NSC 2201: Test 3 (13, 14, 15, 17, 19)

Kleinfelter's Syndrome

-XXY Male u Intersexuality -"pseudo hermaphroditism" -Tall, small testes, gynecomastia -Feminine body contours -Sparse body hair -Low testosterone levels -Language skills impaired

Activational Effects of Hormones on the Brain -At puberty there is _______________ -Hypothalamus releases _______________ -GnRH activates _________________ -Posterior pituitary releases __________________ -Females- effects _________________ -Males- effects ____________________

Activational Effects of Hormones on the Brain -At puberty there is *a second wave of hormones* -Hypothalamus releases *Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)* -GnRH activates *anterior pituitary causing release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)* -Posterior pituitary releases *oxytocin and vasopressin* -Females- effects *ovaries and causes release of estrogen, genitalia differentiate and breasts begin to develop* -Males- effects *the testes and causes increase in testosterone production and growth of male genitalia*

Acute (adaptive) vs. Chronic Stress (non-adaptive) increased cardiovascular tone --> ________________________ mobilization of energy --> ____________________ suppression of digestion --> _____________ suppression of growth --> ____________________ suppression of reproduction --> __________________ suppression of immune system --> ______________ sharpening of cognition --> _______________

Acute (adaptive) vs. Chronic Stress (non-adaptive) increased cardiovascular tone --> *hypertension, atherosclerosis* mobilization of energy --> *fatigue, diabetes, obesity* suppression of digestion --> *ulcers* suppression of growth --> *decrease growth + muscle mass, dwarfism* suppression of reproduction --> *decreased libido, no ovulation* suppression of immune system --> *infections* sharpening of cognition --> *memory impairment*

EEG -Measures voltages generated by ________________ -Reading dependent on ___________

EEG -Measures voltages generated by *excitation of many neurons in cerebral cortex* -Reading dependent on *# of neurons & synchronous activity of neurons*

CS Control of Contraction 2 ways to increase force of contraction: - -

CS Control of Contraction 2 ways to increase force of contraction: -Increasing firing rate of alpha motor neurons -Recruiting more alpha motor neurons from motor neuron pool

Glascow Coma Scale:

Know this diagram Know this look it up!

Narcolepsy: characterized by _______________ ________________ is released by the hypothalamus, but mutated _______________ leads to _______________________

Narcolepsy: characterized by *sleep attacks* *hypocretin* is released by the hypothalamus, but mutated *hypocretin receptor* leads to *dysregulation of modulatory NTs*

We typically do not move much while we are dreaming because while in this state there is little activity in primary motor cortex. motor activity is blocked at the level of the brainstem. alpha motor neurons are hyperpolarized (inhibited). neuromuscular junctions are blocked.

alpha motor neurons are hyperpolarized (inhibited).

The level of sex hormones normally fluctuate randomly in men and women show a 28 day cycle in men only after they marry have different temporal patterns in men and women show a 28 day cycle in women only after they mate

have different temporal patterns in men and women

Of the various hypotheses based on hormone levels, the most plausible explanation for male homosexuality is that prenatal testosterone levels were low during some critical period. prenatal estrogen levels were high during some critical period. adult estrogen levels are high. adult testosterone levels are low. none of the above.

prenatal testosterone levels were low during some critical period.

The effects of LH include suppression of sperm motility production of testosterone direct involvement in sperm maturation none of the above

production of testosterone

Alcohol decreases anxiety by promoting chloride flow at the GABA-A receptor complex. inhibiting chloride flow at the GABA-A receptor complex. promoting sodium flow at serotonin synapses. inhibiting sodium flow at serotonin synapses.

promoting chloride flow at the GABA-A receptor complex.

The diffuse modulatory system that uses serotonin originates in cell bodies of the raphe nuclei basal forebrain complex locus coeruleus substantia nigra

raphe nuclei

Mothers of homosexual men, when asked to remember events surrounding their pregnancy, typically report that they, themselves, were homosexual at the time of the pregnancy. report fewer stressful events than mothers of heterosexual men. report more stressful events than mothers of heterosexual men. have a harder time remembering those events than mothers of heterosexual men. a and c.

report more stressful events than mothers of heterosexual men.

Masculinazation of the nervous system causes male brains to have more neurons and more synapses and to work more efficiently begins as soon as a genetically male embryo is formed results (indirectly) from the increased expression of testosterone occurs late in females

results (indirectly) from the increased expression of testosterone

The amygdala is located in the ____________ lobes of the cerebral cortex. frontal temporal parietal occipital

temporal

Recruitment increases muscle force because the number of neurons in a motor neuron pool increases the number of active motor units increases the number of active gamma motor neurons increases beyond the number of active alpha motor neurons the number of neurons in a motor unit increases

the number of active motor units increases

The amount of force a muscle generates can be controlled by Question options: the frequency of action potentials in a motor neuron the number of motor units recruited the size of the action potentials in motor neurons More than one of the above

the number of motor units recruited

If we could completely remove cholesterol from the diet and body, we would have increased sex drive probably nothing would happen to sexual function we might be unable to produce steroid sex hormones none of the above

we might be unable to produce steroid sex hormones

Voluntary Movement

• Controlled by cerebral cortex • Can be improved with practice • Purposeful • Initiated by thoughts

Reflexive Movement

• Controlled by spinal cord and brainstem circuitry • Cannot improve with practice • Not purposeful • Initiated by sensory stimulation

Cerebellar Disease

• Dysmetria • Dysdiadochokinesia • Dysrhythmia • Ataxia • Intention tremor • Decomposition of movement

Cerebellum Disease

• Sequence/precise timing of muscle contractions • Coordinates planned, voluntary sequences of movements • Granule cells are one of first targets of alcohol à clumsiness

Patterns of Communication in the Nervous System

(a) Most of the systems we have discussed in this book may be described as point-to-point. The proper functioning of these systems requires restricted synaptic activation of target cells and signals of brief duration. In contrast, three other components of the nervous system act over great distances and for long periods of time. Giu, GABA, peptide NTs (b) Neurons of the secretory hypothalamus affect their many targets by releasing hormones directly into the bloodstream. (c) Networks of interconnected neurons of the ANS can work together to activate tissues all over the body. Sympathetic Parasympathetic (d) Diffuse modulatory systems extend their reach with widely divergent axonal projections. NE, DA, 5-HT, Ach

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome "Partial AIS"

-Example: Caster Semenya track runner -XY male -Mutation in androgen receptor -Semenya has no uterus or ovaries, plus internal testes -She also has 3 times more testosterone than an average woman

Turner's Syndrome

-XO female -Neck webbing -Short, barrel chest -No ovaries -No gonadal hormones -Infertile -No testosterone -Problems with visual/spatial/mathematical tasks

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

-XX female -Intersexuality, "pseudo hermaphroditism" -Genetic defect in the production of the enzyme cortisol -Hyperplasia of the adrenal cortex -Increased levels of cortisol precursor steroids that get converted to androgens -Can masculinize fetal genitalia -Behaviorally masculinized, likely to be sexually attracted to women u If untreated, women are later infertile

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome "Complete AIS"

-XY Male -Intersexuality, or "pseudo hermaphroditism" -Normal prenatal testosterone levels -Mutation in the androgen receptor u Shallow vagina, undescended testes -No male internal genitalia -No female internal genitalia -Taller than most females -Caused by absent or nonfunctional androgen receptors

Cocaine is a stimulant Blocks the reuptake of catecholamines, prolonging their synaptic action Increases the activity Dopa A and B are correct

A and B are correct

What happens when acetylcholine (ACh) arrives at the surface of a muscle cell at a neuromuscular junction? Question options: An action potential based on voltage-gated calcium channels is generated A large ISPS is generated Muscarinic ACh receptors are activated A large EPSP is generated

A large EPSP is generated

Alpha Motor Neuron

A neuron whose axon forms synapses with extrafusal muscle fibers of a skeletal muscle; activation contracts the muscle fibers.

ACh differs from testosterone because ACh requires a receptor on the cell membrane but testosterone's receptor can be inside the cell ACh precedes testosterone in the synthesis pathway that starts cholesterol Both men and women have ACh but only men have tesosterone Only testosterone is converted to progesterone by aromatase

ACh requires a receptor on the cell membrane but testosterone's receptor can be inside the cell

What neurotransmitter is used by alpha motor neurons? Question options: Glutamate Glycine Acetylcholine Seratonin

Acetylcholine

The steroid hormone cortisol, is produced by the as part of the stress response. Anterior Pituitary Adrenal Cortex Hypothalamus Hippocampus

Adrenal Cortex

Addison's disease is a rare disorder that results in Question options: Increased levels of cortisol. Hyperactivity of the adrenal gland. Adrenal insufficiency. Dysfunction of the pituitary gland.

Adrenal insufficiency.

LSD acts as a/an _________ at the serotonin receptor site on the presynaptic terminals of neurons in the raphe nuclei. Question options: Competitive inhibitor Antagonist Modulator Agonist

Agonist

The transmitter released to cause penile erection is vasoactive intestinal polypeptide ACh nitric oxide All of the above

All of the above

Trauma that damages the posterior pituitary could Interfere with the control of blood volume and osmolatiry Interfere with release of milk from mammary glands interfere with social bonding All of the above

All of the above

What is the size principle? Question options: The idea that motor units are recruited in strict order from smallest to largest The orderly recruitment of motor units first proposed by Elwood Henneman The basis for finer finger control under light loads than under heavy loads All of the above

All of the above

All of the following are TRUE of sleep, EXCEPT: during REM sleep, we see skeletal muscle atonia, as movements are commanded by the brain but most are not carried out. stage 4 sleep is considered the deepest stage of sleep and has large EEG rhythms of 2 Hz or less. during REM sleep we see synchronized EEG activity. During non-REM sleep we see slight muscle tone, but typically minimal movement. All of the above are true.

All of the above are true.

What is a motor neuron pool? Question options: All of the motor neurons whose axons are in one spinal nerve All of the alpha motor neurons of the same size in one spinal segment All of the alpha motor neurons innervating a single muscle, e.g., the biceps brachii or the triceps brachii All of the alpha motor neurons and corresponding gamma motor neurons innervating a given muscle

All of the alpha motor neurons innervating a single muscle, e.g., the biceps brachii or the triceps brachii

Progression of rhythms at different levels of arousal

Awake - Alpha/Beta REM - Beta Stage 1 - Theta Stage 2 - Spindle, K complex Stage 3 - Delta Rhythms Stage 4 - Delta Rhythms larger

Motor Unit

Alpha motor neuron + all muscle fibers it innervates

What is a motor unit? Question options: An alpha motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers its axon innervates A gamma motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers its axon innervates One alpha and one gamma motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers their axons innervate None of the above

An alpha motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers its axon innervates

Auditory System - Otoacoustic Emissions -All men are ____________ -Straight women have ___________ -Bi and gay women have ___________

Auditory System - Otoacoustic Emissions -All men are *roughly equal* -Straight women have *the most* -Bi and gay women have *less than straight women*

Where are the lower motor neurons of the ANS located? Autonomic ganglia Brain stem Ventricular zone Ventral horn

Autonomic ganglia

Basal ganglia = __________________ Forms __________________

Basal ganglia = *caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, substantia nigra* Forms *motor loop to select and initiate willed movement*

Which statement is NOT accurate about the behavioral differences from studies on male and female infants? Behavioral differences are found as early as, but not until, around 6 months after birth. On average, female infants attend to faces more than male infants who attend more to moving objects. On average, male infants are less sensitive to touch than female infants. On average, female infants will more often cry when they don't get what they want, whereas male infants will more often make active attempts to get what they want. All of the above statements are true.

Behavioral differences are found as early as, but not until, around 6 months after birth.

Which of the following is striated muscle? Smooth muscle Only skeletal muscle Cardiac and skeletal muscle Only cardiac muscle

Cardiac and skeletal muscle

Contraction of Muscle • Ca2+ binds _____________ • Myosin-binding sites on _______ exposed • Myosin head binds to _________ • Myosin heads ____________ • Myosin heads use __________ to disengage • Cycle continues as long as _____________

Contraction of Muscle • Ca2+ binds *troponin* • Myosin-binding sites on *actin* exposed • Myosin head binds to *actin* • Myosin heads *rotate* • Myosin heads use *ATP* to disengage • Cycle continues as long as *Ca2+ and ATP are present*

Cognitive Differences - Know these! Males: Females

Cognitive Differences - Know these! Males: -Navigate with compass directions -Mental rotation -Judgement of line orientation -More aggressive/competitive Females -Navigate with landmarks -Verbal fluency -Reading facial expressions -Memory of object location

The secretory hypothalamus Question options: Communicates through point-to-point synaptic transmission. Communicates through networks of interconnected neurons that work together. Communicates through releasing hormones directly into the bloodstream. Communicates through diffuse modulatory systems that have divergent axonal projections

Communicates through releasing hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Descending Tracts of Spinal Cord, know the tract name & function Lateral Pathways ___________ Cortispinal tract (CST) ____________ Rubrospinal tract ___________ If CST disrupted, _____________ can compensate for somefunction, but cannot regain ______________ Ventromedial pathways _____________ Vestibulospinal tract ______________ Tectospinal tract ________________

Descending Tracts of Spinal Cord, know the tract name & function Lateral Pathways *voluntary movement - all muscle* Cortispinal tract (CST) *important for voluntary movement in humans* Rubrospinal tract *important for voluntary movement in non-primates; less important in humans* If CST disrupted, *rubrospinal* can compensate for somefunction, but cannot regain *fine control of distal musculature* Ventromedial pathways *involuntary movement of the proximal and axial muscles* Vestibulospinal tract *stability of head* Tectospinal tract *orienting response*

Diffuse modulatory NTs - One neuron can _________________ • Located in nuclei within _____________ (know these!): • NE: _______________ • DA: _______________ • 5-HT: ______________ • ACh: _______________

Diffuse modulatory NTs - One neuron can *affect many others* • Located in nuclei within *CNS* (know these!): • NE: *locus coeruleus* • DA: *ventral tegmentum* • 5-HT: *raphe nuclei* • ACh: *basal forebrain complex*

Dimorphism in the male and female rat hypothalamus ______________________ of male rats is much larger than in females

Dimorphism in the male and female rat hypothalamus *SDN in the hypothalamus* of male rats is much larger than in females

The substantia nigra is part of the _____________. Question options: Dopaminergic diffuse modulatory system Noradrenergic diffuse modulatory system Cholinergic diffuse modulatory system Serotonergic diffuse modulatory system

Dopaminergic diffuse modulatory system

Estradiol (estrogen) causes __________________________

Estradiol (estrogen) causes *increase in dendritic spines in hippocampal neurons*

Excitation of Muscle know the steps! • Alpha motor neuron fires _____ • ____ released from alpha motor neuron at ____ • Ach binds to and opens _____ on muscle • __________ rushes through sarcolemma, causing type of EPSP called an ___________ like an EPSP, except.... • ______________ • AP sweeps down sarcolemma through _________ • Voltage-gated ____________ channels in T tubules open • Ca2+ spills out of __________________

Excitation of Muscle know the steps! • Alpha motor neuron fires *AP* • *Ach* released from alpha motor neuron at *NMJ* • Ach binds to and opens *nicotinic receptors* on muscle • *Na+* rushes through sarcolemma, causing type of EPSP called an *EPP-* like an EPSP, except.... • *One single EPP depolarizes sarcolemma enough to cause AP* • AP sweeps down sarcolemma through *T tubules* • Voltage-gated *Ca2+* channels in T tubules open • Ca2+ spills out of *sarcoplasmic reticulum*

What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)? System of tubules that bring the action potential deep inside the muscle fiber Voltage-sensitive channels Extensive intracellular sac containing calcium ions Excitable cell membrane that encloses the muscle fiber

Extensive intracellular sac containing calcium ions

Function of Motor Cortex • M1 neurons code for force + direction of movement via _________________ • Force - _____________ • Direction - _____________

Function of Motor Cortex • M1 neurons code for force + direction of movement via *population coding* • Force - *NOT length of line Number of APs* • Direction - *angle of specific line*

Gamma Motor Neurons: ___________ Gamma motor neurons adjust _____________ ____________ stretched --> ___________ activated --> _____________ activated --> muscle ____________

Gamma Motor Neurons: *Indirect regulation of stretch reflex* Gamma motor neurons adjust *tension of the muscle spindle* *Muscle spindle* stretched --> *1a afferent* activated --> *alpha motor neuron* activated --> muscle *contracts*

Given your understanding of brain organization and differential abilities of men and women, which person, on average, would you expect to score higher on the verbal portion of the GRE? Gay Male Straight Male Neither, I would expect them to score the same.

Gay male

Golgi Tendon Organ: _______ Golgi tendon organ monitors ___________ __________ increases --> _____________ activated --> _____________ activated --> _______________ inhibited --> Muscle ______________

Golgi Tendon Organ: *protect muscles from overloading/tearing* Golgi tendon organ monitors *muscle tension* *Muscle tension* increases --> *1b afferent* activated --> *Inhibitory interneuron* activated --> *Alpha motor neuron* inhibited --> Muscle *relaxes*

Our blood osmolality falls somewhere around 300 mOsm. This is a measure of the amount of solute to solvent within our blood. Our blood osmolality is tightly regulated, an example of Question options: Liver regulation Homeostasis Somatic function Neurosecretion

Homeostasis

Huntington's Disease Huntington's = _______________ • Losing ___________

Huntington's Disease Huntington's = *loss of neurons in caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus* • Losing *inhibitory input (opening the funnel to SMA)*

Hypothalamic Control of Pituitary Hypothalamic magnocellular cells --> ______________ Hypothalamic parvocellular --> _____________

Hypothalamic Control of Pituitary Hypothalamic magnocellular cells --> *posterior pituitary (true neural tissue)* Hypothalamic parvocellular --> *anterior pituitary (true gland)*

What is the "true master gland of the endocrine system"? Anterior Pituitary Adrenal glands Posterior Pituitary Hypothalamus

Hypothalamus

Innervation Ratio: _______ Higher the ratio = ______

Innervation Ratio: *Number of fibers innervated by a motor unit* Higher the ratio = *more muscle fibers innervated = less fine control*

Lower Motor Neurons Located in ___________ Two Types: _____________ Number of LMN determined by ___________ size of ventral horn differs ____________

Lower Motor Neurons Located in *ventral horn of spinal cord* Two Types: *alpha and gamma* Number of LMN determined by *number of muscles innervated at that level: swell @ arms legs* size of ventral horn differs *along length of spinal cord*

Someone with an XXY chromosome will develop as a: Male Female

Male

Male Agenda Female Agenda

Male Agenda -Health -Reproductive fitness (youth, beauty) Female Agenda -Good genes -Resources -Commitment

More Dimorphisms Differences in density, size of cells, and # of axons and synapses Microscopic/ Molecular Differences Patterns of brain activation (FMRI)

More Dimorphisms Differences in density, size of cells, and # of axons and synapses -Symmetry of the two cerebral hemispheres -Cerebral cortex u Corpus callosum -Hypothalamus (SDN of rat, INAH-3 in humans) -Anterior commissure -Amygdala -Bulbocavernosus nucleus of the spinal cord Microscopic/ Molecular Differences -Size and number of nerve cells -Synapses -Brain circuits -Hormone receptors -Neurotransmitters Patterns of brain activation (FMRI)

Motor Areas in the Brain _____________ • Roland's tapping experiment • Simple movement = _________ • Complex movement = _____________ • Thinking about complex movement = _________

Motor Areas in the Brain *Premotor area (PMA), basal ganglia, cerebellum, somatosensory cortex ALL influence primary motor cortex* • Roland's tapping experiment • Simple movement = *M1* • Complex movement = *SMA + M1* • Thinking about complex movement = *SMA*

Motor Homunculus Stimulating motor cortex at a certain point evokes movement in _____________

Motor Homunculus Stimulating motor cortex at a certain point evokes movement in *the area of the body mapped at that point*

Motor cortex lesions - loss of upper motor neurons or loss of axons anywhere along the corticospinal tract causes: hyperreflexia - ____________________ hypertonia - ________________________ babinski reflex - _________________________ clonus - _________________________

Motor cortex lesions - loss of upper motor neurons or loss of axons anywhere along the corticospinal tract causes: hyperreflexia - *increased reflexes* hypertonia - *increased muscle tone* babinski reflex - *upward flexion of big toe* clonus - *rhythmic cycles of contraction and relaxation after stretch of limb muscles*

I am a fetus with XX chromosomes. What direct effect will a lack of MIF have on my development? Ovaries develop. Wolffian ducts become Vas Deferens. Mullarian ducts become uterus and fallopian tubes. Primordial gonads become fetal testes. None of the above.

Mullarian ducts become uterus and fallopian tubes.

Isometric Contraction

Muscle contracts but there is no movement, muscle stays the same length. Stabalizing the joint NO MOVEMENT

The postganglionic neurotransmitter of the sympathetic division of the ANS is ; the postganglionic neurotransmitters of the parasympathetic division of the ANS is . Acetylcholine; Norepinephrine Dopamine; Acetylcholine Acetylcholine; Acetylcholine Norepinephrine; Acetylcholine

Norepinephrine; Acetylcholine

Is the prenatal basis of adult male homosexuality due to the organizational (permanent structural changes) or the activational effects (transient effects while the chemical is present) of hormones? Organizational Activational Neither is correct

Organizational

PMA - ______________ - plans specific movement Ready - _____________ Set - ______________ Go! - _____________

PMA - *Pre Motor Area* - plans specific movement Ready - *almost no activity when no instruction stimulus* Set - *High activity when given instruction stimulus* Go! - *Activity falls off post-movement*

Parkinson's Disease • Parkinson's = ____________ • DBS = creates functional lesion of ______________ --> less excitatory on _____________ --> less inhibition on ___________ --> more excitatory on ______

Parkinson's Disease • Parkinson's = *degradation of neurons in SN (closing funnel to SMA)* • DBS = creates functional lesion of *subthalamic nucleus* --> less excitatory on *GP* --> less inhibition on *VL* --> more excitatory on *SMA*

Pelvises and Brains In order to walk upright, we had to evolve thicker pelvises, but this _________________________ The size of an infants head at birth is ______________________

Pelvises and Brains In order to walk upright, we had to evolve thicker pelvises, but this *limited the size of the birth canal* The size of an infants head at birth is *limited by the size of the birth canal --> babies are born earlier, less developed*

The anterior pituitary hormone which stimulates cortisol release is adrenocorticotropic hormone Luteinizing hormone Vasopressin corticotropin-release hormone

adrenocorticotropic hormone

I am a fetus with XY chromosomes. What direct effect will TDF have on my development? Ovaries develop. Wolfian ducts become Vas Deferens. Mullarian ducts become uterus and fallopian tubes. Primordial gonads become fetal testes. None of the above.

Primordial gonads become fetal testes.

I am a fetus with XX chromosomes. What effect may too much androgen secreted by my own adrenal glands have on my development? Androgen-insensitive syndrome. Turner syndrome. Pseudohermaphroditism. None of the above. More than one of the above.

Pseudohermaphroditism.

Sleep and general mental health: • Sleep pattern disruption may ________________________ • Stabilization of sleep in vulnerable individuals will ________________

Sleep and general mental health: • Sleep pattern disruption may *exacerbate mental illness* • Stabilization of sleep in vulnerable individuals will *make them healthier and reduce some symptoms of mental illness*

REM sleep has been shown to be important for the consolidation of memory. TRUE FALSE

TRUE

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep • Physiological control mechanisms dominated by the _____________ • No _____________ • _____________ rhythms • Brain _________________ • Dreaming is ____________________ • Newborn has mostly ___________________ • Newborns have _____________, At puberty you have ________________ • Called ______________________ • have ______________________

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep • Physiological control mechanisms dominated by the *sympathetic system* • No *muscle tone, paralyzed body* • *Beta* rhythms • Brain *incredibly active * • Dreaming is *random activation of circuits that are easily accessible and spins its story * • Newborn has mostly *REM sleep which decreases with age * • Newborns have *50%*, At puberty you have *25% (so roughly 75% of total sleep time is spent in non-REM sleep) * • Called *paradoxical sleep* • have *waking EEG, but not easily aroused*

What are proprioceptors? Question options: Pacinian corpuscles, Merkel's disks, Meissner's corpuscles Receptors specialized for sensation of "body sense," like muscle spindles Any sensory receptor with cilium, such as hair cells and rods and cones None of the above

Receptors specialized for sensation of "body sense," like muscle spindles

Slow muscle fibers

Red, Slowly fatiguing, high mitochondrial content

Relative Sizes of Cerebral Hemispheres -Straight men and lesbians: _________________ -Straight women and gay men: ________________

Relative Sizes of Cerebral Hemispheres -Straight men and lesbians: *right hemisphere is about 2% larger* -Straight women and gay men: *two hemispheres are nearly the same size*

Actions of the secretory hypothalamus involve ____________________________. Question options: Networks of interconnected neurons that work together to activate tissues all over the body. Diffuse modulatory systems. Release of hormones to affect many targets. Restricted synaptic activation of target cells and signals of brief duration.

Release of hormones to affect many targets.

Same-Sex Attraction -Early play patterns are _____________ -Women exposed to high levels of androgens in utero are ___________ -Prenatal hormonal theory of sexual orientation: _____________________ -Because same-sex attraction is a result of prenatal hormones affecting the organization of the brain, _____________________

Same-Sex Attraction -Early play patterns are *best predictors of adult male same-sex attraction * -Women exposed to high levels of androgens in utero are *more likely to be sexually attracted to women* -Prenatal hormonal theory of sexual orientation: *adult sexual orientation depends on the level of fetal exposure to androgens early (first two months) in the pregnancy* -Because same-sex attraction is a result of prenatal hormones affecting the organization of the brain, *"conversion" therapies don't work (Duh) and are harmful*

Seizure Activity Runaway ______________ -> Pathologically ______________ activity across regions of cortex

Seizure Activity Runaway *excitation of brain circuitry* -> Pathologically *synchronous, high amplitude, high frequency* activity across regions of cortex

A patient has had major disruptions in her sleep-wake cycles. Which diffuse modulatory systems are probably involved? Serotonergic, or cholinergic, or noradrenergic Dopaminergic GABAergic None of the diffuse modulatory systems

Serotonergic, or cholinergic, or noradrenergic

Sleep Regulation • All modulatory systems (NE, 5-HT, Ach) increase ______________ as a person is ascending from deep sleep to awake except for ___________ • As a person descends into sleep these cells ________________

Sleep Regulation • All modulatory systems (NE, 5-HT, Ach) increase *firing rate* as a person is ascending from deep sleep to awake except for *dopamine* • As a person descends into sleep these cells *decrease their firing rates*

Sleep is _____________ Bottlenose Dolphin -Take naps called _____________ -Sleep with one ____________

Sleep is *adaptive* Bottlenose Dolphin -Take naps called *"microsleeps" (only few seconds)* -Sleep with one *brain hemisphere*

Sleep is important to _______________________ After you've tried to learn a task, sleep deprivation ______________ _______________________ is hugely enhanced after sleep _________________ washes through extracellular space in brain during the sleep. Gets rid of ___________

Sleep is important to *brain processing and memory formation* After you've tried to learn a task, sleep deprivation *markedly attenuates the learning* *Ability for novel solutions to complex problems* is hugely enhanced after sleep *CSF fluid* washes through extracellular space in brain during the sleep. Gets rid of *waste products*

Sleep Stages Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

Sleep stages Stage 1- some theta waves • Transitional sleep (eyes make slow rolling movements), drowsy • Lightest (most easily awakened) • Only few minutes Stage 2 - EEG is irregular, short bursts • Slightly deeper sleep • Sleep spindles diminish brain's sensitivity to sensory stimuli (generated by thalamic pacemaker) • K complex keeps the person asleep Stage 3 - 20-25% delta waves • Delta wave: high amplitude, low frequency Stage 4 - Increase in delta waves • deepest stage of sleep • This stage changes the most during life • Decreases with age, ending after about 60 years

Men are more at risk for genetic disease if The gene is on the X chromosome The gene involves gender identity The gene is an autosome None of the above

The gene is on the X chromosome

Stress and the HPA Axis

Stress and the HPA Axis HippoCampus (-), Amygdala(+) --> Hypothalamus -->CRH-->Pituitary --> ACTH --> Adrenals --> Cortisol -->GRs back to Hippo Also Hypothalamus --> ANS --> NE

Parkinson's disease results in the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons of the _______________________. Question options: Raphe nuclei. Suprachiasmatic nucleus. Locus coeruleus. Substantia nigra.

Substantia nigra.

Synchronous Activity A. _________________________ B. __________________________

Synchronous Activity A. *Pacemaker (Thalamus) helps synchronize cortical activity in non-REM sleep* B. *Collective behavior of participants*

As the night progresses, each sleep cycle tends to have shorter and shallower non-REM periods and longer REM periods. TRUE FALSE

TRUE

EEG activity measures a change in summed potentials of cortical neurons and is larger if there is more synchronous activity in the brain. TRUE FALSE

TRUE

Which of the following is an example of the activational effect of testosterone? The Wolffian system develops into the male internal genitalia in the presence of testosterone Testosterone influences the development of brain circuits responsible for male sexual behavior Testosterone is responsible for production of sperm Testosterone exposure in utero is responsible for development of male genitalia none of the above

Testosterone is responsible for production of sperm

The Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic ________________ Parasympathetic ______________ Systems balance each other out: _________

The Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic: * "fight or flight" Increases heart rate, blood pressure, eyes dilate, rapid breathing* Parasympathetic *"rest & digest" Stimulates digestion, lowers heart rate, lowers blood pressure, return to normal breathing* Systems balance each other out: *following sudden, extreme sympathetic activation, experience parasympathetic rebound*

Rigor mortis is the stiffening cause by Question options: The lack of ATP to break the actin-myosin bond The spiraling of myosin into an alpha helix in the absence of ATP The permanent binding of troponin to myosin Unwrapping of the actin alpha helix

The lack of ATP to break the actin-myosin bond

The stress response involves _________________________. Question options: The release of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary. The release of TSH from the anterior pituitary. The release of ACTH from the anterior pituitary. The release of prolactin from the anterior pituitary.

The release of ACTH from the anterior pituitary.

What are fast motor units? Question options: Those with rapidly fatiguing white muscle fibers The motor units with large-diameter axons that fire very regularly Those with slowly fatiguing red muscle fibers The very smallest motor units

The motor units with large-diameter axons that fire very regularly

In general, the control of movement can be divided into two parts. They are Question options: Connections to the muscles from the spinal cord and motor programs in the brain stem The spinal cord's command and control of coordinated muscle contraction and the brain's command and control of the motor programs in the spinal cord The spinal cord's connections to the muscles and the cerebellum's control of the spinal cord None of the above

The spinal cord's command and control of coordinated muscle contraction and the brain's command and control of the motor programs in the spinal cord

Alcohol blocks ADH release from the posterior pituitary. Which of the following would be a result of this? Question options: There would be an increase in urine production due to the fact that the kidney is not responding to the ADH to increase water absorption There would be a release of renin and an increase in angiotensin II in the blood There would be a decrease in urine production due to the fact that the kidney is responding to the ADH to increase water absorption There would be an increase in thirst

There would be an increase in urine production due to the fact that the kidney is not responding to the ADH to increase water absorption

Treatment for seizures -Seizures reflect an upset of the delicate balance of _____________ -Administer ___________________ -Enhance ___________________ activity to enhance ___________________ -Block ___________________

Treatment for seizures -Seizures reflect an upset of the delicate balance of *synaptic excitation & inhibition in the brain.* -Administer *GABA agonist: Promote synaptic inhibition mediated by GABA* -Enhance *GABA receptor* activity to enhance *chloride conductance * -Block *Na+ channels*

All of the efferent axons leaving the spinal cord toward the periphery release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (at the first synapse only) and are part of either the somatic motor, sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system. True False

True

Typical Sexual Differentiation We all start with ____________________ A single Y chromosome = ______________________ Wolffian and Mullarian ducts: ________________ Wollfian ducts develop into ______________ Mullerian ducts develop into ____________________ Prenatal testosterone = __________________ Lack of prenatal testosterone = _____________

Typical Sexual Differentiation We all start with *both male and female primordial tissues* A single Y chromosome = *genetic male* Wolffian and Mullarian ducts: *one remains, other withers* Wollfian ducts develop into *vas deferens - connectors for dem testes* Mullerian ducts develop into *oviducts --> fallopian tubes and uterus* Prenatal testosterone = *male external genitalia, "male" brain* Lack of prenatal testosterone = *female external genitalia, "female" brain*

What changes in the synaptic release of NE upon exposure to amphetamine? Question options: Vesicles of NE are unable to fuse with the neuronal membrane. NE is not able to bind the postsynaptic receptor. NE is rapidly degraded in the synaptic cleft. Uptake of NE is blocked, and NE remains in the cleft for an extended period of time.

Uptake of NE is blocked, and NE remains in the cleft for an extended period of time.

You have decided to apply your knowledge of neuroscience by becoming a marriage counselor for small rodents. Mrs. Vole complains that her husband, Mr. Vole, is spending too much time visiting other female voles. In order to stimulate monogamous behavior, you recommend Injecting dompamine into Mr. Vole's ventral tegmental area Using a viral vector to increase the number of vasopressin receptors in Mr. Vole's nucleus accumbens Injecting Mr. Vole's nucleus accumbens with oxytocin receptor blockers Securing a spot for Mr. and Mrs. on an upcoming Oprah Winfrey show

Using a viral vector to increase the number of vasopressin receptors in Mr. Vole's nucleus accumbens

Which hormone is involved in effecting the parenting habits of prairie voles? Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide Estradiol Vasopressin Testosterone

Vasopressin

Fast muscle fibers

White, rapidly fatiquing, low mitochondrial content

Which individual will be a male? X XX XXX XXYY

XXYY

One day your neurologist, Dr. Aby Normal, tells you that you have a few small lesions in your pons. It's no big deal, he says, but you know better. How might your sleeping behavior be altered by such lesions? You will no longer be able to enter REM sleep You will no longer show sleep spindles on your EEG You will no longer have motor paralysis during REM sleep You will have increased motor paralysis during REM sleep You will have naughty dreams about your neurologist.

You will no longer have motor paralysis during REM sleep

A genetic male (XY) with typical prenatal testosterone levels can still have atypical prenatal male sexual development because of a lack of testosterone receptors an over-expression of GnRH an over-expression of LH and FSH too much prenatal estrogen

a lack of testosterone receptors

From a physiological standpoint, what does the polygraph test measure? a. difference between the left and right hemispheres of the cortex b. rate of utilization of glucose by the central nervous system c. activity of the sympathetic nervous system d. activity of the parasympathetic nervous syste

activity of the sympathetic nervous system

The internal sex organs are initially both male and female develop from the Mullarian system, in males require hormonal stimulation in both males and females for proper development develop before the gonads all of the above are correct

are initially both male and female

The structure that serves as the highest brain region controlling autonomic function is the: a. thalamus b. hypothalamus c. septum d. visual cortex e. pituitary gland

b. hypothalamus

sarcomere

basic contracting unit of muscle

The ___________ segments of the spinal cord are enlarged due to the presence of more _________. cervical and lumbar; gray matter cervical and lumbar; white matter thoracic and sacral; gray matter thoracic and sacral; white matter

cervical and lumbar; gray matter

Lesions of the amygdala in primates produce: pleasure sexual arousal apathy rage change in social dominance

change in social dominance

The Papez circuit is_________________. cingulate cortex--> hippocampus-->ant, nuclei of thalamus-->mammilary bodies of hypothalamus-->neocortex neocortex-->hippocampus-->amygdala-->mammilary bodies of hypothalamus--> neocortex cingulate cortex--> hippocampus-->mammilary bodies of hypothalamus--> ant. nuclei of thalamus-->cingulate cortex septum-->neocortex-->cingulate cortex-->hippocampus-->ant. nuclei of thalamus--> septum

cingulate cortex--> hippocampus-->mammilary bodies of hypothalamus--> ant. nuclei of thalamus-->cingulate cortex

Which of the following causes a genetic male to develop female genetalia? exposure to equal levels of testosterone and estrogen during an early stage of development exposure to a high level of estrogen during puberty exposure to a high level of estrogen during an early stage of development. deficit of testosterone during puberty deficit of testosterone during an early stage of development

deficit of testosterone during an early stage of development

The "releasing hormones" from the hypothalamus directly control the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary. travel directly to muscle cells, where they increase or decease responsiveness. only have an effect on the adrenal cortex. decrease the affects produced by hormones from other endocrine glands.

directly control the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary.

When animals work to deliver electrical shocks to certain areas of their own brains, they are usually stimulating neurons that release which kind of transmitter? GABA acetylcholine glutamate norepinephrine dopamine

dopamine

Cocaine and amphetamine enhance the effect of which two neurotransmitters? dopemine and norepinephrine serotonin and dopamine acetylcholine and norepinephrine serotonin and norepinephrine

dopemine and norepinephrine

Which of the following is true of the diffuse modulatory systems of the brain? each system originates with a large set of neurons neurons arise from all parts of the brain except from the brain stem each neuron influences many others, contacting more than 100,000 postsynaptic neurons neurons release transmitter only into the synaptic cleft

each neuron influences many others, contacting more than 100,000 postsynaptic neurons

Benzodiazepines decrease anxiety by _________ transmission at ___________ synapses. facilitating ... dopamine inhibiting ... serotonin facilitating ... GABA inhibiting ... norepinephrine

facilitating ... GABA

Comparing fast and slow muscle, one finds slow is stronger than fast slow fatigues more rapidly than fast fast uses anerobic metabolism and slow uses oxidative metabolism None of the above

fast uses anerobic metabolism and slow uses oxidative metabolism

When an animal falls asleep thalamic neurons stop firing action potentials. fire bursts of action potentials. depolarize. do not change their firing pattern.

fire bursts of action potentials.

Myofibrils are another name for muscle fibers a group of muscle fibers found within muscle fibers non-cellular tissue in muscle

found within muscle fibers

The "master gland" regulates the body's temperature, blood pressure, fluid balance, etc. It maintains homeostasis through the ANS and the endocrine system. This gland is the a. hypothalamus b. cerebellum c. lymph glands adrenal gland

hypothalamus

Androgens are all the sex hormones a man has include estradiol in men but not in women include testosterone do not include in testosterone in women

include testosterone

Which of the following is a parasympathetic response? increased strength of heart contraction increased digestion increased blood pressure release of epinephrine

increased digestion

1. The Kluver-Bucy syndrome can be produced in monkeys by lesioning a. orbital frontal lobe b. inferior temporal cortex c. hippocampus d. ventro-amygdalo-fugal pathway e. hypothalamus

inferior temporal cortex

Melatonin inhibits gonadotropin release prevents day length from affecting reproduction production is increased by light is produced in the anterior pituitary

inhibits gonadotropin release

The muscle spindle contains extrafusal muscle fibers tendons intrafusal muscle fibers ligaments

intrafusal muscle fibers

Phenylalanine (such as Nutrasweet) magnifies the effects of several drugs and hormones that increase the probability of aggressive behavior. One likely reason is that phenylalanine blocks the production and turnover of GABA. blocks the production and turnover of serotonin. is converted in the body to testosterone. is converted in the body to L-DOPA. is converted in the body to acetylcholine.

is converted in the body to L-DOPA.

During a narcoleptic episode: a person goes directly into REM sleep a person goes directly into stage 4 sleep one sees sudden motor paralysis more than one of the above (A and C)

more than one of the above (A and C)

In primates, whether the anatomy develops in the male or female pattern depends mostly on estrogens and progesterone. mostly on testosterone. on estrogen and testosterone equality. on neither estrogen nor testosterone. none of the above.

mostly on testosterone

Isotonic Contraction

muscle shortens because muscle tension exceeds load. MOVEMENT

During REM Sleep: there are fast, high voltage EEG theta rhythms we observe the "K complex" we observe sleep spindles the brain is in its "deepest sleep" none of the above

none of the above

Certain cases of sudden death, as in voodoo death (death from fright), are due to over activity of the parasympathetic nervous system over activity of the sympathetic nervous system. underactivity of the parasympathetic nervous system. underactivity of the sympathetic nervous system. none of the above.

over activity of the sympathetic nervous system.

Which division of the ANS produce erection? sympathetic parasympathetic enertic no division of the ANS is involved

parasympathetic

Many hallucinogenic drugs are similar in structure to which neurotransmitter acetylcholine dopamine norepinephrine serotonin

serotonin

The knee jerk reflex occurs when pressure is applied to kneecap Force is applied to the tendon stretch is applied to muscles acting on the ankle stretch is applied to muscles acting on the knee

stretch is applied to muscles acting on the knee

Neurons in the locus coeruleus use norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter and enhance the awake state. increase firing with the onset of sleep. use dopamine as a neurotransmitter and decrease firing during sleep. none of the above.

use norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter and enhance the awake state.

A rat will repeatedly press a button, to the point of going hungry, if the button leads to electrical stimulation of the nucleus of Meynert ventral tegmental area suprachiasmatic nucleus reticular activating system

ventral tegmental area

In cognitive tasks, women may be better than man at procedural memory verbal memory 3D puzzles abstract geometry

verbal memory