenal androgens
Z lens
A contact lens that is opaque on one side (left or right) and thus allows visual input to enter only one hemisphere of a splitbrain subject, irrespective of eye movements
Akinetopsia
A deficiency in the ability to see movement progress in a smooth fashion, which often results from damage to the MT area.
Asomatognosia
A deficiency in the awareness of parts of one's own body that is typically produced by damage to the right parietal lobe.
Simultanagnosia
A difficulty attending to more than one stimulus at a time.
Parkinson's disease
A disorder characterized by rigidity, tremors, and poverty of voluntary movement; associated with the deterioration of the basal ganglia
Apraxia
A disorder in which patients have great difficulty performing movements when asked to do so out of context but can readily perform them spontaneously in natural situations
Narcolepsy
A disorder of hypersomnia that is characterized by repeated, brief daytime sleep attacks and cataplexy.
Psychiatric disorder
A disorder of psychological function sufficiently severe to require treatment by a psychiatrist or clinical psychologist.
Tourette's disorder
A disorder of tics (involuntary, repetitive, stereotyped movements or vocalizations)
Specific phobia
A disorder that involves strong fear or anxiety about particular objects (ex. birds or spiders) or situations (ex enclosed spaces or darkness)
Cataplexy
A disorder that is characterized by recurring losses of muscle tone during wakefulness and is often seen in cases of narcolepsy.
REM-sleep behavior disorder
A disorder where the individual experiences REM sleep without core-muscle atonia.
Contralateral neglect
A disturbance of the patient's ability to respond to stimuli on the side of the body opposite to a site of brain damage, usually the left side of the body following damage to the right parietal lobe.
Ketamine
A drug that is a type of dissociative hallucinogen
Agnosia
A failure of recognition of sensory stimuli that is not attributable to a sensory or to verbal or intellectual impairment.
Visual agnosia
A failure to recognize visual stimuli that is not attributable to sensory, verbal, or intellectual impairment.
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
A form of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) that involves the delivery of repetitive magnetic pulses at either high frequencies (ex. five pulses per second; high frequency rTMS) or low frequencies (ex. less than one pulse per second; low frequency rTMS) to specific cortical areas
Sry gene
A gene on the Y chromosome that triggers the relea of Sry protein
Anhedonia
A general inability to experience pleasure
Urbach-Wiethe disease
A genetic disorder that often results in the calcification of the amygdala and surrounding brain structures
Duchenne smile
A genuine smile, one that includes contraction of the facial muscles called the orbicularis oculi
Absorption spectrum
A graph of the ability of a substance to ab- sorb light of different wavelengths.
Species
A group of organisms that is reproductively isolated from other organisms; the members of one species cannot produce fertile offspring by mating with members of other species.
Cytokines
A group of peptide hormones that are released by many cells and participate in a variety of physiological and immunological responses, causing inflammation and fever
Codon
A group of three consecutive nucleotide bases on a DNA or messenger RNA strand; each codon specifies the particular amino acid that is to be added to an amino acid chain during protein synthesis
Melatonin
A hormone that is synthesized from serotonin in the pineal gland and is both a soporific and a chronobiotic.
Ventromedial nucleus (VNM)
A hypothalamic nucleus that is though to be involved in female sexual behavior
Conduction aphasia
A hypothetical aphasia that is thought to result from damage to the arcuate fasciculus-the pathway between Broca's and Wernicke's areas.
Wernicke's aphasia
A hypothetical disorder of language comprehension with no associated deficits in speech production
Broca's aphasia
A hypothetical disorder of speech production with no associated deficits in language comprehension
Interpreter
A hypothetical mechanism that is assumed to reside in the left hemisphere and that continuously assesses patterns of events and tries to make sense of them
Control-question technique
A lie-detection interrogation method in which the polygrapher compares the physiological responses to target questions with the responses to control questions
Guilty-knowledge technique
A lie-detection method in which the polygrapher records autonomic nervous system responses to a list of control and crime-related information known only to the guilty person and the examiner; also known as the concealed information test
Long-term depression (LTD)
A long lasting decrease in synaptic efficacy (the flip side of LTP) that occurs in response to prolonged low-frequency stimulation of presynaptic neurons
Psychosis
A loss of touch with reality
Anterolateral system
A major somatosensory pathway that ascends in the anterolateral portion of the spinal cord and tends to carry information related to pain and temperature.
Human proteome
A map of the entire set of proteins encoded for by human genes.
Action potential
A massive momentary reversal of a neurons membrane potential from about -70 mV to about +50 mV
Fourier analysis
A mathematical procedure for breaking down a complex wave form into component sine waves of varying frequency.
Electrooculogram (EOG)
A measure of eye movement.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
A measure of the gross electrical activity of the brain, commonly recorded through scalp electrodes.
Lithium
A metallic ion that is a mood stabilizer; used in the treatment of bipolar disorder
Cerebellum
A metencephalic structure that is thought to participate in the storage of memories of learned sensorimotor skills
Polygraphy
A method of interrogation that employs ANS indexes of emotion to infer the truthfulness of a person's responses
Basal forebrain
A midline area of the forebrain, which is located just in front of and above the hypothalamus and is the brain's main source of acetylcholine
Septum
A midline nucleus of the limbic system, located near the anterior tip of the cingulate cortex
Ligand
A molecule that binds to another molecule; neurotransmitters are ligands of their receptors
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
A molecule that is similar to DNA except that it has the nucleotide base uracil and a phosphate and ribose backbone.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
A neurological disorder whose symptoms are vomiting, seizures, hyperactivity, hyperirritability, intellectual disability, brain damage, and high levels of phenylpyruvic acid in the urine.
Bipolar neuron
A neuron with two processes extending from its cell body
Orexin
A neuropeptide that has been implicated in narcolepsy; sometimes called hypocretin.
Korsakoff's syndrome
A neuropsychological disorder that is common in alcoholics and whose primary symptom is severe memory loss, sensory and motor dysfunction, and, in its advanced stages severe dementia
Korsakoff's syndrome
A neuropsychological disorder that is common in alcoholics and whose primary symptoms include memory loss, sensory and motor dysfunction, and, in its advanced stages, severe dementia
Korsakoff's syndrome
A neuropsychological disorder that is common in alcoholics and whose primary symptoms is severe memory loss, sensory and motor dysfunction, and, in its advanced stages, severe dementia
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that is created by the addition of an acetly group to a choline molecule
Heritability estimate
A numerical estimate of the proportion of variability that occurred in a particular trait in a particular study and that resulted from the genetic variation among the subjects in that study.
Mediodorsal nuclei
A pair of thalamic nuclei, damage to which. is thought to be responsible for many of the memory deficits associated with. Korsakoff's syndrome
Polyandry
A pattern of mate bonding in which one female bonds with more than one male.
Monogamy
A pattern of mate bonding in which one male and one female form an enduring bond.
Polygyny
A pattern of mate bonding in which one male bonds with more than one female; the most prevalent pattern of mate bonding in mammals.
Relative refractory period
A period after the absolute refractory period during which a higher than normal amount of stimulation is necessary to make a neuron fire
Phonetic procedure
A procedure for reading aloud that involves the recognition of letters and the application of a language's rules of pronunciation
Lexical procedure
A procedure for reading aloud that is based on specific stored information acquired about written words
Progesterone
A progestin that prepares the uterus and breasts for pregnancy
Histone
A protein around which DNA is coiled.
Alpha fetoprotein
A protein that is present in the blood of many mammals during the perinatal period and that deactivates circulating estradoil by binding to it
Sry protein
A protein that. causes the medulla of each primordial gonad to grow and develop into testis
Bipolar disorder type II
A psychiatric disorder that involves alternate bouts of depression and hypomania
Bipolar disorder type I
A psychiatric disorder that involves alternate bouts of depression and mania
Surface dyslexia
A reading disorder in which the lexical procedure is disrupted while the phonetic procedure is not
Deep dyslexia
A reading disorder in which the phonetic procedure is disrupted while the lexical procedure is not
Dyslexia
A reading disorder that does not result from general visual, motor, or intellectual deficits
Electromyogram (EMG)
A record of muscle tension.
CA1 subfield
A region of the hippocampus that is commonly damaged by cerebral ischemia
Codeine
A relatively weak psychoactive ingredient of opium
Midsagittal section
A section cut down the center of the brain, between the two hemispheres
Heroin
A semisynthetic opioid
Sleep paralysis
A sleep disorder characterized by the inability to move (paralysis) just as a person is falling asleep or waking up.
______________ involves a patient receiving an injection of an anesthetic into the carotid artery of the neck as a test of language lateralization
A sodium Amytal test
Carbon monoxide
A soluble gas neurotransmitter
Nitric oxide
A soluble gas neurotransmitter
Bottom-up
A sort of neural mechanism that involves activation of higher cortical areas by lower cortical areas.
Top-down
A sort of neural mechanism that involves activation of lower cortical areas by higher cortical areas.
Alexia
A specific inability to read; one that does not result from general visual, motor, or intellectual deficits
Agraphia
A specific inability to write; one that does not result from general visual, motor, or intellectual deficits
Mixed state
A state that can occur in bipolar disorder type I, where the patient simultaneously displays symptoms of both depression and mania
Mania
A state that has the same features as hypomania but taken to an extreme; it also has additional symptoms, such as delusion of grandeur, overconfidence, and distractibility. It usually involves psychosis
Hypomania
A state that is characterized by a reduced need for sleep, high energy, and positive affect. During periods of hypomania, people are talkative, energetic, impulsive, positive, and very confident
Amphetamine
A stimulant drug, this and it's relatives are currently the most widely misused stimulants
Cocaine
A stimulant that exerts its effects by altering the activity of dopamine transporters
Messenger RNA
A strand of RNA that is transcribed from DNA and then moves out of the cell nucleus where it is translated into a protein.
Amygdala
A structure in the anterior temporal lobe, just anterior to the hippocampus; plays a role in emotion
Ribosome
A structure in the cell's cytoplasm that translates strands of messenger RNA into proteins.
Striatum
A structure of the basal ganglia that is the terminal of the dopaminergic nigrostriatal pathway
Hippocampus
A structure of the medial temporal lobes that plays a role in various forms of memory
Putamen
A structure that is joined to the caudate by a series of fiber bridges; together it joins the caudate to compose the striatum
Transgenerational epigenetics
A subfield of epigenetics that examines the transmission of experiences via epigenetic mechanisms across generations.
Chronobiotic
A substance that influences the timing of internal biological rhythms.
Phenylpyruvic acid
A substance that is found in abnormally high concentrations in the urine of those suffering from phenylketonuria.
Transient global amnesia
A sudden onset severe anterograde amnesia and moderate retrograde amnesia for explicit episodic memory that is transient- typically lasting only between 4-6 hours
Leucotome
A surgical device used in psychosurgery to cut out a core of brain tissue.
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
A syndrome produced by prenatal exposure to alcohol and characterized by brain damage, intellectual disability, poor coordination, poor muscle tone, low birth weight, retarded growth, and/or physical deformity
Electron microscopy
A technique used to study the fine details of cellular structure
Dominant hemisphere
A term used in the past to refer to the left hemisphere, based on the incorrect assumption that the left hemisphere is dominant in all complex behavioral and cognitive activities
Minor hemisphere
A term used in the past to refer to the right hemisphere, based on the incorrect assumption that the left hemisphere is dominant
Intersexed person
A term used to refer to a variety of conditions where a person is born with sexual anatomy that. does not clearly fit into standard definitions of male and female sexual anatomy
Delayed nonmatching-to-sample test
A test in which the subject is presented with an unfamiliar sample object and then, after a delay, is presented with a choice between the sample object and an unfamiliar object, where the correct choice is the unfamiliar object
Dichotic listening test
A test of language lateralization in which two different sequences of three spoken digits are presented simultaneously, one to each ear, and the subject is asked to report all of the digits heard
Incomplete-picture test
A test of memory measuring the improved ability to identify fragmented figures that have been previously observed
Drug self-administration paradigm
A test of the addictive potential of drugs in which laboratory animals can inject drugs into themselves by pressing a lever
Chimeric figures test
A test of visual completion in split-brain subjects that uses pictures composed of the left and right halves of two different faces
Conditioned place-preference paradigm
A test that assess a laboratory animals preference for an environment in which it has previously experienced drug effects relative to a control environment
Ventral posterior nucleus
A thalamic relay nucleus in both the somatosensory and gustatory systems.
Autoreceptors
A type of metabotropic receptor located on the presynaptic membrane that bind to their neurons own neurotransmitters
Gene
A unit of inheritance; for example, the section of a chromosome that controls the synthesis of one protein.
Radial arm maze test
A widely used test of rats spatial ability in which the same arms are baited on each trial and the rats must learn to visit only the baited arms once per trial
Morris water maze test
A widely used test to spatial memory in which. rats must learn to swim. directly to a platform hidden just beneath the surface of a circular pool of murky water
Some patients with Tourette's disorder also display symptoms of
ADHD
Mutations
Accidental alterations in individual genes.
Ablatio penis
Accidental destruction of the penis via surgery
Fitness
According to Darwin, the ability of an organism to survive and contribute its genes to the next generation.
Levels of which neurotransmitter are reduced in patients with Alzheimer's disease?
Acectycholine
Hormones have two kinds of effects on behavior: developmental and
Activational
Tests of brain imaging with language tests show __________
Activity in the left hemisphere is usually greater than in the right hemisphere
Integration
Adding or combining a number of individual signals into one overall signal
Vaccination
Administering a weakened form of a virus so that the if the virus later invades, the adaptive immune system is prepared to deal with it
Which of the following is the most common atypical form of sexual development?
Adrenogenital syndrome
With respect to the effects of sleep deprivation, which of the following is a prediction of recuperation theories of sleep?
After a period of sleep deprivation has ended, much of the missed sleep will be regained, Physiological and behavioral disturbances will tend to grow steadily worse as sleep deprivation continues, and Long periods of wakefulness will produce physiological and behavioral disturbances
_________________ is a deficiency in the ability to see movements progress in a normal, smooth fashion
Akinetopsia
Emergent stage 1 EEG
All periods of stage 1 sleep EEG except initial stage 1; each is associated with REMs.
____________ are the neurotransmitters in the vast majority of fast-acting directed synapses in the central nervous system.
Amino acids
Medial temporal lobe amnesia
Amnesia associated with bilateral damage to the medial temporal lobes; its major features are anterograde and retrograde amnesia for explicit memories, with preserved intellectual functioning
Global amnesia
Amnesia for information presented in all sensory modalities
Posttraumatic amnesia (PTA)
Amnesia produced by a non-penetrating head injury (a blow to the head that does not penetrate the skull)
Medial diencephalic amnesia
Amnesia that is associated with damage to the medial diencephalon (eg. Korsakoff's amnesia)
__________________ produces a temporary disorder that resembles schizophrenia
Amphetamine
Aspartate
An amino acid neurotransmitter
Glycine
An amino acid neurotransmitter
Risk-assessment test
An animal model of anxiety. After a single brief exposure to a cat on a surface of a laboratory burrow system, rats flee to their burrows and freeze. Then they engage in a variety of risk assessment behaviors
Elevated-plus-maze test
An animal model of anxiety; anxious rats tend to stay in enclosed arms of the maze rather than venturing onto the open arms
Defensive-burying test
An animal model of anxiety; anxious rats will bury objects that generate anxiety
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
An anterior pituitary hormone that triggers the release of adrenal hormones from the adrenal cortices
Panic disorder
An anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent rapid-onset attacks of extreme fear and severe symptoms of stress (choking, heart palpitations, and shortness of breath)
Generalized anxiety disorder
An anxiety disorder characterized by stress responses and extreme feelings of anxiety and worry about a large number of different activities or events
Mumby box
An apparatus that is used in the rat version of the delayed nonmatching to sample test
Carousel apparatus
An apparatus used to study the effects of sleep deprivation in laboratory rats.
Posterior parietal association cortex
An area of association cortex that receives input from the visual, auditory, and somatosensory systems and is involved in the perception of spatial location and guidance of voluntary behavior.
Scotoma
An area of blindness produced by damage to, or disruption of, an area of the visual system
Scotoma
An area of blindness produced by damage to, or disruption of, an area of the visual system.
Association cortex
An area of cortex that receives input from more than one sensory system.
MT area
An area of cortex, located near the junction of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes, whose function appears to be the perception of motion.
Fusiform face area
An area of human cortex, located at the boundary between the occipital and temporal lobes, that is selectively activated by human faces.
Piriform cortex
An area of medial temporal cortex that is adjacent to the amygdala and that receives direct olfactory input
Primary sensory cortex
An area of sensory cortex that receives most of its input directly from the thalamic relay nuclei of one sensory system
Secondary sensory cortex
An area of sensory cortex that receives most of its input from the primary sensory cortex of one sensory system or from other areas of secondary cortex of the same system.
Planum temporale
An area of temporal lobe cortex that lies in the posterior region of the lateral fissure and, in the left hemisphere, roughly corresponds to Wernicke's area
Dermatome
An area of the body that is innervated by the left and right dorsal roots of one segment of the spinal cord.
Entorhinal cortex
An area of the medial temporal cortex that is a major source of neural signals to the hippocampus
Bupropion is
An atypical antidepressant
Clozapine
An atypical antipsychotic that is used to treat schizophrenia, does not produce Parkinsonian side effects, and has only a slight affinity for D2 receptors
Cytochrome oxidase
An enzyme present in particularly high concentrations in the mitochondria of dual-opponent color cells of the visual cortex.
Aromatase
An enzyme that promotes the conversion of testosterone to estradiol
DNA methylation
An epigenetic mechanism wherein a methyl group attaches to a DNA molecule, usually at cytosine sites in mammals. DNA methylation can either decrease or increase gene expression.
Histone remodeling
An epigenetic mechanism wherein histones change their shape and in so doing influence the shape of the adjacent DNA. This can either increase or decrease gene expression.
RNA editing
An epigenetic mechanism wherein messenger RNA is modified through the actions of small RNA molecules and other proteins.
Suppression paradigm
An experimental method for studying emotion; subjects are asked to inhibit their emotional reactions to unpleasant films or photos while their brain activity is recorded
Reappraisal paradigm
An experimental method for studying emotion; subjects are asked to reinterpret a film or photo to change their emotional reaction to it while their brain activity is recorded
Encéphale isolé preparation
An experimental preparation in which the brain is separated from the rest of the nervous system by a transection of the caudal brain stem.
Cerveau isolé preparation
An experimental preparation in which the forebrain is disconnected from the rest of the brain by a midcollicular transection.
Serotonin
An idolamine neurotransmitter; the only member of this class of monoamine neurotransmitters found in the mammalian nervous system
Astereognosia
An inability to recognize objects by touch that is not attributable to a simple sensory deficit or to an intellectual impairment.
Up-regualtion
An increase in the number of receptors for a neurotransmitter in response to decreased release of that neurotransmitter
Drug sensitization
An increase in the sensitivity to a drug effect that develops as the result of exposure to the drug
Wernicke-Geschwind model
An influential model of cortical language localization in the left hemisphere
Circadian clock
An internal timing mechanism that is capable of maintaining daily cycles of physiological functions.
Global cerebral ischemia
An interruption of blood supply to the entire brain
Sensitive period
An interval of time during development when an experience can have a great effect on development if it occurs during that interval, and a weaker effect on development if it occurs outside that interval.
Lobectomy
An operation in which a lobe, or a major part of one, is removed from the brain
Lobotomy
An operation in which a lobe, or major part of one, is separated from the rest of the brain by a large cut but is not removed
Phenotype
An organism's observable traits.
Semantic analysis
Analysis of the meaning of language
Phonological analysis
Analysis of the sound of language
Grammatical analysis
Analysis of the structure of language
A high ratio of _________ to estradiols in males going through puberty results in masculization
Androgens
______________ triggers the growth of pubic and axillary hair in females
Androstenedione
Chordates
Animals with dorsal nerve cords.
Receptor blockers
Antagonistic drugs that bind to postsynaptic receptors without activating them and block the access of the usual neurotransmitter
Gonadotropin is released by the
Anterior pituitary
_______________ tracing methods are used to trace the paths of axons projecting away from cell bodies located in a particular area
Anterograde
MAO inhibitors
Antidepressant drugs that increase the level of monamine neurotransmitters by inhibiting the action of the enzyme monoamine oxidase
Anxiety disorder
Anxiety that is so extreme and so pervasive that it disrupts normal functioning
Amnesia
Any pathological loss of memory
Psychosomatic disorder
Any physical disorder that can be caused or exacerbated by stress
Frontal sections
Any slices of brain tissue cut in a plane that is parallel to the face; also termed coronal sections
Sagittal sections
Any slices of brain tissue cut in a plane that is parallel to the side of the brain
Brain damage produced deficits in language related ability are generally referred to as
Aphasia
Visual association cortex
Areas of cerebral cortex that receive input from areas of secondary visual cortex as well as from secondary areas of other sensory systems.
Secondary visual cortex
Areas of cerebral cortex that receive most of their input from primary visual cortex.
________________________ cortex is an area of cortex that receives input from more than one sensory system
Association
______________, which is the main active ingredient of belladonna, is a receptor blocker that exerts its antagonist effect by binding to muscarinic receptors, thereby blocking the effects of acetylcholine on them
Atropine
Which of the following is true with respect to atropine?
Atropine is a receptor blocker
_________ are metabotropic receptors that have unconventional characteristics. For example, they bind to their neuron's own neurotransmitter molecules
Autoreceptors
Lateral
Away from the midline of the body of a vertebrate, toward the body's lateral surfaces (side)
Orthodromic conduction
Axonal conduction in the normal direction- from the cell body toward the terminal buttons
Why is social dominance an important factor in evolution?
Because, in some species, dominant females are more likely to produce more and healthier offspring
Instinctive behaviors
Behaviors that occur in all like members of a species, even when there seems to have been no opportunity for them to have been learned.
Proceptive behaviors
Behaviors that solicit the sexual advances of members of the other sex
Defensive behaviors
Behaviors whose primary function is protection from threat or harm
Aggressive behaviors
Behaviors whose primary functions is to threaten or harm other organisms
When periods of depression alternate with periods of mania, the disorder is termed
Bipolar disorder type I
Bipolar cells
Bipolar neurons that form the middle layer of the retina.
_______________ refers to the ability of certain patients to respond to visual stimuli in their scotomas even though they have no conscious awareness of the stimuli
Blindsight
In which of the following ways is the firing of a neuron like the firing of a gun?
Both are triggered by graded responses
Botox
Botulinium toxin; a neurotoxin released by bacterium often found in spoiled food. It blocks the release of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions and has applications in medicine and cosmetics
Although research on the development of sex differences in the brain is still in its infancy, one important principle has emerged
Brains are not masculinized or feminized as a whole
True-breeding lines
Breeding lines in which interbred members always produce offspring with the same trait, generation after generation.
Microsleeps
Brief periods of sleep that occur in sleep-deprived subjects while they remain sitting or standing.
Aphasic patients who can understand language but have difficulty speaking are said to suffer from
Broca's aphasia
The language controlling cortical region just anterior to the left primary motor cortex is
Brocas area
_____________ disease provides a compelling illustration of nicotine's addictive power
Buerger's
Tracts
Bundles of axons in the central nervous system
The induction of LTP at synapses with NMDA receptors depends on the influx of
Calcium ions into the postsynaptic neuron
The right hemisphere of most split brain patients
Can understand many spoken or written words and simple sentences
According to the ___________________, emotional stimuli excite both the feeling of emotion in the brain and the expression of emotion in the automatic and somatic nervous systems
Cannon-Bard theory
Physiological-or-psychological thinking was given official recognition in the 17th century when the Roman Church officially supported
Cartesian dualism
Adrenogenital syndrome
Caused by congenital adrenal hyperplasia, which results in the excessive release of adrenal androgens which have masculinizing effects in females
Binocular
Cells in the visual system that are binocular respond to stimulation of either eye.
Neurons
Cells of the nervous system that are specialized for the reception, conduction, and transmission of electrochemical signals
Receptors
Cells that are specialized to receive chemical, mechanical, or radiant signals from the big environment; also proteins that contain binding sites for particular neurotransmitters
Receptors
Cells that are specialized to receive chemical, mechanical, or radiant signals from the environment; also proteins that contain binding sites for particular neurotransmitters.
Phagocytes
Cells, such as macrophages and microglia, that destroy and ingest pathogens
Concept cells
Cells, such as those found in the medial temporal lobe, that respond to ideas or concepts rather than to particulars. Also known as Jennifer Aniston neurons
The left and right cerebral hemispheres are connected by the
Cerebral commissures (corpus callosum)
________ is continuously produced by the choroid plexuses
Cerebrospinal fluid
____________________ occurs because, contrary to our impression, when we view a scene, we have absolutely no memory for parts of the scene that are not the focus of our attention
Change blindness
Periodic limb movement disorder
Characterized by periodic, involuntary movements of the limbs often involving twitches of the legs during sleep; one cause of insomnia.
Hormones
Chemicals released by the endocrine system directly into the circulatory system
Pheromones
Chemicals that are released by an animal and elicit through their odor specific patterns of behavior in its conspecifics.
The first antischizophrenic drug to be widely marketed was
Chlorpromazine
Vertebrates
Chordates that possess spinal bones.
Autosomal chromosomes
Chromosomes that come in matched pairs; in mammals, all of the chromosomes except the sex chromosomes are autosomal.
Anxiety
Chronic fear that persists in the absence of any direct threat
Free-running rhythms
Circadian rhythms that do not depend on environmental cues to keep them on a regular schedule.
Selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRI's)
Class of drugs that exert agonistic effects by blocking the reuptake of serotonin from synapses; used to treat depression
Proximal
Close to something
Ganglia
Clusters of neuronal cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system
Taste buds
Clusters of taste receptors found on the tongue and in parts of the oral cavity.
________________ bypass damage to the auditory hair cells by converting sounds picked up by a microphone on the patient's ear to electrical signals, which are then conducted directly to the cochlea
Cochlear implants
_________________ constancy refers to the fact that the perceived color of an object is not solely a function of the wavelengths reflected by it
Color
Cross-cuing
Communication between hemispheres that have been separated by commissurotomy via an external route
__________________ are biopsychologists who study the genetics, evolution, and adaptiveness of behavior, often by using the comparative approach
Comparative psychologists
Neurons in the medial temporal lobes that are highly selective in terms of their responses to classes of test objects or individuals are known as
Concept cells
Saltatory conduction
Conduction of an action potential from one node of Ranvier to the next along a myelinated axon
Photopic vision
Cone-mediated vision, which predominates when lighting is good.
Explicit memories
Conscious memories
__________________________ refers to demonstrations that tolerance develops only to drug effects that are actually experienced
Contingent drug tolerance
Active placebos
Control drugs that have no therapeutic effect but produce side effects similar to those produced by the drug under evaluation in a clinical trial
Medial temporal cortex
Cortex in the medial temporal lobe lies adjacent to the hippocampus and amygdala
During a test in which split brain patients were asked to verbally specify which of two colors red or green had been presented in the left visual field an interesting phenomenon was discovered. This phenomenon is
Cross-cuing
The clinical effectiveness of typical neuroleptic drugs is positively correlated with the degree to which. they bind to
D2 receptors
Circadian rhythms
Daily cycles of bodily functions.
Hashish
Dark corklike material extracted from the resin on the leaves and flowers of cannabis
Who reported discovering a caudate taming center?
Delgado
Clinical depression (major depressive disorder)
Depression that is so severe that it is difficult for the patient to meet the essential requirements of daily life
Reactive depression
Depression that is triggered by a negative experience
Endogenous depression
Depression that occurs with no apparent cause
Most cases of dyslexia are
Developmental
Which of these is nonaromatizable androgen?
Dihydrotestosterone
Olfactory glomeruli
Discrete clusters of neurons that lie near the surface of the olfactory bulbs.
Pathogens
Disease-causing agents
Hypersomnia
Disorders characterized by excessive sleep or sleepiness.
A major advantage of the Z lens over conventional procedures for testing split brain patients is that it
Does not restrict the experimenter to the use of simple visual stimuli presented for 0.1 seconds
Which of the following pieces of evidence has been used to argue that dopamine plays an important role in the rewarding effects of addictive drugs and natural reinforcers?
Dopamine antagonists block the self-administration of several sorts of addictive drugs and Dopamine antagonists reduce the reinforcing effects of food.
Hypnagogic hallucinations
Dreamlike experiences that occur during wakefulness.
Contingent drug tolerance
Drug tolerance that develops as a reaction to the experience of the effects of drugs rather than to drug exposure alone.
Orphan drugs
Drugs for which the market is too small for the necessary developmental research to be profitable
Atypical antipsychotics
Drugs that are effective against schizophrenia but yet do not bind strongly to D2 receptors. Also known as second generation antipsychotics
Mood stabilizers
Drugs that effectively treat depression or mania without increasing the risk of mania or depression, respectively
Anxiolytic drugs
Drugs that have antianxiety effects
Stimulants
Drugs that produce general increases in neural and behavioral activity
Nootropics (smart drugs)
Drugs that purportedly improve memory
Psychedelic drugs
Drugs whose primary action is to alter perception, emotion, and cognition
Tricyclic antidepressants
Drugs with an antidepressant action and a three-ring molecular structure
Endocrine glands
Ductless glands that release chemicals called hormones directly into the circulatory system
A pathological difficulty in reading is termed
Dyslexia
Acquired dyslexias
Dyslexias caused by brain damage in people previously capable of reading
Developmental dyslexias
Dyslexias that become apparent when a child is learning to read
A change in the resting membrane potential from -70 mV to -68 mV would be considered a(n)
EPSP
Gametes
Egg cells and sperm cells.
______________________ are neurotransmitters that are similar to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main psychoactive constituent of marijuana
Endocannabinoids
Grid cells
Entorhinal neurons that each have an extensive array of evenly spaced place fields, producing a pattern reminiscent of graph paper
Zeitgebers
Environmental cues, such as the light-dark cycle, that entrain circadian rhythms.
Fear conditioning
Establishing fear of previously neutral conditional stimulus by pairing it with an aversive unconditional stimulus
Stressors
Experiences that induce a stress response
Semantic memories
Explicit memories for general facts and knowledge
Episodic memories
Explicit memories for the particular events and experiences of one's life
Which of the following beliefs about dreaming was found to be correct?
External stimuli can become incorporated into dreams
Distal
Far from something
Convolutions
Folds on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres.
_________ are cutaneous receptors that are sensitive to temperature change and pain
Free nerve endings
Who was responsible for popularizing the use of the transorbital lobotomy?
Freeman
Rhodopsin is a(n) ____________________ that responds to light rather than to neurotransmitter molecules.
G-protein-coupled receptor
Which neurotransmitter has been most often implicated in anxiety disorders because of the effects of benzodiazepines?
GABA
Which of the following is an amino acid neurotransmitter?
GABA
Like the benzodiazepines, the imidazopyridines are also
GABAA agonists
Many anxiolytic drugs are agonists at either ____________ receptors or ____________ receptors
GABAa; serotonin
Whose name is most associated with tamping irons?
Gage
Adrenogenital syndrome typically has severe consequences for
Genetic females but not genetic males
The massive international research effort that mapped the sequence of bases in human chromosomes was the Human _____________ Project
Genome
Which neuroscientist received the localizationist ideas of, Broca, Dejerine, and Wernicke?
Geschwind
Exocrine glands
Glands that release chemicals into ducts that carry them to targets, mostly on the surface of the body
Microglia
Glial cells that respond to injury or disease by engulfing cellular debris and triggering inflammatory responses, play a role in regulation of cell death, synapse formation, and synapse elimination
NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate) receptors
Glutamate receptors that play key roles in the development of stroke-induced brain damage and long term potentiation at glutaminergic synapses
_________________ is a pituitary tropic hormone that travels through the circulatory system to the gonads, where it stimulates the release of gonadal hormones
Gonadotropin
The ovaries and testes are
Gonads
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP's)
Graded post-synaptic depolarizations, which increase the likelihood that an action potential will be generated
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP's)
Graded post-synaptic hyperpolarizations, which decrease the likelihood that an action potential will be generated
____________ matter is composed largely of cell bodies and unmyelinated interneurons
Gray
________________ cells are entorhinal neurons that each have an extensive array of evenly spaced place fields, producing a pattern reminiscent of graph paper.
Grid
Food-caching birds tend to
Have incredible spatial memories and have larger hippocampi
Hemianopsic
Having a scotoma that covers half of the visual field.
Homologous
Having a similar structure because of a common evolutionary origin (e.g., a human's arm and a bird's wing are homologous).
Analogous
Having a similar structure because of convergent evolution (e.g., a bird's wing and a bee's wing are analogous).
A major problem with the therapeutic use of neuroleptics in the treatment of schizophrenia is that they
Help only a small proportion of patients, tend to act on only some symptoms, and produce disturbing side effects
Helping-hand phenomenon
Helping-hand phenomenon The redirection of one hand of a split-brain patient by the other hand
Food-caching species tended to have larger_________________ than related nonfood-caching species.
Hippocampi
Long-term potentiation is most commonly studied in the ______________ of rats
Hippocampus
Protein hormones
Hormones that are long chains of amino acids
Peptide hormones
Hormones that are short chains of amino acids
Steroid hormones
Hormones that are synthesized from cholesterol
Amino acid derivative hormones
Hormones that are synthesized in a few simple steps from an. amino acid molecule
Release-inhibiting hormones
Hypothalamic hormones that inhibit the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary.
Releasing hormones
Hypothalamic hormones that stimulate the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary
Supraoptic nuclei
Hypothalamic nuclei in which hormones of the posterior pituitary are synthesized
Paraventricular nuclei
Hypothalamic nuclei that plays a role in eating and synthesize hormones released by the posterior pituitary
Releasing hormones are released by the
Hypothalamus
The ___________ control(s) release of gonadotropins from the anterior pituitary
Hypothalamus
Bavalier et. al (1977) used a particularly sensitive fMRI procedure to study reading. They found that the areas of cerebral activity
In individual volunteers were variable, varied both from individual to individual and within individuals from trial to trial, and were widespread over the lateral surfaces of the brain
Purkinje effect
In intense light, red and yellow wavelengths look brighter than blue or green wavelengths of equal intensity; in dim light, blue and green wavelengths look brighter than red and yellow wavelengths of equal intensity.
Sensitivity
In vision, the ability to detect the presence of dimly lit objects.
Spandrels
Incidental nonadaptive evolutionary by-products of some adaptive characteristic.
Lateral inhibition
Inhibition of adjacent neurons or receptors in a topographic array
Replacement injections
Injections of a hormone whose natural release has been curtailed by the removal of the gland that normally releases it
Which of the following is a major difference between SI and SII?
Input to SI is largely contralateral
Intromission
Insertion of the penis into the vagina
Sexual dimorphisms
Instances where a behavior (or structure) comes in two distinct classes (male or female) into which most individuals can be unambiguously assigned
Transcription factors
Intracellular proteins that bind to DNA and influence the operation of particular
Transcription factors
Intracellular proteins that bind to DNA and influence the operation of particular genes.
Which of the following findings has supported the view that the mesocorticolimbic pathway plays an important role in mediating intracranial self-stimulation?
Intracranial self-stimulation is often associated with an increase in dopamine release in the mesocorticolimbic pathway
Transacting the corpus callosum and leaving intact the smaller commissioners sometimes is used to treat
Intractable epilepsy
Fixational eye movements
Involuntary movements of the eyes (tremor, drifts, and saccades) that occur when a person tries to fix their gaze on (i.e., stare at) a point.
Tics
Involuntary, repetitive, stereotyped movements or vocalizations; the defining feature of Tourette's disorder
Monocular
Involving only one eye.
_____________________ are associated with ligand-activated ion channels, whereas __________________ are associated with signal proteins and G proteins
Ionotropic receptors; metabotropic receptors
Which of the following is a feature of long-term potentiation (LTP) that Hebb argued was an important property of learning and memory?
It can last for a long time
Which of the following is thought to confer a survival advantage?
It is more efficient for the neurons performing a particular function to be concentrated in one hemisphere.
What theory is the oldest?
James-lange theory
Neurons that respond only to specific individuals or objects have been discovered in the human brain. These have been termed concept cells or
Jennifer Aniston neurons
Which of the following observations provided the first evidence for an association between REM sleep and dreaming?
Kleitman and colleagues found that 80 percent of awakenings from REM sleep, but only 7 percent of awakenings from NREM sleep, led to dream recall
In primates, bilateral destruction of the amygdala often causes
Kluver-Bucy syndrome
The ____________________ syndrome includes the following behaviors: the consumption of almost anything that is edible, increased sexual activity often directed at inappropriate objects, a tendency to repeatedly investigate familiar objects, a tendency to investigate objects with the mouth, and a lack of fear
Klüver-Bucy
It is difficult to differentiate between anterograde and retrograde amnesia in Korsakoff patients because
Korsakoff's syndrome has a gradual onset
Retinex theory
Land's theory that the color of an object is determined by its reflectance, which the visual system calculates by comparing the ability of adjacent surfaces to reflect short, medium, and long wavelengths.
Cingulate gyri
Large gyri located on the medial surfaces of the frontal lobes, just superior to the corpus callosum
Astrocytes
Largest glial cells, star shaped and play multiple roles in the central nervous system
Evidence suggests that it is the _______________, rather than the entire amygdala, that plays a role in auditory fear conditioning
Lateral nucleus
Sinestrals
Left-handers
The fact that left hemisphere damage disrupts American sign language but not pantomime gestures supports the ____________ theory of cerebral asymmetry
Linguistic
Proteins
Long chains of amino acids.
Anterograde amnesia
Loss of memory for events occurring after the amnesia-inducing brain injury
Retrograde amnesia
Loss of memory of events or information learned before the amnesia inducing brain injury
Desynchronized EEG
Low-amplitude, high-frequency EEG.
B cells
Lymphocytes that manufacture antibodies against antigens they encounter
Which of the following is a property of cerebral neurons that is not shared by motor neurons?
Many cerebral neurons fire continually even when they receive no input
Superior olives
Medullary nuclei that play a role in sound localization.
_______________ is a hormone synthesized from the neurotransmitter serotonin in the ________________ gland.
Melatonin; pineal
Conspecifics
Members of the same species.
Implicit memories
Memories that are expressed by improved performance without conscious recall or recognition
Remote memory
Memory for experiences of the distant past
Long term memory
Memory for experiences that endures after the experiences are no longer the focus of attention
Reference memory
Memory for the general principles and skills that are required to perform a task
_________________ refers to the modulation of the ability to induce LTP at particular synapses.
Metaplasticity
_____________ are glial cells that respond to injury or disease by multiplying, engulfing cellular debris or even entire cells
Microglia
Dopamine transporters
Molecules in the presynaptic membrane of dopaminergic neurons that attract dopamine molecules in the synaptic cleft and deposit them back inside the neuron.
Transfer RNA
Molecules of RNA that carry amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis; each kind of amino acid is carried by a different kind of transfer RNA molecule.
Who was awarded a Nobel Prize for the development of prefrontal lobotomy as a treatment for psychiatric disorders?
Moniz
_________ twins develop from the same zygote, whereas ________ twins develop from two zygotes
Monozygotic; dizygotic
The results of sodium amytal tests suggests that the percentage of healthy right handers in the general population that are left hemisphere dominant for speech is
More than 90%
When there are several possible interpretations for a behavioral observation, the rule is to give precedence to the simplest one; this rule is called
Morgan's canon
In the ____________________ water maze, intact rats placed at various locations in a circular pool of murky water rapidly learn to swim to a stationary platform hidden just below the surface.
Morris
Which test involves the use of a hidden platform?
Morris water maze
The version of the delayed nonmatching-to-sample test for rats, that most closely resembles that for monkeys, was developed by
Mumby
In the third month of male fetal development, the developing testes secrete
Müllerian-inhibiting substance
In the third month of the fetal development on genetic males, the newly created testes release testosterone and
Müllerian-inhibiting substance
LTP at glutaminergic synapses involves the __________ receptor, as well requiring co-occurrence of firing for LTP to occur
NMDA
In resting neurons, there are more _____ ions outside the cell than inside, and more ______ ions inside than outside
Na+; K+
efferent neurons
Nerves that carry motor signals from the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles or internal organs
afferent neurons
Nerves that carry sensory signals to the central nervous system
Free nerve endings
Neuron endings that lack specialized structures on them and that detect cutaneous pain and changes in temperature.
Simple cells
Neurons in the visual cortex that respond maximally to straight-edge stimuli of a particular width and orientation.
Complex cells
Neurons in the visual cortex that respond optimally to straight-edge stimuli in a certain orientation in any part of their receptive field.
Engram cells
Neurons that maintain an engram
Place cells
Neurons that respond only when the subject is in specific locations (ie. in the place fields of the neurons)
Dual-opponent color cells
Neurons that respond to the differences in the wavelengths of light stimulating adjacent areas of their receptive field.
interneurons
Neurons with short axons or no axons at all whose function is to integrate neural activity within a single brain structure
Jennifer Aniston neurons
Neurons, such as those found in the medial temporal lobe, that respond to ideas or concepts rather than to particulars. Also. known as concept cells
____________ dyes are often used to estimate the number of cell bodies in an area
Nissl
What gene has been associated with anxiety disorder?
No gene has been linked
_________________ are substances (drugs, supplements, herbal extracts, etc.) that are thought to improve memory.
Nootropics
Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN)
Nuclei of the medial hypothalamus that control the circadian cycles of various body functions.
Nucleus accumbanes
Nucleus of the ventral striatum and a major terminal of the mesocorticolimbic dopamine pathway
Apes are thought to have evolved from a line of
Old-World monkeys
Ipsilateral
On the same side of the body
Primates
One of 20 different orders of mammals; there are about a 16 families of primates.
Pituitary peptides
One of the five categories of neuropeptide transmitters; it contains neuropeptides that were first identfied as hormones released by the pituitary
Metencephalon
One of the five major divisions of the brain; it includes the pons and cerebellum
Mesencephalon
One of the five major divisions of the brain; it is composed of the tectum and tegmentum
Diencephalon
One of the five major divisions of the brain; it is composed of the thalamus and hypothalamus
Pyramidal cell layer
One of the major layers of cell bodies in the hippocampus
Dopamine
One of the three catecholamine neurotransmitters
Epinephrine
One of the three catecholamine neurotransmitters
Norepinephrine
One of the three catecholamine neurotransmitters
Oxytocin
One of the two major peptide hormones of the posterior pituitary, which in females stimulates contraction of the uterus during labor and the ejection of milk during suckling
Vasopressin
One of the two major peptide hormones of the posterior pituitary; it facilitates reabsorption of water by kidneys and is thus also called antidiuretic hormone
_____________ is the development of individuals over their life span; _______________ is the evolutionary development of species through the ages
Ontogeny; phylogeny
Which term refers specifically to the surgical removal of the testes
Orchidectomy
Hierarchical organization
Organization into a series of levels that can be ranked with respect to one another; for example, primary cortex, secondary cortex, and association cortex perform progressively more detailed analyses.
Functional segregation
Organization into different areas, each of which performs a different function; for example, in sensory systems, different areas of secondary and association cortex analyze different aspects of the same sensory stimulus.
Chemotopic
Organized, like the olfactory bulb, according to a map of various odors.
Tonotopic
Organized, like the primary auditory cortex, according to the frequency of sound.
Somatotopic
Organized, like the primary somatosensory cortex, according to a map of the surface of the body.
Retinotopic
Organized, like the primary visual cortex, according to a map of the retina.
In the absence of the Sry protein, the cortical cells of the primordial gonads develop into
Ovaries
The largest and deepest cutaneous receptors are the
Pacinian corpuscles
Gastric ulcers
Painful lesions to the lining of the stomach or duodenum
Complementary colors
Pairs of colors that produce white or gray when combined in equal measure.
____________________ processing is the simultaneous analysis of a signal in different ways by the multiple parallel pathways of a neural network
Parallel
Agoraphobia
Pathological fear of public places and open spaces
Blobs
Peglike, cytochrome oxidase-rich, dual-opponent color columns.
Neuropeptide transmitters
Peptides that function as neurotransmitters, of which about 100 have been identified; also called neuropeptides
Receptive
Pertaining to the comprehension of language and speech
Expressive
Pertaining to the generation of language; that is, pertaining to writing or talking
Pharmacological
Pertaining to the scientific study of drugs
Deep dyslexics have lost __________ processing; the person has lost the ability to apply rules of pronunciation when reading
Phonetic
______________ vision predominates in good lighting and provides high-acuity colored perceptions of the world. In contrast, the more sensitive ______________ vision predominates in low lighting
Photopic; scotopic
Melanopsin
Photopigment found in certain retinal ganglion cells that respond to changes in background illumination and play a role in the entrainment of circadian rhythms.
Iatrogenic
Physician-created.
Nucleus accumbens
Plays a role in the rewarding effects of addictive drugs and other reinforcers
_____________ is an arrangement in which one male forms mating bonds with more than one female
Polygyny
Ion channels
Pores in neural membranes through which specific ions pass
gray matter
Portions of the nervous system that are composed largely of cell bodies and unmyelinated interneurons
White matter
Portions of the nervous system that are composed largely of myelinated axons
Heterozygous
Possessing two different genes for a particular trait.
Homozygous
Possessing two identical genes for a particular trait.
Which of the following analogies best exemplifies the speed at which postsynaptic potentials travel from their site of origin?
Postsynaptic potentials travel like electrical signals along a cable
Contralateral
Projecting from one side of the body to the other
__________________ is a visual agnosia for faces
Prosopagnosia
Antibodies
Proteins that bind to foreign antigens on the surface of microorganisms and in so doing promote the destruction of the microorganisms
Enzymes
Proteins that stimulate or inhibit biochemical reactions without being affected by them
____________ means closer to the CNS, and _______ means farther from the CNS
Proximal; distal
Cocaine psychosis
Psychotic symptoms that are sometimes observed during cocaine sprees; similar in certain respects to schizophrenia
This effect can be observed during the transition from photopic to scotopic vision
Purkinje effect
Some patients experience REM sleep without core-muscle atonia. This condition is known as
REM-sleep behavior disorder.
Panic attacks
Rapid onset attacks of extreme fear and severe symptoms of stress (ex. choking, heart palpations, shortness of breath)
Toll-like receptors
Receptors found in the cell membranes of many cells of the innate immune system; they trigger phagocytosis and inflammatory responses
Metabotropic receptors
Receptors that are associated with signal proteins and G proteins
Alpha waves
Regular, 8- to 12-per-second, high-amplitude EEG waves that typically occur during relaxed wakefulness and just before falling asleep.
Translational research
Research designed to translate basic scientific discoveries into effective applications (ex. into clinical treatments)
All or none responses
Responses that are not graded; they either occur to their full extent or do not occur at all
Graded responses
Responses whose magnitude is proportional to the magnitude of the stimuli that elicit them (weak signals elicit small postsynaptic potentials, and strong signals elicit large ones)
Androgens insensitivity syndrome
Results from a mutation to the androgen receptor gene that renders the androgen receptors unresponsive and leads to the development of a female body
Amacrine cells
Retinal neurons that are specialized for lateral communication.
Retinal ganglion cells
Retinal neurons whose axons leave the eyeball and form the optic nerve.
Horizontal cells
Retinal neurons whose specialized function is lateral communication.
_____________________ methods are used when an investigator wants to trace the paths of axons projecting into a particular area
Retrograde tracing
Dextrals
Right-handers
Tinnitus
Ringing in the ears.
Scotopic vision
Rod-mediated vision, which predominates in dim light.
Many of the early studies of the split brain were conducted in the laboratory of
Roger Sperry
The empirical method that biopsychologists and other scientists use to study the unobservable is
Scientific interference
___________ memories are memories for general facts or information; ______________ memories are memories for the particular events.
Semantic; episodic
Neuropathic pain
Severe chronic pain in the absence of a recognizable pain stimulus.
Global aphasia
Severe disruption of all language-related abilities
_________ refer to structural differences in the brains of males and females
Sexual dimorphisms
Neuropeptide
Short amino acid chains
Left handers are also known as
Sinistral's
Neocortex
Six-layered cerebral cortex of relatively recent evolution; it constitutes 90 percent of human cerebral cortex
Polyphasic sleep cycles
Sleep cycles that regularly involve more than one period of sleep per day.
Monophasic sleep cycles
Sleep cycles that regularly involve only one period of sleep per day, typically at night.
Which of the following is a major conclusion that has been reached through the comparative investigation of sleep?
Sleep may be essential for survival, but it does not appear to be needed in large quantities
Hypnotic drugs
Sleep-promoting drugs.
Antihypnotic drugs
Sleep-reducing drugs.
Insomnia
Sleeplessness.
Sulci (sing. sulcus)
Small furrows in a convoluted cortex
Stellate cells
Small star-shaped cortical interneurons
Monoamine neurotransmitters
Small-molecule neurotransmitters that are synthesized from monoamines and comprise two classes: catecholamines and indolamines
Sodium amytal test
Sodium amytal test A test involving the anesthetization of first one cerebral hemisphere and then the other to determine which hemisphere plays the dominant role in language
The Morris water maze is often used to study
Spatial learning in rats
Lymphocytes
Specialized leukocytes that are produced in bone marrow and the thymus gland and play important roles in the body's immune reactions
Amphibians
Species that must live in water during their larval phase; adult amphibians can survive on land.
Who won a Nobel Prize for his research on split-brain patients?
Sperry
In the seventh week after the conception, the ______________ gene on the Y chromosome of the male triggers the synthesis of ______________ protein
Sry; Sry
Slow-wave sleep (SWS)
Stage 3 sleep, which is characterized by the largest and slowest EEG waves.
Delirium tremens occurs during which stage of a full-blown alcohol withdrawal syndrome?
Stage 4
Anabolic steroids
Steroid drugs that are similar to testosterone and have powerful anabolic (growth-promoting) effects
Glucocorticoids
Steroid hormones that are released from the adrenal cortex in response to stressors
Exteroceptive stimuli
Stimuli that arise from outside the body.
Short term memory
Storage of information for the brief periods of time while a person attends to it
Subordination stress
Stress experienced by animals, typically males, that are continually attacked by higher-ranking conspecifics
Enhancers
Stretches of DNA that control the rate of expression of target genes.
Golgi complex
Structures in the cell bodies and terminal buttons of neurons that package neurotransmitters and other molecules in vesicles
Clinical trials
Studies conducted on human subjects to assess the therapeutic efficacy of an untested drug or other treatment
Transient global amnesia is defined by
Sudden onset and the absence of an obvious cause
Adrenalectomy
Surgical removal of the adrenal glands
Commissurotomy
Surgical severing of the cerebral commissures
________ nerves stimulate, organize, and mobilize energy resources in threatening situations
Sympathetic
Negative symptoms
Symptoms of schizophrenia that seem to represent a reduction or loss of typical function
Positive symptoms
Symptoms of schizophrenia that seem to represent an excess of typical function
One theory of why lateralization of function involved is that there are two fundamentally different modes of thinking, each requiring different neural circuitry. These two modes of thinking or referred to as
Synthetic and analytic
Cell mediated immunity is directed by ____________, whereas antibody-mediated immunity is directed by _____________
T cells; B cells
____________ are produced by electroconvulsive shock in humans and other animals.
Temporal gradients of retrograde amnesia
Working memory
Temporary memory that is necessary for the successful performance of a task on which one is currently working
Restless legs syndrome
Tension or uneasiness in the legs that keeps a person from falling asleep; one cause of insomnia.
Which hormone seems to influence sexual motivation in women?
Testosterone
Repetition priming tests
Tests of implicit memory; in one example, a list of words is presented, then fragments of the original words are presented and the subject is asked to complete them
Tectum
The "roof" or dorsal surface, of the mesencephalon; it includes the superior and inferior colliculi
cranial nerves
The 12 pairs of nerves extending from the brain (ex. optic nerves, olfactory nerves, and vagus nerves)
Optic chiasm
The X-shaped structure on the inferior surface of the diencephalon; the point where the optic nerves decussate
Selective attention
The ability to focus on a small subset of the multitude of stimuli that are being received at any one time.
Blindsight
The ability to respond to visual stimuli in a scotoma without conscious awareness of those stimuli.
Acuity
The ability to see the details of objects.
Cocktail-party phenomenon
The ability to unconsciously monitor the contents of one conversation while consciously focusing on another.
Harrisons Narcotics Acts
The act passed in 1914 that made it illegal to sell or use opium, morphine, or cocaine in the United States
Androstenedione
The adrenal androgen that is responsible for the growth of pubic hair and axillary. hair in human females
Jet lag
The adverse effects on body function of the acceleration of zeitgebers during eastbound flights or their deceleration during westbound flights.
GABA
The amino acid neurotransmitter that is synthesized from glutamate; the most prevalent inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian CNS
Growth hormone
The anterior pituitary hormone that acts directly on bone and muscle tissue to produce the pubertal growth spurt
Thyrotropin
The anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates the release of hormones from the thyroid gland
Positive-incentive value
The anticipated pleasure associated with a particular action, such as taking a drug
Lordosis
The arched-back, rump-up, tail-to-the-side posture of female rodent sexual receptivity
Frontal operculum
The area of prefrontal cortex that in the left hemisphere is the location of Broca's area
Primary visual cortex
The area of the cortex that receives direct input from the lateral geniculate nuclei (also called striate cortex).
Medial preoptic area
The area of the hypothalamus that includes the sexually dimorphic nuclei and that plays a key role in the control of male sexual behavior
Broca's area
The area of the inferior prefrontal cortex of the left hemisphere hypothesized by Broca to be the center of speech production.
Wernicke's area
The area of the left temporal cortex hypothesized by Wernicke to be the center of language comprehension
Receptive field
The area of the visual field within which it is possible for the appropriate stimulus to influence the firing of a visual neuron.
Blind spot
The area on the retina where the bundle of axons from the retinal ganglion cells leave the eye as the optic nerve.
Prefrontal cortex
The areas of frontal cortex that are anterior to the frontal motor areas
Mesotelencephalic dopamine system
The ascending projections of dopamine-releasing neurons from the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area of the mesencephalon (midbrain) into various regions of the telencephalon.
Organ of Corti
The auditory receptor organ, comprising the basilar membrane, the hair cells, and the tectorial membrane.
Medial geniculate nuclei
The auditory thalamic nuclei that receive input from the inferior colliculi and project to primary auditory cortex.
Conscious awareness
The awareness of one's perceptions; typically inferred from the ability to verbally describe them.
Prestriate cortex
The band of tissue in the occipital lobe that surrounds the primary visual cortex and contains areas of secondary visual cortex.
Auditory nerve
The branch of cranial nerve VIII that carries auditory signals from the hair cells in the basilar membrane.
Amino acids
The building blocks of proteins.
Zygote
The cell formed from the amalgamation of a sperm cell and an ovum
Zygote
The cell formed from the amalgamation of a sperm cell and an ovum.
Fovea
The central indentation of the retina, which is specialized for high-acuity vision.
L-dopa
The chemical precursor of dopamine, which readily penetrates the blood brain barrier and is converted to dopamine once inside the brain
Aromatization
The chemical process by which testosterone is converted to estradiol
Smokers syndrome
The chest pain, labored breathing, wheezing, coughing, and heightened susceptibility to infections of the respiratory tract commonly observed in tobacco smokers
Indolamines
The class of monoamine neurotransmitters that are synthesized from tryptophan; serotonin is the only member of this class found in the mammalian nervous system
Estrogens
The class of steroid hormones that are released in large amounts by the ovaries; an example is estradiol
Progestins
The class of steroid hormones that includes progesterone
Androgens
The class of steroid hormones that includes testosterone
Tectorial membrane
The cochlear membrane that rests on the hair cells.
Flavor
The combined impression of taste and smell.
Anosognosia
The common failure of neuropsychological patients to recognize their own symptoms.
Cannabis
The common hemp plant, which is the source of marijuana
Mesocorticolimbic pathway
The component of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system that has cell bodies in the ventral tegmental area which project to various cortical and limbic sites.
Axon hillock
The conical structure at the junction between the axon and cell body
Drug metabolism
The conversion of a drug from its active form to a nonactive form
Transduction
The conversion of one form of energy to another.
Adrenal medulla
The core of each adrenal gland, which releases epinephrine and norepinephrine in response to stressors
Anterior cingulate cortex
The cortex of the anterior cingulate gyrus.
Cingulate cortex
The cortex of the cingulate gyri, which are located on the medial surfaces of the frontal lobes
Orbitofrontal cortex
The cortex of the inferior frontal lobes, adjacent to the orbits, which receives olfactory input from the thalamus.
Inferotemporal cortex
The cortex of the inferior temporal lobe, in which is located an area of secondary visual cortex
Inferotemporal cortex
The cortex of the inferior temporal lobe, in which is located an area of secondary visual cortex.
Gyri (sing. gyrus)
The cortical ridges that are located between the fissures or sulci
DSM-5
The current edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, produced by the American Psychiatric Association
Estrous cycle
The cycle of sexual receptivity displayed by many female mammals
Internal desynchronization
The cycling on different schedules of the free-running circadian rhythms of two or more different processes
Nature-nurture issue
The debate about the relative contributions of nature (genes) and nurture (experience) to the behavioral capacities of individuals.
Pia mater
The delicate, innermost meninx
Phagocytosis
The destruction and ingestion of foreign matter by cells of the immune system
Ontogeny
The development of individuals over their life span.
Hypothalamus
The diencephalic structure that sits just below the anterior portion of the thalamus
Membrane potential
The difference in electrical charge between the inside and the outside of a cell
Binocular disparity
The difference in the position of the same image on the two retinas.
Receptor subtypes
The different types of receptors to which a particular neurotransmitter can bind
Change blindness
The difficulty perceiving major changes to unattended-to parts of a visual image when the changes are introduced during brief interruptions in the presentation of the image.
Psychophysiology
The division of biopsychology that studies the relation between physiological activity and psychological processes in human subjects by noninvasive methods
Adaptive immune system
The division of the immune system that mounts targeted attacks on foreign pathogens by binding to antigens in their cell membranes
Dorsal-column medial-lemniscus system
The division of the somatosensory system that ascends in the dorsal portion of the spinal white matter and tends to carry signals related to touch and proprioception.
Alpha male
The dominant male of a colony
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
The double-stranded, coiled molecule of genetic material.
Free-running period
The duration of one cycle of a free-running rhythm.
Tympanic membrane
The eardrum.
Müllerian system
The embryonic precursor of the female reproductive ducts
Wolffian system
The embryonic precursor of the male reproductive ducts
Fear
The emotional reaction that is normally elicited by the presence or expectation of threatening stimuli
Buttons
The endings of the axon branches, which release chemicals into the synapses
Pineal gland
The endocrine gland that is the human body's sole source of melatonin.
Long-term potentiation
The enduring facilitation of synaptic transmission that occurs following activation of synapses by high-intensity, high-frequency stimulation of presynaptic neurons
Convergent evolution
The evolution in unrelated species of similar solutions to the same environmental demands.
Phylogeny
The evolutionary development of species.
Sham rage
The exaggerated, poorly directed aggressive responses of decorticate animals
Before-and-after desgin
The experimental design used to demonstrate contingent drug tolerance; one group receives the drug before each of a series of behavioral tests and the other group receives the drug after each test
Ciliary muscles
The eye muscles that control the shape of the lenses.
Hominini
The family of primates that includes at least six genera: Australopithecus, Paranthropus, Sahelanthropus, Orrorin, Pan, and Homo.
Myelin
The fatty insulation around the many axons
Rubber-hand illusion
The feeling that an extraneous object, usually a rubber hand, is actually part of one's own body.
Ovaries
The female gonads
Fraternal birth order effect
The finding that the probability of a man's being homosexual increases as a function of the number of older brothers he has
Iproniazid
The first antidepressant drug; a monoamine oxidase inhibitor
Chlorpromazine
The first antipsychotic drug
Tau
The first circadian gene to be identified in mammals.
Innate immune system
The first component of the immune system to react. It reacts quickly and generally near points of entry of pathogens
Anandamide
The first endogenous endocannabinoid to be discovered and characterized
Typical antipsychotics
The first generation of antipsychotic drugs
Reserpine
The first monoamine antagonist to be used in the treatment of schizophrenia; the active ingredient of the snakeroot plant
Sensory phase
The first of the two phases of birdsong development, during which young birds do not sing but form memories of the adult songs they hear.
Fluoxetine
The first selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) to be developed. It was initially marketed under the tradename Prozac
Imipramine
The first tricyclic antidepressant drug
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
The fluid that fills the subarachnoid space, the central canal, and the cerebral ventricles protecting the CNS
Which of the following was a discovery that was fueled by the identification of circadian genes?
The fundamental molecular mechanism of circadian rhythms seems to be gene expression, Molecular circadian timing mechanisms similar to those in the SCN exist in most cells of the body, and The same or similar circadian genes have been found in many species of different evolutionary ages
Nodes of Ranvier
The gaps between adjacent myelin sheaths on an axon
Synapses
The gaps between the adjacent neurons across which chemical signals are transmitted
Nodes of Ranvier
The gaps between the sections of myelin
Zeitgeist
The general intellectual climate of a culture.
Pituitary gland
The gland that dangles from, and is controlled by, the hypothalamus
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
The gonadotropic hormone that causes the developing ovum to be released from the follicle
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
The gonadotropic hormone that stimulates development of ovarian follicles
Photopic spectral sensitivity curve
The graph of the sensitivity of cone-mediated vision to different wavelengths of light.
Scotopic spectral sensitivity curve
The graph of the sensitivity of rod-mediated vision to different wavelengths of light.
Periaqueductal gray (PAG)
The gray matter around the cerebral aqueduct, which contains opiate receptors and activates a descending analgesia circuit.
Dorsal stream
The group of visual pathways that flows from the primary visual cortex to the dorsal prestriate cortex to the posterior parietal cortex.
Ventral stream
The group of visual pathways that flows from the primary visual cortex to the ventral prestriate cortex to the inferotemporal cortex.
Precentral gyrus
The gyrus located just anterior to the central fissure; its function is primarily motor
Angular gyrus
The gyrus of the posterior cortex at the boundary between the temporal and parietal lobes. According to the Wernicke-Geschwind model the left hemisphere angular gyrus plays a role in reading
The hierarchical organization of sensory systems is apparent from a comparison of the effects of damage to various levels:
The higher the level of damage, the more specific and complex the deficit
Perception
The higher-order process of integrating, recognizing, and interpreting complete patterns of sensations.
Menstrual cycle
The hormone-regulated cycle in women of follicle growth, egg release, buildup of the uterus lining, and menstruation
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
The hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the release of thyrotropin from the anterior pituitary
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
The hypothalamic releasing hormone that controls the release of the two gonadotropic hormones from the anterior pituitary
Aromatization hypothesis
The hypothesis that brain is masculinized by estradiol that is produced from perinatal testosterone through a process called aromatization
Maternal immune hypothesis
The hypothesis that mothers become progressively more immune to masculinizing in their male fetuses; proposed to explain the fraternal birth order effect
Facial feedback hypothesis
The hypothesis that our facial expressions can influence how we feel
Reticular activating system
The hypothetical arousal system in the reticular formation.
Target-site concept
The idea that aggressive and defensive behaviors of an animal are often designed to attack specific sites on the body of another animal while protecting specific sites on its own
Natural selection
The idea that those heritable traits that are associated with high rates of survival and reproduction are the most likely to be passed on to future generations.
Withdrawal syndrome
The illness brought on by the elimination from the body of a drug on which the person is physically dependent
Cell-mediated immunity
The immune reaction by which T-cells destroy invading microorganisms
Antibody-mediated immunity
The immune reaction in which B cells destroy invading microorganisms via the production of antibodies
Anosmia
The inability to smell.
Ageusia
The inability to taste
Spatial summation
The integration of signals that originate at different sites on the neurons membrane
Peripartum depression
The intense, sustained depression experienced by some women during pregnancy, after they give birth, or both
Contrast enhancement
The intensification of the perception of edges.
Human Genome Project
The international research effort to construct a detailed map of the human chromosomes
Central fissure
The large fissure that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe
Lateral fissure
The large fissure that separates the temporal lobe from the frontal lobe
Fissures
The large furrows in a convoluted cortex
Thalamus
The large two-lobed diencephalic structure that constitutes the anterior end of the brainstem; many of its nuclei are sensory relay nuclei that project to the cortex
Pacinian corpuscles
The largest and most deeply positioned cutaneous receptors, which are sensitive to sudden displacements of the skin.
Delta waves
The largest and slowest EEG waves.
Corpus callosum
The largest cerebral commissure
Longitudinal fissure
The largest fissure that separates the two cerebral hemispheres
Cerebral Cortex
The layer of neural tissue covering the cerebral hemispheres of humans and other mammals
Cerebral cortex
The layer of neural tissue covering the cerebral hemispheres of humans and other mammals (gray matter)
Magnocellular layers
The layers of the lateral geniculate nuclei that are composed of neurons with large cell bodies; the bottom two layers (also called M layers).
Parvocellular layers
The layers of the lateral geniculate nuclei that are composed of neurons with small cell bodies; the top four layers (also called P layers).
Threshold of excitation
The level of depolarization necessary to generate an action potential; usually about -65 mV
Cochlea
The long, coiled tube in the inner ear that is filled with fluid and contains the organ of Corti and its auditory receptors.
Arcuate fasciculus
The major neural pathway between Broca's area and Wernicke's area
Morphine
The major psychoactive ingredient in opium
Fornix
The major tract of the limbic system; it connects the hippocampus with the septum and mammillary bodies
Retina-geniculate-striate pathway
The major visual pathway from each retina to the striate cortex (primary visual cortex) via the lateral geniculate nuclei of the thalamus.
Solitary nucleus
The medullary relay nucleus of the gustatory system.
Genetic recombination
The meiotic process by which pairs of chromosomes cross over one another at random points, break apart, and exchange genes.
Basilar membrane
The membrane of the organ of Corti in which the hair cell receptors are embedded.
Oval window
The membrane that transfers vibrations from the ossicles to the fluid of the cochlea.
Arachnoid membrane
The meninx that is located between the dura mater and the pia mater and has the appearance of a guazelike spiderweb
Cell body
The metabolic center of the neuron; also called the soma
Pons
The metencephalic structure that creates a bulge on the ventral surface of the brain stem
Ventral tegmental area
The midbrain nucleus of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system that is the major source of the mesoscorticolimbic pathway
Substantia nigra
The midbrain nucleus whose neurons project via the nigrostriatal pathway to the striatum of the basal ganglia; it is part of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system; black substance
Metaplasticity
The modulation of long term potentiation (LTP) and/or long term depression (LTD) induction by prior synaptic activity
Testosterone
The most common androgen
Estradiol
The most common estrogen
Alzheimers disease
The most common form of dementia in the elderly. It's three defining characteristics are: neurofibrillary tangles; amyloid plaques, and neuron loss
Myelencephalon
The most posterior of the five major divisions of the brain; the medulla
Glutamate
The most prevalent excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS
Telencephalon
The most superior of the brain's five major divisions; largest division of the human brain; mediates the brain's most complex functions: voluntary movement, interprets sensory movement, and mediates complex cognitive processes like learning, speaking, and problem solving
Olfactory mucosa
The mucous membrane that lines the upper nasal passages and contains the olfactory receptor cells.
Infantile amnesia
The normal inability to recall events from early childhood
Sexually dimorphic nucleus
The nucleus in the medial preotic area of rats that is larger in males than in females
Lateral nucleus of the amygdala
The nucleus of the amygdala that plays the major role in the acquisition, storage, and expression of conditioned fear
Nucleus magnocellularis
The nucleus of the caudal reticular formation that promotes relaxation of the core muscles during REM sleep and during attacks of cataplexy.
Adrenal cortex
The outer layer of each adrenal gland, which releases glucocorticoids in response to stressors, as well as small amounts of steroid hormones
Adrenal cortex
The outer layer of each adrenal gland, which releases glucocorticoids in responses to stressors, as well as small amounts of steroid hormones
Sex chromosomes
The pair of chromosomes that determine an individual's genetic sex: XX for a female and XY for a male.
Brain stem
The part of the brain on which cerebral hemispheres rest; in general, it regulates reflex activities that are critical for survival (includes diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon)
Brain stem
The part of the brain on which the cerebral hemispheres rest; in general, it regulates reflex activities that are critical for survival (e.g., heart rate and respiration).
Automatic Nervous System (ANS)
The part of the peripheral nervous system that participates in the regulation of the body's internal environment
Posterior pituitary
The part of the pituitary gland that contains the terminals of hypothalamic neurons
Anterior pituitary
The part of the pituitary gland that releases tropic hormones
Initial stage 1 EEG
The period of the stage 1 EEG that occurs at the onset of sleep; it is not associated with REMs.
Delirium tremens (DTs)
The phase of alcohol withdrawal syndrome characterized by hallucinations, delusions, disorientation, agitation, confusion, hyperthermia, and tachycardia
Cartesian dualism
The philosophical position of René Descartes, who argued that the universe is composed of two elements: physical matter and the human mind.
Rhodopsin
The photopigment of rods.
Stress
The physiological changes that occur when the body is exposed to harm or a threat
Gonadotropin
The pituitary tropic hormone that stimulates the release of hormones from the gonads
Cerebrum
The portion of the brain that sits above the brain stem; in general, it plays a role in complex adaptive processes (e.g., learning, perception, and motivation).
5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP)
The precursor of serotonin
Corticosterone
The predominant glucocorticoid in humans
Coexistence
The presence of more than one neurotransmitter in the same neuron
Perimetry test
The procedure used to map scotomas.
Contextual fear conditioning
The process by which benign contexts (situations) come to elicit fear through their association with fear-inducing stimuli.
Replication
The process by which the DNA molecule duplicates itself.
Surface interpolation
The process by which we perceive surfaces; the visual system extracts information about edges and from it infers the appearance of large surfaces.
Accommodation
The process of adjusting the configuration of the lenses to bring images into focus on the retina.
Meiosis
The process of cell division that produces cells (e.g., egg cells and sperm cells) with half the chromosomes of the parent cell.
Mitosis
The process of cell division that produces cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
Immunization
The process of creating immunity through vaccination
Sensation
The process of detecting the presence of stimuli.
Stereognosis
The process of identifying objects by touch.
Critical thinking
The process of recognizing the weaknesses of existing ideas and the evidence on which they are based
Exocytosis
The process of releasing a neurotransmitter
Gene expression
The production of the protein specified by a particular gene.
Estrus
The protein of the estrous cycle characterized by proceptivity, sexual receptivity, and fertility
Saccades
The rapid movements of the eyes between fixations.
Semicircular canals
The receptive organs of the vestibular system.
Hair cells
The receptors of the auditory system.
Hemispherectomy
The removal of one cerebral hemisphere
Bilateral medial temporal lobectomy
The removal of the medial portions of both temporal lobes, including the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the adjacent cortex
Ovariectomy
The removal of the ovaries
Orchidectomy
The removal of the testes
intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS)
The repeated performance of a response that delivers electrical stimulation to certain sites in the animals brain
Scrotum
The sac that holds the male testes outside the body cavity
Opium
The sap that exudes from the seed pods of the opium poppy
Sensorimotor phase
The second of the two phases of birdsong development, during which juvenile birds progress from subsongs to adult songs.
Axon initial segment
The segment of the axon where action potentials are generated- located immediately adjacent to the axon hillock
Vestibular system
The sensory system that detects changes in the direction and intensity of head movements and that contributes to the maintenance of balance through its output to the motor system.
Parallel processing
The simultaneous analysis of a signal in different ways by the multiple parallel pathways of a neural network.
Lateral geniculate nuclei
The six-layered thalamic structures that receive input from the retinas and transmit their output to the primary visual cortex.
The central canal
The small CSF-filled channel that runs the length of the spinal cord
Medial lemniscus
The somatosensory pathway between the dorsal column nuclei and the ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus.
Dorsal columns
The somatosensory tracts that ascend in the dorsal portion of the spinal cord white matter.
Somatosensory homunculus
The somatotopic map in the primary somatosensory cortex.
Subarachnoid space
The space beneath the arachnoid membrane, which contains many large blood vessels and cerebrospinal fluid
REM sleep
The stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, loss of core muscle tone, and emergent stage 1 EEG.
Resting potential
The steady membrane potential of a neuron at rest, usually about -70 mV
Pituitary stalk
The structure connecting the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland
Inferior colliculi
The structures of the tectum that receive auditory input from the superior olives.
Epigenetics
The study of all mechanisms of inheritance other than the genetic code and its expression
Epigenetics
The study of all mechanisms of inheritance other than the genetic code and its expression.
comparative approach
The study of biological processes by comparing different species- usually from the evolutionary perspective
Psychoneuroimmunology
The study of interactions among psychological factors, the nervous system, and the immune system
Neuroendocrinology
The study of interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine system
Ethology
The study of the behavior of animals in their natural environments.
Neuropharmacology
The study of the effects of drugs on neural activity
Cheese effect
The surges in blood pressure that occur when individuals taking MAO inhibitors consume tyramine-rich foods, such as cheese
Gonadectomy
The surgical removal of the gonads (testes or ovaries); castration
Kluver-Bucy syndrome
The syndrome of behavior changes (eg. lack of fear and hypersexuality) that is induced in primates by bilateral damage to the anterior temporal lobes
Immune system
The system that protects the body against infectious microorganisms
Heschl's gyrus
The temporal lobe gyrus that is the location of primary auditory cortex.
Comorbid
The tendency for two or more health conditions to occur together in the same individual
Color constancy
The tendency of an object to appear the same color even when the wavelengths of light that it reflects change.
Müllerian-inhibiting substance
The testicular hormone that causes the precursor of the female reproductive ducts (the Müllerian system) to degenerate and the testes to descend
Medial dorsal nuclei
The thalamic relay nuclei of the olfactory system.
Opponent-process theory
The theory that a visual receptor or a neuron signals one color when it responds in one way (e.g., by increasing its firing rate) and signals the complementary color when it responds in the opposite way (e.g., by decreasing its firing rate).
Duplexity theory
The theory that cones and rods mediate photopic and scotopic vision, respectively.
Reconsolidation
The theory that each time a memory is retrieved from long term storage, it is temporarily held in a labile (changeable or unstable) state in short-term memory, where it is susceptibility remains until it is consolidated again (ie. reconsolidated)
James-Lange theory
The theory that emotion-inducing sensory stimuli are received and interpreted by the cortex, which triggers changes in the viscera; organs via the automatic nervous system and in the skeletal muscles via the somatic nervous system. Then, the automatic and somatic responses trigger the experience of emotion in the brain
Cannon-Bard theory
The theory that emotional experience and emotional expression are parallel processes that have no direct casual relation
Standard consolidation theory
The theory that memories are temporarily stored in the hippocampus until they can be transferred to a more stable cortical storage system. Also known as dual-trace theory
Dual-trace theory
The theory that memories are temporarily stored in the hippocampus until they can be transferred to a more stable cortical storage system. Also known as the standard consolidation theory.
"Control of behavior" versus "conscious perception" theory
The theory that the dorsal stream mediates behavioral interactions with objects and the ventral stream mediates conscious perception of objects.
"Where" versus "what" theory
The theory that the dorsal stream mediates the perception of where things are and the ventral stream mediates the perception of what things are.
Activation-synthesis hypothesis
The theory that the information supplied to the cortex by the brain stem during REM sleep is largely random and that the resulting dream is the cortex's best effort to make sense of those random signals.
Motor theory of speech perception
The theory that the perception of speech involves activation of the same areas of the brain that are involved in the production of speech.
Component theory
The theory that the relative amount of activity produced in three different classes of cones by light determines its perceived color (also called trichromatic theory).
Ossicles
The three small bones of the middle ear: the malleus, the incus, and the stapes.
incubation of drug craving
The time-dependent increase in cue-induced drug craving and relapse.
Dominant trait
The trait of a dichotomous pair that is expressed in the phenotypes of heterozygous individuals.
Recessive trait
The trait of a dichotomous pair that is not expressed in the phenotype of heterozygous individuals.
Genotype
The traits that an organism can pass on to its offspring through its genetic material.
Memory consolidation
The transfer of short-term memories to long term storage
Alleles
The two genes that control the same trait.
Lateralization of function
The unequal representation of various psychological functions in the two hemispheres of the brain
Sleep inertia
The unpleasant feeling of grogginess that is sometimes experienced for a few minutes after awakening.
Which of the following is a premise that characterizes the cognitive neuroscience approach to language?
The use of language is mediated by widespread activity in all the areas of the brain that participate in the cognitive processes involved in the particular language-related behavior
Hypothalamopituitary portal system
The vascular network that carries hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary
Tegmentum
The ventral divison of the mesencephalon; it includes part of the reticular formation, red nucleus, and substantia nigra
Rods
The visual receptors in the retina that mediate achromatic, low-acuity vision under dim light.
Cones
The visual receptors in the retina that mediate high acuity color vision in good lighting.
Completion
The visual system's automatic use of information obtained from receptors around the blind spot, or scotoma, to create a perception of the missing portion of the retinal image.
Olfactory bulbs
Their output goes primarily to the amygdala and piriform cortex.
Recuperation theories of sleep
Theories based on the premise that being awake disturbs the body's homeostasis and the function of sleep is to restore it.
Physical-dependance theories of addiction
Theories holding that the main factor that motivates drug-addicted individuals to keep taking drugs is the prevention or termination of withdrawal symptoms
Positive-incentive theories of addiction
Theories holding that the primary factor in most cases of addiction is a craving for the pleasure-producing properties of drugs.
Adaptation theories of sleep
Theories of sleep based on the premise that sleep evolved to protect organisms from predation and accidents and to conserve their energy rather than to fulfill some particular physiological need.
incentive-sensitization theory
Theory that addictions develop when drug use sensitizes the neural circuits mediating wanting of drug- not necessarily liking for the drug.
parasympathetic nerves
Those autonomic motor nerves that project from the brain to the sacral region of the spinal cord
Drug-addicted individuals
Those habitual drug users who continue to use a drug despite its adverse effects on their health and social life, and despite their repeated efforts to stop using it.
Sensory relay nuclei
Those nuclei of the thalamus whose main function is to relay sensory signals to the appropriate areas of the cortex
Central nucleus of the amygdala
Thought to control defensive behavior
Chromosomes
Threadlike structures in the cell nucleus that contain the genes; each chromosome is a DNA molecule.
Dendritic spines
Tiny protrusions of various shapes that are located on the surfaces of many dendrites
Depolarize
To decrease the resting membrane potential, from -70 to -67 for example
Hyperpolarize
To increase the resting membrane potential, from -70 to -72 for example
Evolve
To undergo gradual orderly change.
Conditioned drug tolerance
Tolerance effects that are maximally expressed only when a drug is administered in the same situation in which it has previously been administered
Metabolic tolerance
Tolerance that results from a reduction in the amount of a drug getting to its sites of action
Cross tolerance
Tolerance to the effects of one drug that develops as the result of exposure to another drug that acts by the same mechanism
Inferior
Toward the bottom of the primate head or brain
Ventral
Toward the chest surface of a vertebrate or toward the bottom of the head (front)
Medial
Toward the midline of the body (middle)
Anterior
Toward the nose end of a vertebrate (front)
Dorsal
Toward the surface of the back of a vertebrate or toward the top of the head (back)
Posterior
Toward the tail end of the vertebrate or toward the back of the head (back)
Superior
Toward the top of the primate head
Cerebral commissures
Tracts that connect the left and right cerebral hemispheres
Sex-linked traits
Traits that are influenced by genes on the sex chromosomes.
Dichotomous traits
Traits that occur in one form or the other, never in combination.
Monozygotic twins
Twins that develop from the same zygote and are thus genetically identical.
Dizygotic twins
Twins that develop from two zygotes and thus tend to be as genetically similar as any pair of siblings.
Superior colliculi
Two of the four nuclei that compose the tectum; they receive major visual input
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
Type of major depressive disorder in which episodes of depression typically recur during particular seasons- usually during the winter months
Impotent
Unable to achieve a penile erection
_______________ is a genetic disorder that often results in calcification of the amygdala and surrounding anterior medial-temporal-lobe structure in both hemispheres
Urbach-Wiethe disease
Prosopagnosia
Visual agnosia for faces.
Off-center cells
Visual neurons that respond to lights shone in the center of their receptive fields with "off" firing and to lights shone in the periphery of their receptive fields with "on" firing.
On-center cells
Visual neurons that respond to lights shone in the center of their receptive fields with "on" firing and to lights shone in the periphery of their receptive fields with "off" firing.
The left planum temporale is often referred to as
Wernicke's area
According to the Wernicke-Geschwind model, when you are having a conversation, the auditory signals triggered by the speech of the other person are received by your primary auditory cortex and conducted to __________________ where they are comprehended. Then, if a response is in order, a neural representation of the thought underlying the reply is transmitted from that area to ______________ via the left ________________
Wernicke's area; Broca's area; arcuate fasciculus
According to the Wernicke-Geschwind model, when we read, the output of the angular gyrus is transmitted to
Wernickes area
_______________ matter is composed largely of myelinated axons
White
Leukocytes
White blood cells
Absolute refractory period
a brief period (typically 1 to 2 milliseconds) after the initiation of an action potential during which it is impossible to elicit another action potential in the same neuron
Severing the brain stem between the inferior colliculi and superior colliculi is called _____________ preparation.
a cerveau isolé
Second messenger
a chemical synthesized in a neuron in response to the binding of a neurotransmitter to a metabotropic receptor in its cell membrane
amino acid neurotransmitters
a class of small-molecule neurotransmitters, which includes the amino acids glutamate, GABA, aspartate, and glycine
The neuroplasticity theory (or neurogenic theory) of depression is that depression is caused by
a decrease in the neuroplastic processes in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala
Adrenogenital syndrome is associated with
a decrease in the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortices, high levels of adrenal androgens, and ambiguous reproductive organs in many genetic females
Anhedonia
a general inability to experience pleasure
Narcotic
a legal term generally used to refer to opiates
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
a measure of the gross electrical activity of the brain, commonly recorded through scalp electrodes
Androgen insensitivity syndrome results from
a mutation of the gene for the androgen receptor
REM sleep occurs only when
a network of independent structures becomes active together
Golgi stain
a neural stain that completely darkens a few of the neurons in each slice of tissue, thereby revealing their silhouettes
Nissl stain
a neural stain that has an affinity for structures in neuron cell bodies
Multipolar neuron
a neuron with more than two processes extending from its cell body
Unipolar neuron
a neuron with one process extending from its cell body
LeVay found a difference between the brains of male homosexuals and male heterosexuals in
a nucleus of the hypothalamus
Pulsatile is often used to describe
a pattern of hormone release into the blood
HM was
a person who had epilepsy
Transorbital lobotomy
a prefrontal lobotomy performed with a cutting instrument inserted through the eye socket
Atropine
a receptor blocker that exerts an antagonistic effect at muscarinic receptors
Which of the following is a deficit that one would expect to see after damage to the primary somatosensory cortex?
a reduced ability to detect light touch and a reduced ability to identify objects by touch
Which of the following was an important generalization drawn from Bremer's (1959) classic study? In men, castration always leads to
a reduction in sexual interest and behavior.
Drug priming
a single exposure to a formerly abused drug
Drug tolerance
a state of decreased sensitivity to a drug that develops as a result of exposure to the drug
Globus pallidus
a structure of the basal ganglia that is located between the putamen and thalamus
Red nucleus
a structure of the sensorimotor system that is located in the tegmentum of the mesencephalon
Ventral posterior nucleus
a thalamic relay nucleus in both the somatosensory and gustatory systems
After copulation, a sperm cell may fertilize an ovum to form a cell called
a zygote
Are observed brain changes a cause or a consequence of having developmental dyslexia? To answer this question, researchers have compared dyslexic children to
ability-matched children
Neuropathic pain is believed to be caused by
abnormal activity in the CNS
The ____________ refractory period is followed by the _________ refractory period
absolute; relative
The process of adjusting the configuration of the lenses to bring images into focus on the retina is called
accommodation
The essence of the _______________________ hypothesis is that the information supplied to the cortex during REM sleep is largely random and that the resulting dream is the cortex's effort to make sense of those random signals
activation-synthesis
All of the sex steroids that are released by the gonads are also released by the
adrenal cortex
The timing of the emergence of sexual attraction suggests that it may be stimulated by the release of
adrenal steroids.
Selye concluded that stressors stimulate the release of _____________ from the anterior pituitary, which in turn triggers the release of ______________ from the adrenal cortex
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH); glucocorticoids
Which of the following results from a congenital deficiency in the release of the hormone cortisol from the adrenal cortex
adrenogenital syndrome
Drugs that facilitate the effects of a particular neurotransmitter are said to be _______________ of that neurotransmitter. Drugs that inhibit the effects of a particular neurotransmitter are said to be its ______________
agonist; antagonist
Translational research
aims to translate the findings of pure research into useful applications
Convulsions and hyperthermia are symptoms of withdrawal from
alcohol
The two genes that control each trait are called
alleles
In sensitive species, female fetuses are protected from the masculinizing effects of their mother's estradiol by
alpha fetoprotein
The colony-intruder model of aggression and defense has yielded rich descriptions of rat intraspecific aggressive and defensive behaviors by studying the interactions between the ____________________ of an established mixed-sex colony and a small ___________________
alpha male; male intruder
When a small intruder rat defends itself against the alpha male of the colony, it directs its defensive attacks at the
alpha's face
The major conclusion from the study by Paulesu and colleagues (2001) of Italian and English readers with developmental dyslexia was that
although dyslexia can manifest itself differently in people who speak different languages, the underlying neural pathology appears to be the same
Most hormones fit into one of the following three categories:
amino acid derivatives, peptides and proteins, or steroids
Proteins are long chains of
amino acids
Hedonic value
amount of pleasure that is actually experienced as the result of some action
Involvement of the ______________ during memory formation may account for the fact that emotion-provoking events are remembered better than neutral events.
amygdala
Lesions to the medial geniculate or the _______________ block conventional auditory fear conditioning
amygdala
The ____________ is thought to play a role in memory for the emotional significance of experiences.
amygdala
Rats with ______________ lesions, unlike intact rats, do not respond with fear to a neutral stimulus that has previously been followed by electric foot shock.
amygdalar
The action potential is
an all-or-none response
In a standard fear-conditioning experiment, the subject is presented with _______________ and then receives exposure to a footshock
an auditory conditional stimulus
A change in the brain that stores a memory is known as
an engram
between-subjects design
an experimental design in which a different group of subjects is tested under each condition
within-subjects design
an experimental design in which the same subjects are tested under each condition
In a classic study by Cooper and Zubek (1958), maze-dull rats made significantly more errors than maze-bright rats only if they had been reared in
an impoverished environment
Sodium-potassium pumps
an ion transporter that actively exchanges three Na+ ions inside the neuron for two K+ ions outside
Testicular atrophy, gynecomastia, amenorrhea, sterility, hirsutism, cancer, acne, and muscle spasms are all potential symptoms of
anabolic steroid use
Sparse pubic and under-arm hair is characteristic of
androgen insensitivity syndrome
Two of the major classes of gonadal steroid hormones are
androgens and estrogens
The sodium amytal test involves the injection of a small amount of sodium amytal into the carotid artery on one side of the neck. This injection
anesthetizes the hemisphere on that side for a few minutes.
According to the Wernicke-Geschwind model, when you are reading aloud, the signal received by your primary visual cortex is transmitted to your left _____________, which translates the visual form of the word into its auditory code and transmits it to _____________ for comprehension
angular gyrus; Wernicke's area
A general inability to experience pleasure in response to natural reinforcers is known as
anhedonia
The inability to smell is called _______; the inability to taste is called _________
anosmia; ageusia
Posterior is to caudal as _______________ is to rostral
anterior
During the early stages of Korsakoff's syndrome, _________________ is the most prominent symptom.
anterograde amnesia for explicit episodic memories
The tics of Tourette's disorder are usually treated with
antipsychotics
Benzodiazepines (e.g., valium) were developed and tested for the treatment of
anxiety
Psychosurgery
any brain surgery performed for the treatment of a psychological problem
Horizontal sections
any slices of brain tissue cut in a plane that are parallel to the top of the brain
According to the Wernicke-Geschwind model, which structure transfers information from the area of comprehension to the area of speech production?
arcuate fasciculus
Connecting Broca's area and Wernicke's area is the
arcuate fasciculus
Many persons with scotomas
are not consciously aware of their deficits
Many people sleep only once in each 24-hour period; however, virtually all human babies and most other mammals
are polyphasic sleepers
Steroid hormones
are synthesized from cholesterol, play a major role in sexual development, and penetrate cell membranes
Prefrontal lobes
areas of cortex, left and right, that are located at the very front of the brain - in the frontal lobes
There is good evidence in some species that testosterone does not masculinize the brain directly, that it is first converted to estradiol, which then masculinizes the brain. This hypothesis is called the __________ hypothesis
aromatization
The polygraph does not detect lies, it detects
arousal
The majority of those in the medical and research professions accept that randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled studies are the essential critical test of any new psychotherapeutic drug because
assessment of psychiatric disorder severity is subjective and can be greatly influenced by the. expectations of the therapist
The inability to recognize objects by touch is
astereognosia
A(n)________ synapse on or near a terminal button can selectively facilitate or inhibit the effects of that button on the postsynaptic neuron
axoaxonic
Action potentials are generated in the axon initial segment, which is adjacent to the
axon hillock
Antidromic conduction
axonal conduction opposite to the normal direction; conduction from axon terminals back toward the cell body
Many researchers interested in sound localization have studied _________ because their ability to locate sounds in the dark is excellent
barn owls
The level of acetylcholine is often reduced in the brains of Alzheimer's patients. This reduction likely results from degeneration of cells in the
basal forebrain
The research on smart pills with humans tends to
be of low quality, have few participants, and have poor controls
Change blindness occurs
because people have no memory for parts of a visual image that are not the focus of their attention
Psychology is the scientific study of
behavior
Physically dependent
being in a state in which the discontinuation of drug taking will induce withdrawal reactions
Which of the following is a risk factor for sleep apnea?
being male, being overweight, and being elderly
Chlordiazepoxide and diazepam are
benzodiazepines
In a study of 104,010 volunteers followed for 10 years, the fewest deaths occurred among people sleeping
between 5 and 7 hours per night
An experiment that tests a different group of subjects in each of the experimental conditions is said to use a(n)
between-subjects design
The ______________ problem refers to the question of how the brain combines individual sensory attributes to produce integrated perceptions
binding
Cocaine addicts tend to engage in
binges and cocaine sprees
mood stabilizers are often used in the treatment of
bipolar disorders
A neuron with two processes extending from its cell body is classified as a
bipolar neuron
Sleep has been studied in only a small number of species, but the evidence so far suggests that the sleep of most _____________ is like the sleep of most mammals.
birds
People who are sexually attracted to members of either sex are _______ persons
bisexual
The ________ blocks the entry of many large molecules into brain tissue from the circulatory system
blood-brain barrier
The degree to which therapeutic or recreational drugs can influence brain activity depends on the ease with which they penetrate the
blood-brain barrier
There are two serious difficulties in studying the anatomical asymmetry of language areas: (1) their _______________, and (2) there are __________________ among healthy people in these areas
boundaries are unclear; large individual differences
Which of the following is a symptom of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)?
brain damage and delayed growth
Although the two hemispheres of a split-brain patient have no means of direct neural communication, they can communicate neurally via indirect pathways through the _______________. They can also communicate with each other by an external route, by a process called _______________
brain stem; cross-cuing
The archaic five-primary component processing theory of taste implied that each gustatory receptor and neuron is ______________ tuned. However, the rapidly accumulating list of receptor molecules and mechanisms suggests that each gustatory receptor is __________ tuned.
broadly; narrowly
hydrocephalus
buildup of fluid in the ventricles that causes the walls of the ventricles, and thus the entire brain to expand
Nerves
bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system
The best metaphor for evolution is not a ladder; it is a dense
bush
The major advantage of the retinex theory over the classic component and opponent process theories of color vision is that the retinex theory
can explain color constancy
Studies that recruit samples of drug users from the general population have found that many drug addicts
can successfully treat their own addictions without professional help
Marijuana is the name commonly given to the dried leaves and flowers of
cannabis
Surgical removal of the gonads-either the testes or the ovaries- is termed
castration
Which of the following is a common symptom of narcolepsy?
cataplexy, severe daytime sleepiness, and repeated daytime sleep episodes hypnagogic hallucinations
Schizophrenic patients often display long periods of immobility and waxy flexibility, a pattern commonly referred to as
catatonia
Cocaine-derived stimulants, amphetamine-derived stimulants, and tricyclic antidepressants seem to promote wakefulness by boosting the activity of
catecholamines
REM sleep is controlled by a variety of nuclei scattered throughout the
caudal reticular formation
Some studies have found that violent male criminals and aggressive male athletes tend to have higher testosterone levels than normal; however, this does not necessarily mean that testosterone __________________ aggression
causes
The ________ nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal cord
central
The spinal cord is part of the
central nervous system
The amygdala is thought to control defensive behavior via outputs from the
central nucleus of the amygdala
The role of the ____________________ in the Pavlovian conditioning of the eye-blink response of rabbits has been intensively investigated.
cerebellum
____________ proteins are proteins through which certain molecules can pass
channel
The systematic topographic layout of the olfactory bulb has been termed a ____________ map.
chemotopic
What drugs are benzo (Anxiolytic)?
chlordiazepoxide (Valium) and alprazolam (Xanax)
What drugs are neuroleptics?
chlorpromazine (Thorazine) and haloperidol (Haldol)
Korsakoff's syndrome is typically associated with
chronic alcohol consumption, damage to the medial diencephalon, amnesia, confusion ,and personality changes
Melatonin is considered to be a
chronobiotic
Convergence is greatest when inspecting things that are
close
Binocular disparity tends to be greater for _________ objects
closer
What drugs are atypical antipsychotics?
clozapine (Clozaril) and olanzapine (Zyprex)
Nuclei
clusters of neuronal cell bodies in the central nervous system
The ___________________ is the fact that even when you are focusing so intently on one conversation that you are totally unaware of the content of other conversations going on around you, the mention of your name in one of the other conversations will immediately gain access to your consciousness
cocktail party phenomenon
Many neurons contain two neurotransmitters—a situation generally referred to as
coexistence
_____________________ is a division of biopsychology that investigates the neural bases of human cognition; its major method is functional brain imaging
cognitie neuroscience
Which division of biopsychology relies on functional brain imaging as its major research method?
cognitive neuroscience
Unconsciousness resulting from closed head injury is called a
coma
One problem with studies of the health hazards of drugs is that they
commonly recruit drug users from addiction treatment clinics
When two diseases tend to occur in the same individuals, they are said to be
comorbid
The study of biological processes by comparing different species is known as the
comparative approach
Donald Hebb developed the first comprehensive theory of how
complex psychological phenomena might be produced by brain activity
According to the ____________ theory, there are three different kinds of color receptors, each with a different spectral sensitivity
component
According to the analytic-synthetic theory of cerebral asymmetry, the left hemisphere operates in a ________________ fashion, and the right hemisphere is primarily _______________
computer-like; a synthesizer
The discovery of the lateralization of aphasia and apraxia led to the
concept of a dominant left hemisphere
Photopic vision is
cone-mediated
Central Nervous System (CNS)
consists of the brain and spinal cord
Temporal gradients of retrograde amnesia provide evidence for
consolidation
In situations where the level of illumination is high and sensitivity is not important, the visual system responds by
constricting the pupils of the eyes
Korsakoff's syndrome is a disorder of memory common in people who have
consumed large amounts of alcohol
The process by which benign contexts come to elicit fear through their association with fear-inducing stimuli is called ______________ and requires intact ______________
contextual fear conditioning; hippocampi
The before-and-after design is used to study
contingent drug tolerance
On-center and off-center cells respond best to
contrast
Active placebos are
control drugs that have no therapeutic effect but produce side effects similar to those produced by the drug under evaluation
Glial cells have been shown to
control the establishment and maintenance of synapses between neurons. contract or relax blood vessels. trigger inflammatory responses
In general, the left hemisphere has been shown to play a greater role in ________________, whereas the right hemisphere has been shown to play a greater role in ____________________.
controlling ipsilateral movement; musical abilities
Using different research approaches in such a way that the weaknesses of one approach are compensated for by the strengths of another is known as
converging operations
The largest cerebral commissure in humans is the
corpus callosum
The effects of stress on the hippocampus appear to be mediated by elevated glucocorticoid levels: Stress effects can be induced by ____________ and blocked by ______________
corticosterone; adrenalectomy
Which of the following responses are nonsmokers most likely to display following a few puffs of a cigarette?
coughing
myelin sheath
coverings on the axons of some neurons that are rich in myelin and increase the speed and efficiency of axonal conduction
Cocaine hydrochloride can be converted to its base by boiling it with a baking powder mixture until the water has evaporated and collecting the residue, which is commonly known as
crack
Twelve pairs of ________________ project from the brain
cranial nerves
Sham rage was first observed in
decorticate cats
Postsynaptic hyperpolarizations are called IPSPs because they
decrease the chance that a neuron will fire
The transmission of EPSPs and IPSPs is
decremental
In cases of ______________ dyslexia, patients have lost their ability to apply rules of pronunciation in their reading, but they can still pronounce familiar words based on their specific memories of them
deep
According to the _______ theory, REM sleep is more adaptive than wakefulness when there are no immediate bodily needs
default
In the ________________________ task a monkey is presented with a distinctive object (the sample object), under which it finds food. Then, after a specified delay, the monkey is presented with two test objects: the sample object and an unfamiliar object. The monkey must select the unfamiliar object to receive a food reward.
delayed nonmatching-to-sample
Monkeys with large medial-temporal-lobe lesions displayed deficits on the __________ test that were similar in major respects to the memory deficits displayed by HM
delayed nonmatching-to-sample
In Gallup's (1983) research with chimpanzees, the chimpanzees were given access to a mirror. Later the chimpanzee's eyebrow was painted red. When the chimpanzees now looked at the mirror, they _________, suggesting_____
demonstrated awareness of the red color by touching their eyebrows; chimpanzees have self-awareness
The reason that the effects of long-term potentiation (LTP) at one synapse on a neuron do not spread to nearby synapses on the same neuron is likely because of
dendritic spines.
The carousel apparatus has been used to
deprive rodents of sleep
The area of the body that is innervated by the left and right dorsal roots of a given segment of the spinal cord is called a
dermatome
The neural circuit that controls birdsong in the canary has two major components: the _______________ pathway and the _____________ pathway
descending motor; anterior forebrain
There are two fundamentally different types of dyslexia:
developmental and acquired
The left hemisphere is dominant for language-related abilities in almost all _____________ and in the majority of ____________
dextrals; sinestrals
What drug is often used to treat anxiety disorders?
diazepam
In his groundbreaking experiments, Mendel studied __________ traits in true-breeding lines of pea plants
dichotomous
The limbic system rings the
diencephalon
Ehrhardt and colleagues (1985) interviewed adult women whose mothers had been exposed to _________________ during pregnancy. The women's responses indicated that they were significantly more sexually attracted to _____________ than was a group of matched controls.
diethylstilbestrol; women
Membrane potential
difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the cell
In Alzheimer's disease, the brain damage is
diffuse
The current consensus is that memories of experiences are likely stored
diffusely throughout the structures of the brain that participated in the original experience
On which of the following tasks did H.M. display deficits?
digit span + 1 test
The most commonly employed test of short-term verbal memory is the
digit-span test
The evolution of the scrotum illustrates that evolution
does not progress to preordained perfection
There is evidence of dysfunctional _______________ and _________________ signaling within the cortical-striatal-thalamic-cortical brain circuits in Tourette's disorder
dopaminergic; GABAergic
In most clinical trials, patients are assigned to
drug or placebo groups randomly and are not told which treatment they are receiving
A method of measuring drug-produced reinforcement or pleasure in laboratory animals is the
drug self-administration paradigm or the conditioned place-preference paradigm
Functional tolerance
drug tolerance that results from changes that reduce the reactivity of the sites of action to the drug
Most studies of the health hazards of drugs compare the health of _____________ with ________________
drug users; nonusers
Orphan drugs are
drugs for which the market is too small for them to be profitable
Agonists
drugs that facilitate the effects of a particular neurotransmitter
Psychoactive drugs
drugs that influence subjective experience and behavior by acting on the nervous system
Antagonists
drugs that inhibit the actions of neurotransmitters
Analgesics
drugs that reduce pain
Exocrine glands release their chemicals into _________, which carry them to their targets. Endocrine glands release their chemicals directly into ________________
ducts; the circulatory system
Which of the following conditions is more likely in men than women?
dyslexia
The main advantages of the oral route of drug administration over other routes are its
ease and relative safety
The degree to which typical antipsychotics bind to D2 receptors is highly correlated with their
effectiveness in suppressing schizophrenic symptoms
Which of the following is not one of the standard physiological measures commonly used to define the stages of sleep?
electrocardiogram (EKG)
Posttraumatic amnesia can be induced by
electroconvulsive shock
Which of the following is a source of pressure for Na+ ions to enter a resting neuron?
electronic pressure
Benzodiazepines have been shown to reduce indices of fear and anxiety in the
elevated-plus-maze test
Reexperiencing related patterns of motor, automatic, and sensory neural activity during emotional experiences is generally referred to as the
embodiment of emotions
Which of the following patterns of sleep EEG is associated with rapid eye movements?
emergent stage 1
Psychoactive drugs that produce feelings of empathy are known as
empathogens
Anandamide was the first endogenous _____________ to be identified.
endocannabinoid
Which of the following is an endogenous opioid?
enkaphalin
Grid cells are
entorhinal cortex neurons
Which of the following is a factor in initial drug taking?
environmental stress and peer pressure
In studies of disease-discordant monozygotic twin pairs, one searches each pair for __________________, focusing on those areas of DNA that are thought to be involved in the disorder
epigenetic differences
Mechanisms that influence the expression of genes without changing the genes themselves are often referred to as
epigenetic mechanisms
__________________ is the study of all mechanisms of inheritance other than the genetic code and its expression
epigenetics
The first group of patients to be thoroughly tested following commissurotomy had all suffered from
epilepsy
The decision to treat "terminal" epilepsy patients with commissurotomy was made on the basis of previous comparative studies that had shown that
epileptic discharges spread from one hemisphere to the other via the corpus callosum and commissurotomy has little disruptive affect on behavior outside contrived laboratory situations
Explicit memories for the particular events or experiences of one's life are __________ memories
episodic
Which ovarian hormone has been linked in some studies to the sexual motivation of women?
estradiol
Which hormone normally triggers the growth of the sexually dimorphic nuclei in male neonatal rats?
estradiol aromatized from testosterone
In sexually mature female rats and guinea pigs, ________ is a period of 12 to 18 hours during which the female is fertile, receptive, proceptive, and sexually attractive.
estrus
The study of animal behavior in the wild is known as
ethology
Which of the following are concerns that have been raised about the drug self-administration paradigm?
excessive focus on opiates and unnatural testing conditions
Sweat glands are
exocrine glands
Emma heard a noise behind her and turned to see a cat playing with some string. This is an example of
exogenous attention
Hebb based his theory on
experiments on humans, experiments on animals, and clinical case studies
Semantic memories are ___________ memories.
explicit
Quasiexperimental studies examine groups of subjects who have been
exposed to the conditions of interest in the real world
Wernicke suggested that selective lesions of Broca's area produce a syndrome of aphasia whose symptoms are primarily
expressive
Aphasia virtually always involves both _____________ and _____________ symptoms
expressive; receptive
Large anterior lesions are more likely to produce _____________ symptoms, whereas large posterior lesions are more likely to produce __________ symptoms
expressive; receptive
Microelectrodes
extremely fine recording electrodes, which are used for intracellular recording
When trying to fake a smile, the muscles around the ________________ are the most difficult to get just right
eyes
Patients with the Urbach-Wiethe disease have particular problems identifying
facial expressions of fear
Agoraphobia is a
fear of public places and open spaces
A right-sided preference for _____________ has been demonstrated in species of all five classes of vertebrates
feeding
In the classic experiments of Pfeiffer, gonadectomizing neonatal rats of either genetic sex caused them to develop into adults with the ______________. In contrast, transplatation of testes into gonadectomized or intact female neonatal rats caused them to develop into adults with the _____________________
female cyclic pattern of gonadotropin release; steady male pattern of gonadotropin release
If Sry protein were injected into a genetic female fetus 6 weeks after conception, the fetus would develop into a genetic
female with testes
There was little immediate reaction to Cade's report that lithium helped alleviate the symptoms of manic patients. This was because
few drug companies were interested in spending money to evaluate the therapeutic potential of a metallic icon that could not be protected by a patent
In the Darwinian sense, ________ refers to the ability of an organism to survive and produce large numbers of fertile offspring
fitness
In the risk-assessment test, after a single brief exposure to a cat on the surface of a laboratory burrow system, the rats
flee to their burrows and freeze
What drugs are SSRI's?
fluoxetine (Prozac)
There are three swellings that occur at the anterior end of a fluid-filled tube in the developing embryo. These three swellings eventually develop into the adult
forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain
Microorganisms of every description revel in the warm, damp, nutritive climate of your body. However, your body has ____________ lines of defense to keep it from being overwhelmed
four
Although the _________ constitutes only a small part of the retina, a relatively large proportion of the primary visual cortex is dedicated to the analysis of its output
fovea
The __________________ refers to the finding that the probability of a man's homosexuality increases as a function of the number of older brothers he has.
fraternal birth order effect
Circadian rhythms without zeitgebers are said to be
free-running
Circadian rhythms in constant environments are said to be ________________, and their duration is called the _________________
free-running rhythms; free-running period
Both of Broca's patients had a left-hemisphere lesion that involved an area in the
frontal cortex
Meta-analyses of fMRI studies of bipolar patients have found abnormal activation in the
frontal cortex
Drug tolerance is of two different types: metabolic and
functional
Researchers using the cognitive neuroscience approach to the study of language often employ
functional brain imaging
It was once assumed that the primary, secondary, and association areas of a sensory system were each __________________. However, research has shown that _________________ characterizes the organization of sensory systems
functionally homogenous; functional segregation
Which of the following cell types are in the human retina?
ganglion cells, bipolar cells, and horizontal cells
If a gay male were gonadectomized and then given extremely large replacement injections of testosterone, his primary sexual orientation would be
gay
Disorders characterized by extreme feelings of anxiety and severe stress responses in the absence of an apparent precipitating stimulus are classified as
generalized anxiety disorders
Oligodendrocytes
glial cells that myelinate axons of the central nervous system
An NMDA receptor does not respond maximally unless
glutamate binds to it and the postsynaptic neuron is already partially depolarized
The __________________ stain will invade only a few neurons in each slice of tissue and color each invaded neuron entirely black
golgi
To use the guilt-knowledge technique, the polygrapher must know a fact about the crime that could only be known by the
guilty party
In order to use the __________________, the polygrapher must have a piece of information concerning the crime that would be known only to the guilty person
guilty-knowledge technique
Males taking anabolic steroids often experience
gynecomastia
Postcentral gyrus
gyrus located just posterior to the central fissure; its function is primarily somatosensory
Drug addicts are
habitual drug users, individuals who continue to use a drug despite its adverse effects on their health and social life, and individuals who continue to use a drug despite their repeated efforts to stop using it
Electroconvulsive shock is commonly used in studies of memory because it
has amnesic effects similar to those produced by concussion
In a nutshell, HM's main problem seems to be that he
has no longterm memory
In comparison to simple cortical cells, complex cells
have larger receptive fields, do not have receptive fields with static "on" and "off" areas, and are often bilateral
One health hazard of marijuana consumption is
heart attacks in individuals who have previously suffered a heart attack
In most modern hospitals, the blood of newborn infants is routinely screened for
high levels of phenylalanine
cognition
higher intellectual processes such as thought, memory, attention, and complex perceptual processes
The _________________ is an area of cortex that is not neocortex—it has only three layers
hippocampus
There have been reports of several specific brain structures being smaller in bipolar patients, including the
hippocampus
The human medial temporal lobe includes the
hippocampus, amygdala, and medial temporal cortex
Structures that are similar because they have a common evolutionary origin are called
homologous structures
Which of the following is a category of neuropeptides?
hypothalamic
Hormones are carried from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary via the
hypothalamopituitary portal system
The master gland has its own master; where is it?
hypothalamus
The amygdala is thought to activate the appropriate sympathetic and behavioral responses to threat via the ____________, respectively
hypothalamus and periaqueductal gray (PAG)
Conditioned compensatory responses
hypothetical conditional physiological responses that are opposite to the effects of a drug that are thought to be elicited by stimuli that are regularly associated with experiencing the drug effects
Many cases of insomnia are
iatrogenic
Many cases of insomnia are ______________ because benzodiazepines, which are often prescribed by physicians, are a major cause of insomnia
iatrogenic
Polarized
if the neuron is at -70 mV and is in it's resting state
The first tricyclic antidepressant to be marketed was
imipramine (Tofranil)
What drugs are tricyclic antidepressants (TCA)?
imiprimine (Tofrinil)
Repetition priming tests are tests of
implicit memory
There is evidence that BDNF levels are lower in bipolar patients when they are
in a manic state
According to the text, creative thinking about biopsychology is thinking
in new ways, in productive ways, and in ways consistent with the evidence rather than with widely accepted views
The ability of nonhuman primates to use oral language is severely limited by their
inability to exert fine motor control over their voices
During the course of evolution of the human brain there has been a(n)
increase in the number of convolutions
If one sleeps 3 to 4 hours less for one night, which of the following effects would one expect to see?
increased sleepiness negative affect poor performance on tests of sustained attention
The incentive-sensitization theory states that the positive-incentive value of addictive drugs
increases with repeated drug use in addiction-prone individuals
Fraga and colleagues (2005) took tissue samples from 40 pairs of monozygotic twins and screened the tissues for DNA methylation and histone modifications. They found that the twins were epigenetically _________________ early in life and that epigenetic differences _______________________ as they aged
indistinguishable; accumulated
One of the most widely publicized findings about alcohol is that moderate drinking reduces the risk of coronary heart disease. However, in subsequent meta-analyses that included only those studies that used an abstainers control group consisting of _________________, this conclusion was shown to be incorrect
individuals who had never consumed alcohol
Naya, Yoshida, and Miyashita (2001) recorded the responses of neurons while monkeys learned the relation between pairs of visual images. When the monkeys were required to recall that pair, activity was recorded in ____________ neurons before ____________ neurons.
inferotemporal; perirhinal
IPSPs are
inhibitory
The discovery of cytokines increased interest in the
innate immune system
European ethology focused on the study of
instinctive behaviors
Combining a number of individual IPSPs and EPSPs into one signal is called
integration
The first evidence that there is more than one internal timing mechanism in the body came from the observation of
internal desynchronization
Neurons with a short axon or no axon at all are called
interneurons
Many animals will administer brief bursts of weak electrical stimulation to specific sites in their own brains. This phenomenon is known as
intracranial self-stimulation
The most dangerous route of drug administration is
intravenous injection
The main reason why LTP is one of the most widely studied neuroscientific phenomena is that it
involves a synaptic change similar to the synaptic change that has been hypothesized to be the basis of memory storage
________________ are specialized pores in neural membranes through which ions can pass
ion channels
Voltage-activated ion channels
ion channels that open and close in response to changes in the level of the membrane potential
Studies of monozygotic and dizygotic twins suggest that schizophrenia
is greatly influenced by genetic factors
The probability of a human male being gay increases as a function of the number of older brothers he has; this
is the fraternal birth order effect
A strength of the neuropsychological approach is that ____________________, whereas a weakness of the neuropsychological approach is that ____________________
it focuses on human brain-damaged patients; its focus on human patients as subjects usually precludes experiments
When rhodopsin is exposed to continuous intense light
it loses its red coloring, it loses its ability to absorb light, and it becomes bleached
A major weakness in the scientific case for the prefrontal lobotomy was that
it was based almost entirely on one case study and the effects of the prefrontal lobotomies were not carefully evaluated
Pellis and colleagues (1988) showed that different cats react to mice in different ways: Some are efficient mouse _______________, some react defensively, and some seem to __________________
killers; play with the mice
Smoker's syndrome includes which of the following symptoms?
labored breathing
Which of the following is a paradox of pain?
lack of a clear cortical representation of pain
The main hormonal trigger for the development of a female reproductive system is
lack of exposure to testosterone
Decorticate
lacking a cortex
The sodium amytal test is a test of
language lateralization
sodium Amytal and dichotic listening tests are commonly used tests of
language lateralization
Theoretically, Brokas area is to Wernicke's area as
language production is to language comprehension
Pyramidal cells
large multipolar cortical neurons with a pyramid-shaped cell body, an apical dendrite, and a very long axon
In a study of infantile amnesia, children were shown a series of photographs of preschool-aged children, some of whom had been their preschool classmates. Whether they explicitly remembered a former classmate or not, they consistently displayed a _______________ to the photographs of their former classmates.
large skin conductance response
In contrast to the cognitive neuroscience approach to language, the language areas of the Wernicke-Geschwind model are assumed to be
large, circumscribed, and homogeneous.
Visual signals from the left nasal hemiretina are projected directly to the
lateral geniculate nuclei
The mechanism of contrast enhancement is
lateral inhibition
When an ommatidium fires, it inhibits its neighbors; this inhibition is called
lateral inhibition
Evidence has been accumulating that the _________________ is critically involved in the acquisition storage, and expression of conditional fear
lateral nucleus of amygdala
During one trial of the dichotic listening test, "5," "9," and "6" were presented to the right ear, and "2," "4," and "7" were presented to the left ear. The patient reported hearing "5," "9," "6," and "2." His response suggested that the neural regulation of his language abilities were
lateralized to the left hemisphere
The cerebellum is thought to store memories of
learned sensorimotor skills
The history of the localization of language and the history of the lateralization of function began with Broca's assertion that a small area in the inferior portion of the _______________ is the center for speech production
left prefrontal cortex
In Damasio and colleagues' (1996) PET study of naming, PET activity was recorded from the ___________________ lobes of healthy volunteers while they named images presented on a screen
left temporal
Asomatognosia typically involves the _____ side of the body and usually results from damage to the _____________
left; right parietal lobe
Ciliary muscles adjust the
lens shape
Papez attributed emotion to activity in what became known as the
limbic system
The neuron cell membrane is composed of a
lipid bilayer
The flip side of long-term potentiation (LTP) is known as ____ and occurs in response to prolonged low-frequency stimulation of presynaptic neurons.
long-term depression (LTD)
Bliss and Lømø showed that there is a facilitation of synaptic transmission following high-frequency electrical stimulation applied to presynaptic neurons. This phenomenon has been termed
long-term potentiation
Which of the following are characteristic of stage 3 EEG (NREM 3) sleep?
lower frequency waves than in the stage 1 EEG
T cells and B cells are
lymphocytes
T cells
lymphocytes that bind to foreign microorganisms and cells that contain them and, so doing, destroy them
The results of delayed nonmatching-to-sample tests indicate that combined bilateral lesions of the hippocampus, amygdala, and medial temporal cortex have similar effects on memory in humans, monkeys, and rats that reveal
major deficits at all but the shortest retention intervals
McGlone reported that ____________ victims of unilateral strokes were three times more likely to suffer from aphasia than ____________ victims.
male; female
The perinatal castration of males has increased their preference as adults for ___________ sex partners. Prenatal testosterone exposure in females has increased their preference as adults for ___________ sex partners.
male; female
The existence of homosexuality and transsexualism is a challenge to the
mamawawa
People with bipolar disorder experience clinical depression together with recurring periods of
mania
Some _______________ sleep with only half of their brain at a time
marine mammals
Perinatal exposure to testosterone often ______________ a genetic females adult reproductive behavior
masculinizes and defeminizes
What experimental factors have been implicated in the development of schizophrenia?
maternal stress, birth complications, urban birth
blood-brain barrier
mechanism that impedes the passage of many toxic substances from the blood into the brain
Transporters
mechanisms in the membrane of a cell that actively transport ions or molecules across the membrane
In rats, bilateral lesions to the ____________ block fear conditioning to a tone, but bilateral lesions to the _____________ do not
medial geniculate nucleus; auditory cortex
Le Doux and his colleagues found that bilateral lesions to the ___________ blocked auditory fear conditioning but that bilateral lesions to the ___________ did not
medial geniculate; auditory cortex
Modern neuropsychological and cognitive neuroscientific research have focused on the role of two brain structure in emotion: the
medial prefrontal cortex and amygdala
Gorski and his colleagues (1978) discovered a nucleus in the ____________ of the rat hypothalamus that was several times larger in males. They called this nucleus the _________________ nucleus.
medial preoptic area; sexually dimorphic
In some respects, the memory deficits associated with Korsakoff's syndrome are similar to those found with
medial temporal lobe amnesia
Large deficits in delayed nonmatching-to-sample are caused by bilateral lesions to the
medial temporal lobe cortex
Dysfunction in the brains of Alzheimer's patients is often apparent in the
medial temporal lobe structures, basal forebrain, and prefrontal cortex
The area(s) of the brain removed in HM's surgery was/were
medial temporal lobes
The myelencephalon is commonly referred to as the
medulla
Thiamine-deficient rats display
memory deficits and brain damage
Patients with large prefrontal lesions often display deficits in
memory for the temporal order of events
Korsakoff's syndrome is associated with
memory loss and severe dementia.
The _________________ is anterior to the myelencephalon
metencephalon
The pons and the cerebellum compose the
metencephalon
The first sign of Alzheimer's disease is often
mild memory impairments
A mixture of pure tones with frequencies of 200, 300, and 400 Hz would be perceived as having the same pitch as a pure tone of 100 Hz. This important aspect of pitch perception is referred to as the
missing fundamental
Selective bilateral removal of the hippocampus without damaging adjacent medial temporal lobe structures produces ____________ on the delayed nonmatching-to-sample test and other tests of object recognition
modest deficits
Unlike simple cortical cells, which are all _______________, many complex cortical cells are _____________
monocular; binocular
Lithium is classified as a
mood stabilizer
Split-brain patients can search for and identify a visual target item in an array of similar items _____________ than healthy controls can—presumably because _______________________
more quickly; the two split hemispheres are conducting two independent searches
Opioids
morphine, codeine, heroin, and other chemicals with similar structures or effects
The monoamine theory of depression is based on the fact that
most drugs used to treat depression increase synaptic levels of monoamine transmitters
The middle temporal (MT) area of human cortex appears to play an important role in the perception of
motion
The ______________ theory of speech perception proposes that the perception and comprehension of speech depend on the words activating the same neural circuits in the motor system that would be activated if the listener said the words
motor
The _________________________ theory of cerebral asymmetry holds that the left hemisphere is specialized not for the control of speech specifically but for the control of fine movements in general
motor
If you were to inject curare into your eye muscles and then try to move your eye, you would see the stationary visual world
move in the same direction as your attempted eye movement
When an alpha male rat attacks a submissive male intruder, he
moves sideways toward the intruder with a lateral attack
Gap junctions are
narrow spaces between adjacent cells that are bridged by connexins
Gap junctions
narrow spaces between adjacent neurons that are bridged by fine tubular channels containing cytoplasm, through which electrical signals and small molecules can pass readily
The dendrites of olfactory receptor cells are located in the
nasal passages
Endogenous
naturally occurring in the body
When we direct our gaze at something ___________, the lens tends to assume its natural _____________ shape
near; cylindrical
The valence model proposes that the right hemisphere is specialized for processing _______________ and the left hemisphere is specialized for processing __________________
negative emotion; positive emotion
Cochlear implants are effective in the treatment of
nerve deafness
Hebb argued that memories of experiences are stored in the short term by
neural activity reverberating in closed circuits
The field that focuses on the study of the structure of the nervous system is
neuroanatomy
The field that focuses on the study of the chemical bases of neural activity is
neurochemistry
The field that focuses on the study of interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine system is
neuroendocrinology
The neruoplasticity theory of depression is that depression results from a decrease of neuroplastic processes in various brain structures which leads to
neuron loss
The field that focuses on the study of the effects of drugs on neural activity is
neuropharmacology
The field that focuses on the study of the functions and activities of the nervous system is
neurophysiology
A biopsychologist who studies the memory deficits of human patients with brain damage would likely identify with the division of biopsychology termed
neuropsychology
Botox is a
nicotinic antagonist
Which of the following is a component of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system?
nigrostriatal pathway, mesocorticolimbic pathway, and ventral tegmental area
Surgery that destroys all of Broca's area but little surrounding tissue typically has
no lasting effects on speech
The discovery that genetic variability contributes substantially to individual differences in virtually all human traits and behaviors has led several geneticists to argue that
no more heritability estimate studies should be conducted
In some species, castration has _______________ effect on social aggression; in still others, castration _______________ social aggression during the breeding season but not at other times
no; decreases
Although smart pills are often marketed to healthy adults, most relevant research has been done on
nonhumans or humans with memory difficulties.
Which of the following is a monoamine neurotransmitter?
norepinephrine
In Money's 1975 report, he claimed that his famous case of ablatio penis had developed as a
normal girl
Each strand of DNA is a sequence of ________ bases
nucleotide
Which brain structure is thought to play a role in the rewarding effects of addictive drugs and other reinforcers?
nucleus accumbens
Most of the early North American experimental psychologists were committed to the _________ side of the ____________ debate, whereas many European ethologists were committed to the _______ side
nurture; nature-nurture; nature
Disorders characterized by recurring uncontrollable anxiety-producing thoughts and impulses are classified as _______________ disorders
obsessive-compulsive
Which of the following structures are thought to contain chemotopic maps?
olfactory bulbs
Myelin sheaths are produced by _______________ in the central nervous system and by ________________ in the peripheral nervous system
oligodendrocytes; Schwann cells
In the elevated-plus-maze test, rats are placed
on a four-armed plus sign shaped maze that is located about 50 centimeters above the floor
Most studies of the health hazards associated with particular drugs compare the health of known drug users with that of nonusers. This poses a problem because
one can never be sure whether any observed differences in health are due to the drug or to some other difference between the two groups
The case of R.M. was ironic because
one of the few things that he could remember during his postconcussion confusion was the case of H.M.
Hypothalamic peptides
one of the five classes of neuropeptide transmitters; it consists of those first identified as hormones released by the hypothalamus
Miscellaneous peptides
one of the five classes of neuropeptide transmitters; it consists of those that don't fit into the other four classes
Opioid peptides
one of the five classes of neuropeptide transmitters; it consists of those with a structure similar to the active ingredients of opium
The discovery of epigenetic differences in monozygotic twins raises the possibility that epigenetic differences may explain why
one twin develops a disease and the other doesn't and one twin develops a trait and the other doesn't
Under normal conditions, the brain mechanisms responsible for the perception of motion don't consider eye movements per se. Rather, they consider
only those eye movements that are actively produced by neural signals from the brain to the eye muscles
Morphine and codeine are constituents of
opium
According to the ____________ theory, if an increase in the response of a particular visual neuron signals green, a decrease signals red.
opponent
Because there are two routes by which visual information can cross from one eye to the contralateral hemisphere, Myers and Sperry transected both the ____________ and the _______________ of each cat in their key experimental group.
optic chiasm; corpus callosum
A genuine smile involves activation of the _________________ and is known as the _________________ smile
orbicularis oculi; Duchenne
The cochlea is a long, coiled tube containing the auditory receptor organ, which runs almost to its tip. This auditory receptor organ is know as the
organ of Corti
Axonal conduction from cell body to terminal buttons is called
orthodromic conduction
The current version of the dopamine theory of schizophrenia holds that _____________ is one factor in the disorder, but that there are many other factors as well
overactivity at the D2 receptors
Recent evidence suggests that sensory systems are processed as _____ systems
parallel
Many different genes have been implicated in bipolar disorders, including genes that code for
particular calcium channels
Asomatognosia is the inability to recognize
parts of one's own body
At least two parallel channels of communication flow through each lateral geniculate nucleus. One runs through the ______________ layers and a second runs through the _____________ layers
parvocellular; magnocellular
_______________ neurons are particularly responsive to color, fine pattern details, and stationary or slowly moving objects; in contrast, ________________ neurons are particularly responsive to movement
parvocellular; magnocellular
Conduction in interneurons lacking axons is typically __________ and ____________
passive; decremental
Bavelier and colleagues (1997) used fMRI to measure the brain activity of healthy volunteers during the reading of sentences and found that the areas of activity were
patchy
The human amygdala seems to be specifically involved in the
perception of fear in others
A _____________ is the smallest unit of sound that distinguishes various words in a language
phoneme
There is now widespread agreement that dyslexia results most commonly from a disturbance of
phonological processing
An individual who displays a withdrawal syndrome when his or her intake of a drug is curtailed is said to be __________________ that drug.
physically dependent on
The research of _____________________ typically involves the direct manipulation or recording of the neural activity of laboratory animals by invasive surgical, electrical, or chemical means
physiological psychologists
The fovea
plays an important role in photopic vision, is an indentation, and contains the highest density of cones
Most human infants and other mammals display ____________ sleep cycles
polyphasic
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
portion of the nervous system outside the skull and spine; includes the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
disorganized speech, hallucinations, and delusions are examples of
positive symptoms of schizophrenia
Ions
positively and negatively charged particles
Orexin is synthesized by neurons in which part of the brain?
posterior hypothalamus
Vasopressin and oxytocin are synthesized in the
posterior pituitary
In a resting neuron, _____________ channels are open, whereas ______________ channels are closed
potassium; sodium
Somatosensory signals are conducted to areas of association cortex in ____________ cortex
prefrontal and posterior parietal
In humans, activity in the ______________ is suppressed during orgasm.
prefrontal cortex
In meta-analysis of MRI studies of depressed patients, consistent reductions in gray matter volumes have been reported in the
prefrontal cortex
There is a general consensus that the ____________ plays a major role in directing top-down attention
prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex
Most areas of secondary visual cortex are located in two general regions: the _______________ and the __________________
prestriate cortex; inferotemporal cortex
The ________receives most of its input from the thalamic relay nuclei of a given sensory system
primary sensory cortex
The somatosensory homunculus is in the
primary somatosensory cortex
Darwin proposed the _______________, which suggests that opposite social messages are often signaled by opposite movements and postures
principles of antithesis
Which of the following would be easy for someone with deep dyslexia to do while reading?
pronounce familiar words
Damage to the fusiform face area is often associated with
prosopagnosia
LSD is a
psychedelic hallucinogen
Empathogens
psychoactive drugs that produce feelings of empathy
Biopsychology is sometimes referred to as
psychobiology
Biopsychologists who study the physiological correlates of psychological processes by recording physiological signals from the surface of the human body are often referred to as
psychophysiologists
One consequence of _____________ is that there are often large minute to minute fluctuations in the levels of circulating hormones
pulsatile hormone release
There is a tradition of ___________________ in physiological psychology; the emphasis is usually on research that contributes to the development of theories of the neural control of behavior rather than on research of immediate practical benefit
pure research
In an attempt to provide convincing evidence of self-awareness, Gallup (1983) devised a clever test: Each chimpanzee in his experiment was
put in front of a mirror
________________ are large multipolar neurons with pyramid-shaped cell bodies
pyramidal cells
The differences between the brains of humans and those of related species are more ______________ than _________________
quantitative; qualitative
Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior pituitary
receives no direct neural input
The ___________________ of a visual neuron is the area of the visual field within which it is possible for a visual stimulus to influence the firing of that neuron
receptive field
Ionotropic receptors
receptors that are associated with ligand-activated ion channels
The PKU gene is ________, meaning _______________.
recessive; it develops only in homozygous individuals
Patients with bilateral amygdalar damage tend to have particular difficulty
recognizing facial expressions of fear
The _____________________ hypothesis holds that each time a memory is retrieved from long-term storage, it becomes labile
reconsolidation
The essence of ________________________ theories of sleep is that being awake disrupts the homeostasis of the body in some way and sleep is required to restore it.
recuperation
Action potentials normally travel along axons in only one direction because of the
refractory period
Echolalia is
repeating the words of another person
Which is commonly used to assess implicit memory in neuropsychological patients?
repetition priming tests
Because testosterone is the major testicular hormone, the major symptoms of orchidectomy have been attributed to the loss of testosterone. The therapeutic effects of _______________ have confirmed this assumption.
replacement injections
translational research
research designed to translate basic scientific discoveries into effective applications (into clinical treatments)
pure research
research motivated primarily by the curiosity of the researcher and done solely for the purpose of acquiring knowledge
applied research
research that is intended to bring about some direct benefit to humankind
The active ingredient of the snakeroot plant is
reserpine
What was the second drug to be developed and marketed for the treatment of schizophrenia?
reserpine
Electrical stimulation of the _______________ of sleeping cats awakened them and produced a lengthy period of EEG desynchronization.
reticular formation
The wakefulness structure in the brain stem is the
reticular formation
According to the ___________ theory of color vision, the color of an object is determined by its reflectance
retinex
Which of the following mediates the entrainment of circadian rhythms by the light-dark cycle?
retinohypothalamic tract
Because of the way that it is organized, the visual system is referred to as
retinotopic
The retina-geniculate-striate system is _____________. This means two stimuli presented to adjacent areas of the retina will excite adjacent neurons at all levels of the system
retinotopic
According to the reconsolidation notion, long-term memories are temporarily susceptible to posttraumatic amnesia when they are
retrieved
Testing of victims of concussion usually reveals that the patient has
retrograde amnesia for events that occurred just before the blow to their head and anterograde amnesia for many of the events that occurred during the period of confusion
Almost all studies of hippocampal lesions in monkeys and humans entail damage to large portions of the ____________ in addition to the hippocampus.
rhinal cortex
The three phases of an action potential are, in order:
rising phase, repolarization phase, hyperpolarization phase
Dorsal root axons are sensory unipolar neurons with their cell bodies grouped together just outside the cord to form the dorsal
root ganglia
Which of the following are involuntary fixational eye movements?
saccades
The transmission of action potentials in myelinated axons is called
saltatory conduction
Cirrhosis
scarring of the liver, which is a major cause of death among heavy alcohol users
Cocaine sprees can produce cocaine psychosis, a syndrome that is similar to
schizophrenia
In humans, severing the optic chiasm along the midline always produces a
scotoma
Light therapy can help relieve the symptoms of
seasonal affective disorder
The __________ phase of the alcohol withdrawal syndrome begins 10 to 30 hours after cessation of drinking and is characterized by hyperactivity, insomnia, and hallucinations
second
Cross section
section cut at a right angle to any long, narrow structure of the central nervous system
Persons with a visual agnosia
see objects but can't identify them
The advantage of presynaptic facilitation and inhibition (compared to EPSPs and IPSPs) is that they can
selectively influence one particular synapse rather than the entire presynaptic neuron
Which of the following functions does the cerebellum play a role in?
sensorimotor and cognitive functions
Studies of the development of birdsong suggest that this behavior develops in two phases: (1) the ___________ phase, and (2) the ____________ phase
sensory; sensorimotor
Which of the following is an indoleamine neurotransmitter?
serotonin
In humans, Klüver-Bucy syndrome involves
sexual advances to inappropriate objects or people
Lester and Gorzalka developed a clever way to control for what confounded variable?
sexual fatigue of males
Whether someone is considered to be homosexual, heterosexual, bisexual, or asexual is a function of their
sexual orientation
When the pupils are constricted, the image falling on each retina is ___________ and there is a greater ____________
sharper; depth of focus
Following a brief period of sleep deprivation, volunteers are more likely to display deficits in the performance of _____________ tasks
simple monotonous
A difficulty in attending visually to more than one object at a time is known as visual
simultanagnosia
The fact that drug tolerance is often ___________________ suggests that Pavlovian conditioning plays a role in addiction
situationally specific
When people awaken, they sometimes experience a temporary feeling of grogginess—an effect called
sleep inertia
In an unexpected follow-up 1 year after the end of their gradual long-term sleep reduction study, Friedman and colleagues found that all participants were
sleeping less than they had before the study began
Synaptic vessicles
small spherical membranes that store neurotransmitter molecules and release them into the synaptic cleft
According to John Money, the outcome of the David Reimer case strongly supported the ____________ theory of gender identity
social-learning
The rising phase of an action potential begins when the ____________ and ends when the _____________
sodium channels open; sodium channels close
The ____________________ is the part of the PNS that interacts with the external environment. It is composed of __________ nerves that carry sensory signals from the skin, skeletal muscles, joints, eyes, ears, and so on, to the central nervous system and _________ nerves that carry motor signals from the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles.
somatic nervous system; afferent; efferent
In canaries, the anterior forebrain pathway mediates
song learning
The general function of the superior colliculus seems to be to localize
sources of auditory input
Nonadoptive structures or behaviors that evolved because they were linked to a characteristic that was adaptive are called
spandrels
Hippocampal lesions in rats reliably disrupt the performance of tasks that involve memory for
spatial location
The hippocampus plays a major role in memory for
spatial location
In opposition to early theories of cerebral lateralization of function, the right hemisphere has been shown to be involved in _____________ and the ______________________
speech perception; understanding of word meaning
Which of the following is a tract of the anterolateral system?
spinothalamic tract, spinoreticular tract, and spinotectal tract
In which stage of sleep do delta waves predominate?
stage 3
Terrell was in an automobile accident and suffered damage to his primary somatosensory cortex. Since the accident, he has been unable to identify items by touch when they are placed in his hand. Terrell appears to have a deficit in
stereognosis
Most drug self-administration studies have been done with
stimulants
High frequency rTMS and low frequency rTMS are believed to _____________ and _____________, respectively, activity within those brain regions to which it applied
stimulate; inhibit
Interoceptive stimuli
stimuli that arise from inside the body
Exteroceptive stimuli
stimuli that arise from outside the body
The main difference between simple cortical cells and lower layer IV neurons is that the borders between the "on" and "off" regions of the receptive fields of simple cortical cells are ____________ rather than ______________
straight; circular
One factor that increases the susceptibility of the stomach wall to damage from Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) appears to be
stress
The results of many sleep-deprivation studies are difficult to interpret because of the confounding effects of
stress
Hans Selye was the first to describe the
stress response
What early experimental factors have been implicated in some cases of schizophrenia?
stress, faulty autoimmune reactions, infections, and exposure to toxins
Because it is difficult to separate the effects of sleep loss from the effects of the ______________ that may have induced the loss, results of sleep-deprivation studies must be interpreted with caution
stressful conditions
Patients with Tourette's disorder tend to have smaller _____________ volumes
striatal
Dorsal root ganglia
structures just outside the spinal cord that are composed of the cell bodies of dorsal root axons
Randy Gardner was a
student
quasiexperimental studies
studies of groups of subjects who have been exposed to the conditions of interest in the real world; such studies have the appearance of experiments but are not true experiments because potential confounded variables have not been controlled for
psychopharmacology
studies the effects of drugs on the brain and behavior
comparative psychology
studies the evolution, genetics, and adaptiveness of behavior, often by using the comparative approach
Physiological Psychology
studies the neural mechanisms of perception and behavior through direct manipulation of the brains of nonhuman animal subjects in controlled experiments
Neuropsychology
studies the psychological effects of brain damage in human patients
cognitive neuroscience
studies the use of functional brain imaging to study the neural bases of human cognition
When conspecific threat becomes an enduring feature of daily life, the result is
subordination stress
Darwin was not the first to suggest that species evolve from preexisting species, but he was the first to
suggest how evolution occurs and amass a large body of supporting evidence
In studies that use ______________, participants are directed to inhibit their emotional reactions to unpleasant films or pictures. In studies that use _______________, participants are instructed to reinterpret a picture to change their emotional reaction to it
suppression paradigms; reappraisal paradigms
The retinohypothalamic tracts leave the optic chiasm and project to the adjacent
suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN)
Specific lesions of the __________________________ have been shown to disrupt various circadian cycles
suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the medial hypothalamus
Individuals who have lost their ability to correctly pronounce words based on their specific memories of the words are said to suffer from
surface dyslexia
Which of the following was an effect seen in experimental rats subjected to the carousel apparatus?
swollen adrenal glands, internal bleeding, and gastric ulcers
Directed synapses
synapses at which the site of neurotransmitter release and the site of neurotransmitter reception are in close proximity
Nondirected synapses
synapses at which the site of neurotransmitter release and the site of neurotransmitter reception are not close together
Small-molecule neurotransmitters are typically synthesized in the cytoplasm of the terminal button and packaged in ________________ by the button's _________________
synaptic vesicles; Golgi complex
The optogenetic identification of an engram cell typically involves two stages in sequence: first a _________________ stage and then a ______________ stage.
tagging; manipulate
Which of the following is not an effective method for dealing with jet lag?
taking amphetamines prior to the flight
The _________________ concept is the idea that the aggressive and defensive behaviors of an animal are often designed to attack specific sites on the body of another animal while protecting specific sites on its own
target-site
In humans and in other higher vertebrates, the ____________ undergoes the greatest growth during development
telencephalon
In the developing brain, the _________________ is anterior to the diencephalon
telencephalon
If a picture of a coin were flashed in the right visual field of a split-brain patient, the left hemisphere could cause the patient to do one of two things to indicate that she had received and stored the information: (1) the patient could __________________________, or (2) the patient could reach under a ledge with her _________________, feel the test objects, and pick out the coin.
tell the experimenter that she saw a picture of a coin; right hand
All signals from the right visual field reach the left primary visual cortex, either ipsilaterally from the _______________ of the left eye or contralaterally from the ____________ of the right eye
temporal hemiretina; nasal hemiretina
When postsynaptic potentials produced in rapid succession at the same synapse sum, it is known as
temporal summation
Clinical depression and anxiety are comorbid disorders, which means that they
tend to occur together in the same individuals
Long-term follow-up studies of David Reimer came to conclusions that contradicted John Money's earlier conclusions. These follow up studies found that from an early age, David
tended to prefer boys' activities and games
Aromatization refers to the process of converting _______________ to ________________
testosterone; estradiol
Biopsychology developed into a major neuroscientific discipline in
the 20th century
Exocytosis of small-molecule neurotransmitters involves
the activation of voltage-activated calcium channels
Wernicke reasoned that damage to ______________ would produce a type of aphasia that he called "conduction aphasia."
the arcuate fasciculus
Medial geniculate nuclei
the auditory thalamic nuclei that receive input from the inferior colliculi and project to primary auditory cortex
The essence of recuperation theories of sleep is that being awake disrupts
the body's homeostasis
Enzymatic degradation
the breakdown of chemicals by enzymes - one of the two mechanisms for deactivating released neurotransmitters
The most commonly used measure of stress is
the circulating levels of glucocorticoids
Axon hillock
the cone-shaped region at the junction between the axon and the cell body
According to Ramsay and Woods (1997), the unconditional stimulus in a drug tolerance experiment is
the disruption of neural functioning that has been directly produced by the drug
Reuptake
the drawing back into the terminal button of neurotransmitter molecules after their release into the synapse; the more common of the two mechanisms for deactivating a released neurotransmitter
Ejaculation
the ejection of sperm
Acetylcholinesterase
the enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
The results of Ekman and Friesen's (1971) study of an isolated New Guinea tribe suggested that
the facial expressions that are associated with particular human emotions are the same in all cultures
Coolidge effect
the fact that a copulating male who becomes incapable of continuing to copulate with one sex partner can often recommence copulating with a new sex partner
Clozapine is
the first atypical neuroleptic
Enkephalins
the first class of endogenous opioids to be discovered
cerebral ventricles
the four CSF-filled internal chambers of the brain: the two lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricle
The maternal immune hypothesis has been proposed to explain
the fraternal birth order effect
Broca's area is located in the cortex of the left hemisphere in an area known as
the frontal operculum
Schwann cells
the glial cells that compose the myelin sheaths of peripheral nervous system axons and promote the regeneration of peripheral nervous system axons
Periaqueductal gray (PAG)
the gray matter around the cerebral aqueduct, which contains opiate receptors and activates a descending analgesia circuit
periaqueductal gray (PAG)
the gray matter around the cerebral aqueduct, which contains opiate receptors and activates a descending analgesia circuit
H. M.'s surgery was a success in that
the incidence of seizures was markedly reduced, his IQ increased, and it became possible to reduce the level of his anticonvulsant medication
Shortly after cocaine withdrawal, a drug-associated cue elicits few presses to a lever that had always delivered drug before withdrawal. However, as time passes, there is a gradual increase in lever pressing in response to presentations of a drug-associated cue. This phenomenon is known as
the incubation of drug craving
Temporal summation
the integration of neural signals that occur at different times at the same synapse
Scientific interference
the logical process by which observable events are used to infer the properties of unobservable events
scientific inference
the logical process by which observable events are used to infer the properties of unobservable events
Axon
the long, narrow process that projects from the cell body
Testes
the male gonads
Substantia nigra
the midbrain nucleus whose neurons project via the nigrostriatal pathway to the striatum of the basal ganglia; it is part of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system
CB1 is
the most prevalent G-protein-linked receptor in the brain and a cannabinoid receptor
Cerebral aqueduct
the narrow channel that connects the third and fourth ventricles; located in the mesencephalon
Choroid plexuses
the networks of capillaries that protrude into the ventricles from the pia mater and continuously produce cerebrospinal fluid
Massa intermedia
the neural structure located in the third ventricle that connects the two lobes of the thalamus
Mammillary bodies
the pair of spherical nuclei that are located on the inferior surface of the hypothalamus
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
the part of the peripheral nervous system that participates in the regulation of the body's internal environment
The early reports that the prefrontal lobotomy was therapeutically effective were based on the impressions of the individuals who were the least objective:
the physicians who had prescribed the surgery
Most efforts to identify interhemispheric differences in brain anatomy have focused on the size of three areas of cortex that are important for language:
the planum temporale, the frontal operculum, and Heschl's gyrus
Central Nervous System (CNS)
the portion of the nervous system within the skull and spine containing the brain and spinal cord
Heritability estimates tell us about
the proportion of variability that occurred in a particular trait in a particular study as a result of the genetic variation in that study.
Morgan's Canon
the rule that the simplest possible interpretation for a behavioral observation should be given precedence
Biopsychology
the scientific study of the biology of behavior; a biological approach to the study of psychology
cell membrane
the semipermeable membrane that encloses the neuron
Dendrites
the short processes emanating from the cell body, which receive most of the synaptic contracts from other neurons
Lateral geniculate nuclei
the six-layered thalamic structures that receive input from the retinas and transmit their output to the primary visual cortex
To account for the fact that H.M.'s bilateral medial temporal lobectomy produced retrograde amnesia only for those events that occurred in the few years just before his surgery, it was suggested that memories are temporarily stored in the hippocampus until they can be transferred to a more stable cortical store. This theory became known as
the standard consolidation theory
Inferior colliculi
the structures of the tectum that receive auditory input from the superior olives
ethological research
the study of animal behavior in its natural environment
Neuropathology
the study of nervous system disorders
Neurochemistry
the study of the chemical bases of neural activity
Neurophysiology
the study of the functions and activities of the nervous system
Neuroanatomy
the study of the structure of the nervous system
Caudate
the tail-like structure that is part of the striatum
Gonads
the testes and the ovaries
Catecholamines
the three monoamine neurotransmitters that are synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine: dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine
Meninges
the three protective membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord
Dura mater
the tough outer meninx
Dorsal horns
the two dorsal arms of the spinal gray matter
Ventral horns
the two ventral arms of the spinal gray matter
Pulsatile hormone release
the typical pattern of hormone release: Hormones are discharged several times per day in large surges
The main support for the linguistic theory of cerebral asymmetry comes from the observation that only left-hemisphere lesions disrupt
the use of American Sign Language by the deaf
converging operations
the use of several research approaches to solve a single problem
H.M.'s case showed us that
there is a difference between implicit and explicit forms of memory.
In their study of long sleepers and short sleepers, Fichten and colleagues concluded that
there were no obvious differences between the two groups other than the differences in sleep times
Evidence indicates that the brain damage associated with Korsakoff's syndrome is at least partially due to
thiamine deficiency
sympathetic nerves
those motor nerves of the autonomic nervous system that project from the CNS in the lumbar and thoracic areas of the spinal cord
Which of the following stimuli could serve as an effective conditional stimulus for conditioned drug tolerance?
thoughts about the drug the environment in which the drug is administered the early effects of the drug
In perceiving sound, the complexity of the molecular vibrations is most closely linked to perceptions of
timbre
Which of the following drugs has the highest prevalence of use?
tobacco
Primate auditory cortex is organized
tonotopically
Cerebral commissures
tracts that connect the left and right cerebral hemispheres
The massive costs of clinical trials have contributed to a ____________ - a situation where only a small proportion of potentially valuable ideas or treatments receive funding for translational research
translational bottleneck
Research designed to develop effective clinical treatments from basic scientific discoveries is termed
translational research
Research that aims to translate the findings of pure research into useful applications for humankind is known as
translational research
Mechanisms in the membrane of a cell that actively transport ions or molecules across the membrane are known as
transporters
Most primates are ______________, whereas most other mammals are _______________
trichromats; dichromats
The hypothesis that synaptic transmission depends on communication among three cells (presynaptic neuron, postsynaptic neuron, and astrocyte) is referred to as the
tripartite synapse
Like split-brain laboratory animals, human split-brain patients seem to have __________________. But unlike the hemispheres of split-brain laboratory animals, the hemispheres of split-brain patients are ______________ in their ability to perform certain tasks.
two independent brains; unequal
The primary tastes are assumed to be sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and
umami
When insufficient neurotransmitter is released at a synapse, there is often compensatory ______________ of the receptors
up-regulation
Activity in the ____________ is commonly associated with the anticipation and experience of sex and other forms of pleasure.
ventral striatum
The __________________ of the rat hypothalamus contains circuits that appear to be critical for female sexual behavior.
ventromedial nucleus
Coprolalia, echolalia, and palilalia are all
verbal tics
The left hemisphere has been found to play the greater role in memory for __________ material, whereas the right hemisphere has been found to play the greater role in memory for ___________ material
verbal; nonverbal
In transient global amnesia, there is
virtually always anterograde amnesia for explicit memories
When split-brain patients are tested on the chimeric figures test, there is usually
visual completion
Baron Constantin von Economo discovered the involvement of the posterior hypothalamus and the anterior hypothalamus in human ____________ and _____________, respectively
wakefulness; sleep
When Searle (1949) compared selectively bred maze-dull and maze-bright rats on 30 different behavioral tests, his analysis suggested that the maze-bright rats were superior maze learners not because they were more intelligent but because they
were less fearful
Adaptation theories of sleep focus more on _____________ than on __________________
when we sleep; the function of sleep
According to one theory, the dorsal stream is involved in the perception of __________________ and the ventral stream is involved in the perception of ___________________
where objects are; what objects are
Aphasia is typically associated with
widespread damage
In functional brain imaging studies, emotional situations typically produce
widespread increases of cerebral activity, not just in the amygdalae and prefrontal cortex
HM's digit span performance was
within normal range
A wolf is a conspecific of a
wolf
Circadian rhythms are exactly 24 hours only when there is a 24-hour
zeitgeber
The muscle that pulls up the lip corners during a smile is the
zygomaticus major
