OCMTHYC CYBERNETICS

input-throughput-output processes

a system "inputs" materials or information from the environment through its permeable boundaries system then works on these inputs with some kind of transformational process; this is "throughput." the system returns the transformed "output" to the environment. example > an insurance claims adjuster must gather information about relevant damages, make decisions based on insurance coverage, and then output that information (and, hopefully, a check!) to the policyholder.

Holism

a system is more than the sum of its parts. Systems have this property because of the interdependent nature of their components and the information that flows through feedback and exchange processes. Principle: Because of component interdependence, a system is more than the sum of its parts. Example > For example, imagine that five individuals are asked to solve an organizational problem. These individuals may come up with many interesting and innovative ideas while sitting alone in their respective offices. However, if these five people are placed in an interdependent system, it is likely that many more and different problem-solving ideas will emerge from their interaction.

Enactment

suggests that different organizational members will inspire information inputs with different meanings and hence create different information environments. Example > "There is not some kind of monolithic, singular, fixed environment that exists detached from and external to people. Instead, people are very much a part of their own environments." > if you and a coworker were both asked to "see the boss as soon as possible," you might inspire the situation with very different meanings, depending on your past experiences, goals, personalities, and so on.

Hierarchical Ordering

system components are arranged in highly complex ways that involve subsystems and supersystems Principle: A system consists of smaller subsystems and is embedded within larger supersystems. example (body) > Your body is composed of a number of subsystems-the cardiovascular system, the digestive system, the neurological system, and so forth. In turn, these systems are also made up of subsystems-for example, the cardiovascular system includes the heart, lungs, and blood vessels. We could take this even further with a consideration of organ components, cells, and so on. example (organization as a system) > let us look at a hospital as an organizational system. A hospital consists of a number of departmental subsystems, including surgical units, recovery units, the emergency room, laboratories, and offices. These subsystems, in turn, are composed of smaller work groups and individuals. We could also move in the other direction and see that the hospital is part of a larger supersystem-the health care industry. This supersystem would include organizations such as hospitals, clinics, insurance companies, and pharmaceutical companies.

Cultural Metaphor

takes an anthropological approach in understanding organizations as sites of interlinked beliefs, values, behaviors, and artifacts.

Group Members

talks to a number of highly interconnected individuals

Liaison

talks to two people who have radically different connections within the network

Putnam introduced an interpretitive approach in the communication discipline...

that this approach requires a consideration of "the way individuals make sense of their world through their communicative behaviors"

When the components of systems are people and social groups...

the "mapping" of relationships among people becomes crucially important.

the relational tradition considers...

the actual communication relationships that emerge through the activity of the organizational system.

Peters and Waterman's Themes for Excellent Organizations

1. Bias for action 2. Close relations to the customer 3. Autonomy and entrepreneurship 4. Productivity through People 5. Hands-on, value-driven 6. Stick to the knitting 7. Simple form, lean staff 8. Simultaneous loose-tight properties

4 Issues highlight the distinction between prescriptvie approaches to culture and the approaches taken by most cultural scholars today:

1. Culture is complicated 2. Culture is emergent 3. Culture is not unitary 4. Culture is often ambiguous

3 Concepts that characterize System Components

1. Hierarchical Ordering 2. Interdependence 3. Permeability

4 system properties

1. Holism 2. Equifinality 3. Negative Entropy 4. Requisite Variety

These prescriptive approaches to culture also fall short in 2 important aspects...

1. It is naive to assume that there is a single cultural formula for achieving organizational success. 2. These prescriptive approaches treat culture as a thing that an organization has. Because of these problems, most scholars who adopt a cultural approach to the study of organizations avoid the prescriptive tack taken by these writers. Instead, cultural researchers seek to describe and understand the complex ways in which organizational culture is developed and maintained.

2 types of feedback that are important to system functioning

1. Negative Feedback, Corrective Feedback or Deviation-Reducing Feedback 2. Positive, Growth, or Deviation-Amplifying Feedback

Properties of networks

1. Network Content 2. Network Mode 3. Network Density 4. Network Scope

2 kinds of process that characterize input-throughput-output operations

1. Process of Exchange 2. Process of Feedback

Properties of NetworkLinks

1. Strength 2. Symmetry 3. Multiplexity

4 Key Components of a strong Culture

1. Values are the beliefs and visions that members hold for an organization. 2. Heroes are the individuals who come to exemplify an organization's values 3. Rites and rituals are the ceremonies through which an organization celebrates its values 4. The cultural network is the communication system through which cultural values are instituted and reinforced.

2 different ways of thinking abotu cultrue

1. culture as something an organization has 2. culture as something an organization is

Requisite Variety

A final system property again deals with the relationship between a system and its environment. The property of requisite variety states that the internal workings of the system must be as diverse and complicated as the environment in which it is embedded. This "matching complexity" allows the organization-or team or group within the organization-to deal with information and problems in the environment. Morgan (1997, p. 113) argues that this "is not just an abstract concept .... If a team or unit is unable to recognize, absorb, and deal with the varia- tions in its environment, it is unlikely to evolve and survive." Principle: Because of system openness, a system should maintain the internal complexity necessary to cope with external complexity. Example > consider the contrast between two political campaign organizations. In one campaign, the candidate is running unopposed. In the second campaign, a bitter battle is being waged between a Republican, a Democrat, and a third-party candidate. The first campaign organization could be relatively small and simple because the political environment of an unopposed campaign is uncomplicated. However, the second campaign organization would need more complex subsystems to monitor, evaluate, and react to the quickly changing politics that surround a hotly contested three-person race.

Culture is emergent

A second point of agreement among most organizational culture scholars is the notion that cultures are socially created through the interaction of organizational members. central to a communication focus on culture in which culture is not merely transmitted through communication but also in which communication is "constitutive of culture"

Rites and rituals are the ceremonies through which an organization celebrates its values

An organization that values innovation may develop a ritualistic way of rewarding the new ideas of employees. In other organizations, rites and rituals might include a company picnic or an awards banquet for outstanding employees.

Network Density

Deals with the volume or how many people are connected to the networks. there are many interconnections among network members, whereas a less dense network is more loosely interconnected. highly dense network is one in which there are many interconnections among network members, whereas a less dense network is more loosely interconnected. Example > When selling insurance, you need to have a wide network density in order to sell a lot.

Simple form, lean staff

Excellent organizations avoid complex structures and divisions of labor.

Autonomy and entrepreneurship

Excellent organizations encourage employees to take risks in the development of new ideas.

Productivity through People

Excellent organizations encourage positive and respectful relationships among management and employees.

Simultaneous loose-tight properties

Excellent organizations exhibit both unity of purpose and the diversity necessary for innovation.

Close relations to the customer

Excellent organizations gear decisions and actions to the needs of customers.

Hands-on, value-driven

Excellent organizations have employees and managers who share the same core value of productivity and performance.

Bias for action

Excellent organizations react quickly and do not spend excess time planning and analyzing.

Stick to the knitting

Excellent organizations stay focused on what they do best and avoid radical diversification.

Values are the beliefs and visions that members hold for an organization.

For example, 3M Corporation espouses a value for innovation, whereas Prudential Insurance represents a value of stability

a wide range of subcultures could spring up at various sites in a single organization.

For example, Marschall (2002) conducted a study of a software development firm and found that skilled workers in the Internet economy created their own occupational community. This community-although perhaps divided by geography-shared work practices, ideas about what was important in the workplace, and even adopted a distinct language and vocabulary.

In such an environment; it is not surprising that organizational culture might also be in a state of flux

For example, Risberg (1999) analyzed the culture of a Swedish manufacturing company that had just been acquired. Risberg noted that "a post-acquisition process cannot be understood in one clear way.

It is naive to assume that there is a single cultural formula for achieving organizational success.

For example, although a "bias for action" may have proven effective for the organizations studied by Peters and Waterman, there are certainly times when a more contemplative approach to organizing would be appropriate.

One additional consideration of the nonunitary nature of organizational culture is that various subcultures within an organization may represent important differences in power and in interests

In other words, not only can the subcultures of the corporate boardroom and the assembly line be described as different, but these differences also point to fundamental schisms in power and ideology in the organization. For example, at your own university, the student population might have a distinct subculture that is quite different from those of faculty or staff (see Kramer & Berman, 2001). However, it is likely that the values espoused through the student culture hold less sway than those espoused by faculty or administrators.

Where did Systems theory originate?

In the fields of biology and engineering.

The Cultural Metaphor

In using a cultural metaphor for the investigation of an organization, we are again looking for the qualities that make an organization what it is. Each organization has its own way of doing what it does and its own way of talking about what it is doing To discover these ways of doing and ways of talking is to investigate organizational culture. Example > What makes Google different from Apple? What makes McDonald's different from Burger King? What makes the University of Texas different from Texas A&M University? What makes the Delta Gamma house on your campus different from Alpha Chi Omega's?

Who adopted the study of organizational theorists?

Katz and Kahn (1978) > took an open systems approach to organizational behavior Farace, Monge, and Russell (1977) > in the field of communication

But where are these various subcultures found in an organization, and how do they work?

Louis (1985) addresses these questions in her consideration of the sites of culture and cultural penetration. Louis first argues that there are a number of sites where culture might develop in an organization, including a.. 1. Vertical Slice (a division) 2. Horizontal Slice (a particulat hierarchical level) 3. Specific Work Group These cultural sites all "serve as breeding grounds ... for the emergence of shared meaning"

One of the key founders of the systems movement

Ludwig von Bertalanffy > theoretical biologist who was interested in the study of "living systems"

Culture is not unitary

Most organizational culture researchers agree that it is impossible to characterize an organization as having a single culture. Rather, most scholars agree that organizations are characterized by a multitude of organizational subcultures that "may co-exist in harmony, conflict, or indifference to each other"

What systems are made of

System Components

How systems work

System Processes

The unique characteristics that arise from these components and processes

System Properties

Permeability

System components have permeable boundaries that allow information and materials to flow in and out. The degree of permeability varies from system to system; some are relatively closed, whereas others are extremely open. Permeability refers both to the system as a whole-which must be open to its environment-and to the components within the system. Principle: A system is open to its environment, and system components are open to each other. example (body) > the human body must be open to its environment in order to take in the air, food, and water necessary for survival. The components of the human body must also be permeable to allow the flow of materials among organs and organ systems. example (organization as a system) > we can also observe both system and component permeability. The hospital must be open to its larger environment so patients, information, and resources can move into and out of the organization. Similarly, hospital units must be open to each other to facilitate the flow of people, information, and materials.

Culture is complicated

The complexity of organizational culture is demonstrated by the wide variety of markers that scholars use to investigate it. Examples Beyer and Trice (1987) argue that an organization's culture is revealed through its rites, and they differentiate among rites of passage, rites of degradation, rites of enhancement, rites of renewal, rites of conflict reduction, and rites of integration. Dandridge (1986) looks at organizational ceremonies as indicators of culture. Quinn and McGrath (1985) focus on the roles of values and belief systems in the transformation of organizational cultures. Smith and Eisenberg (1987) consider the metaphors of employees and management in a study of the culture at Disneyland. Boje (1991) and Meyer (1995) contend that culture can be best revealed through the stories that organizational members tell. Schall (1983) and Morley and Shockley-Zalabak (1991; Shockley-Zalabak & Morley, 1994) investigate communication rules in the development of culture. Even organizational hallway talk can be a lens for viewing culture (Gronn, 1983).

The cultural network is the communication system through which cultural values are instituted and reinforced.

The cultural network could consist of both formal organizational channels, such as newsletters, and the informal interactions of employees.

Interdependence

The notion of interdependence implies that the functioning of one component of a system relies on other components of the system. Interdependence can be seen by considering the complex relationships among organizations within a given business sector or in related sectors. This interdependence is particularly apparent in today's highly connected global economy Principle: System components depend on each other for effective functioning. example (body) > The brain needs a constant supply of blood in order to function, but this supply would not be possible if it were not for the heart's pumping action. In turn, the heart relies on the lungs to bring in the oxygen that fuels the blood. Both the heart and the lungs rely on the brain for the neurological signals that facilitate functioning. In short, the body is a highly interdependent system in which the breakdown of one component would lead to breakdowns in other components and in the system as a whole. example (organization as a system) > in our hospital, the surgical units could not function effectively without laboratories to provide important test results. The laboratories rely on the purchasing department for supplies, such as test tubes and chemicals. Many hospital units depend on the personnel and business offices to deal with the paperwork of compensation and insurance. Thus, no component within the hospital can function effectively without active assistance from other system parts.

There are ambiguities in interpretation of situations and statements

These ambiguities illustrate the multiple realities within the organization and during the postacquisition process" (p. 177). These ambiguities can be particularly challenging for individuals as they try to forge their own identities within these reconfigured organizational cultures (Pepper & Larson, 2006).

Heroes are the individuals who come to exemplify an organization's values

These heroes become known through the stories and myths of an organization. For example, Bill Gates exemplifies entrepreneurship and philanthropy through his work at Microsoft and the foundation he directs with his wife, Melinda.

Negative Feedback, Corrective Feedback or Deviation-Reducing Feedback

This kind of feedback helps to maintain steady system functioning. This is corrective feedback that serves to keep organizational functioning on a steady course. example > suppose that a restaurant supervisor notices that one of the waiters is telling patrons about yesterday's specials instead of today's specials. The supervisor might inform the waiter about his error so he can change his message to the diners.

These prescriptive approaches treat culture as a thing that an organization has.

This objectification of culture is risky because when we objectify culture, we de-emphasize the complex processes through which organizational culture is created and sustained.

1. Systems Metaphor 2. Cultural Metaphor

Two new metaphors that gained ascendency as ways to understand organizational processes

von Bertalanffy

also concerned with the extent to which intellectual disciplines were isolated from one another argued that systems concepts could be applied to a large number of fields in both the natural and social sciences

Process of Exchange

apparent in both input and output activities both the input of materials and information and the output of transformed materials and information require a process of exchange with the environment outside the system. this process of exchange is intimately related to the permeability of system boundaries. Some organizations have highly permeable boundaries to facilitate the exchange process, whereas others are relatively closed. Principle: Input and output processes require exchange between the system and the environment. Throughput processes require exchange among system components.

Cultural Performance

are interactional in that they require the participation of multiple organizational members are contextual in that they are embedded in organizational situations and organizational history are episodic in that they are distinct events in organizational life are improvisational because there are no scripts that guide organizational members

Deal and Kennedy's Strong Cultures

argue that business success can be enhanced through the development of a "strong" culture. If an organization has the components of a strong culture, it will be a better place for individuals to work and will improve individual and organizational performance. argues that a strong culture held by all employees is the only route to success in the business world

Link Strength

been defined in a variety of ways. Example > a strong link might be one in which there is a great deal of communication flowing between two people, one that has endured over a long period of time, or one in which the exchange is deemed important by network participants.

Process of Feedback

critical to the throughput portion of organizational functioning. information that helps to facilitate the interdependent functioning of system components. Principle: System control is maintained through feedback. Corrective (negative) feedback serves to keep a system on a steady course. Growth (positive) feedback serves to transform or change a system.

Karl Weick's Theory of Organizing

defines the process of organizing as "the resolving of equivocality in an enacted environment by means of interlocked behaviors embedded in conditionally related processes" Weick's model of organizing is obviously highly complex and abstract.

Martin (2002)

discusses this approach to culture as the fragmentation perspective and argues that fragmentation studies will see an ambiguous culture as "a normal, salient, and inescapable part of organizational functioning in the contemporary world" (p. 105)

Isolate

doesn't talk to anyone in the network

Weick's Theory of Organizing

emphasizes a number of relevant systems theory concepts. The notions of environment and permeability are critical to his theory, as is the concept of system component interdependence. The sensemaking process proposed by Weick also highlights the concept of requisite variety. That is, simple decision rules and structures can be used in sensemaking when equivocality is low, but more complex communication cycles and systems are needed to make sense of highly uncertain information environments.

Martin (2002)

highlights this aspect of culture in her discussion of a differentiation approach, in which inconsistencies among cultural views are expected and often seen as desirable. also points out that subcultures might emerge around networks of personal contacts or demographic similarity.

a network consists of a system of links among components

individuals, work groups, organizations

Positive, Growth, or Deviation-Amplifying Feedback

information that serves to change system functioning through growth and development. This kind of feedback serves to change the entire system rather than maintain it in a steady state. example > our restaurant supervisor might notice that increasingly more patrons are highly linked to social media outlets. Our supervisor, then, might suggest to higher management that the restaurant take advantage of this trend by establishing an online presence through Facebook and Twitter and offering Groupon coupons.

At the most basic level, how are systems characterized?

input-throughput-output processes

typifying the positional tradition...

is the formal organizational chart that defines the prescribed flow of communication within an organization the formal chart is often a poor reflection of the actual system of communicative elationships

Organizational Communication Situation

looked at a group of nurses who were coping with major changes in the health care environment. The hospital where they worked was encountering increased competition within the new managed care payment environment and hence decided to develop a new system emphasizing interdisciplinary health care. The nurses in the study were designated as "care coordinators" but were given little guidance about what this new role would entail. The nurses in this situation were placed in a highly equivocal situation; they had to make sense of new roles that could be interpreted in a wide variety of ways. The Miller et al. (2000) interviews with these nurses suggest that some relied on simple assembly rules (e.g., I'll just assume that "care coordinator" is the same thing as "discharge planner"). Other nurses-perhaps the more successful ones in the long run-relied instead on intense interaction with each other and with others in the hospital environment to craft and make sense of their new organizational roles. This example illustrates both the importance of sensemaking and the selection of various communication strategies for making sense in an equivocal organizational environment.

Descriptive and Explanatory Approaches to Culture

most scholars interested in organizational culture abstain from the simple prescriptive approaches Rather than seeing culture as a thing that can and should be managed, these researchers see culture as the emerging and sometimes fragmented values, practices, narratives, and artifacts that make a particular organization what it is.

Network Roles

one of the most interesting ways to consider the individual actors in a communication network is to consider network roles define the ways in which individuals are connected with each other.

The example of Miller et al.

oversimplified Weick's model and has left out a number of his innovative ideas about the processes through which organizational members make sense of their environments.

Monge and Eisenberg differentiate...

positional tradition of studying communication networks and the relational tradition

Negative Entropy

possible because of the flow of information and materials between the environment and the system. This is the principle of negative entropy in action — a system's success and very survival depends on active exchange with the system's environment. Principle: Because of system openness, a system has the ability to avoid deterioration and thrive. Example > For example, U.S. auto companies in the 1960s were relatively closed to their environment, ignoring information about world conditions and consumer preferences. If the auto companies had remained closed, they would have deteriorated and gone out of business. It was only through the intake of information from the environment that the automakers were able to survive. In the first decade of the twenty-first century, U.S. auto companies again seemed to be ignoring conditions outside of their own walls (building huge SUVs while other automakers concentrated on fuel-efficient hybrids), and by the end of the decade, governmental bailouts were needed to keep several u.s. companies in business.

Assembly Rules

procedures (sometimes called recipes) that can guide organizational members in set patterns of sensemaking. particularly useful for sensemaking when the information environment is not especially equivocal. The selected assembly rules and communication cycles will sometimes be effective in reducing equivocality in the information environment and will sometimes be ineffective When sensemaking is effective, Weick proposes a retention process in which rules and cycles are saved for future organizational use. Rules and cycles can be retained in the form of causal maps that are used to make sense of future equivocality in the information environment. Example > a personnel director might always ask applicants for a resume in a particular form in order to simplify the information environment.

It is also critically important to consider...

processes of change and evolution within network systems

Network mode

refers to the communication medium through which network linkages are maintained. Example > with wireless connections we can see connections across entire campuses, neighborhoods, and cities, or we can look at the ways in which hyperlinks connect information on the Internet > Relationship between workers inside one group chat and others who are excluded. Actual work relationships in the workplace get affected because of the mode.

Network Scope

refers to the extent in which networks are interconnected from a macro-respective. Intraorganizational networks will look at connections among individuals within a given organization, whereas interorganizational networks will consider links among many organizations In a global and complex society, interorganizational networks-of businesses, governments, and nongovernmental organizations-become particularly important

Multiplexity of a Link

refers to the number of different kinds of content that flow through a particular link. Example > Two organizations that share material resources, information, and personnel would be said to have a multiplex link.

Symmetry of the communication process

refers to whether the two nodes involved in the link have the same kind of relationship with each other. Example > the supervisor/subordinate relationship is asymmetrical, whereas the coworker relationship is symmetrical.

a systems consideration of communication network is enhanced when...

researchers do more than just describe the features of the network and delve into the reasons that the network develops and is maintained.

Culture is often ambiguous (open to argument ; equivocal)

scholars of organizational culture recognize that there is not always a clear picture of the organization's culture, or even of its various subcultures There may be multiple manifestations of culture that are difficult to interpret. This notion that culture is oftentimes ambiguous and hard to pin down is particularly important when considering organizations that are rapidly changing. Many scholars argue that we now live in a postmodern world that is multifaceted, fragmented, fast-moving, and difficult to understand.

Equifinality

states that "a system can reach the same final state from differing initial conditions and by a variety of paths" a result of the interdependent operartion of system components. Because the components of the system are integrated in highly complex ways, a variety of means exist to reach any system goal. The notion of equifinality becomes particularly important in today's complex organizational world. Principle: Because of component interdependence, there are multiple paths to any system outcome. Example >For example, Rework, a book by Internet entrepreneurs Jason Fried and David Heinemeier Hansson (2010), argues that there are many ways to reach success in today's business world that defy the typical rules of management textbooks. For example, Fried suggests that success can be gained by ignoring standard practices such as strategic planning, staff meetings, and typical promotion standards (Summers, 2010).

What is system components in an organizational system?

the people and departments that make up the organization.

Network Content

the stuff that is flowing through the linkages in the network. Example > Gossips: Affects, hierarchy, interdependence and permeability. > material can flow through a network as can many types of information or even intangibles such as affection or influence.

Entropy

the tendency of closed systems to run down. Example > For example, if a body is totally closed to its environment (and receives no food, water, or oxygen), it will quickly deteriorate.

Equivocality

the unpredictability that is inherent in the information environment of an organization. In an equivocal information environment, there are many interpretations that could be used for a particular event. According to Weick, reducing equivocality-or making sense-is central to the process of organizing. Some organizations are likely to be generally predictable. However, for organizations in highly competitive or quickly changing business environments or for any organization during a time of crisis, equivocality is likely to be high. when equivocality in the environment is high and there are many possible explanations for an event, organizational members engage in communication cycles Through communication cycles, organizational members introduce and react to ideas that help to make sense of the equivocal environment. Example For example, in the "go see the boss" example, an individual might be able to attach many logical (and probably many illogical!) explanations for the requested meeting.

Semantic Networks

the ways in which words and ideas are linked within text

Edgar Schein (1992) argues that

these various markers of can be seen as the outer layer of an organizational culture "onion." He sees these markers as artifacts and behaviors that are the most visible manifestation of culture. The middle layer of Schein's model consists of individual and group values. Though Schein cautions that "the difficulty is figuring out what the artifacts mean, how they interrelate, what deeper patterns, if any, they reflect" the values held by members of an organization often-though not always-are manifest in outward behavior. The core levels of culture in this model are basic assumptionsparadigmatic ideas that might serve to either unit or divide an organizational culture. This underlying assumption might generate values for innovation and outward behaviors and artifacts such as a relaxed and creative atmosphere, bonuses for new ideas, and suggestion boxes throughout the office. As an example of how these levels of culture interact, members of an organization might hold an underlying assumption that change is good.

Peters and Waterman's Excellent Cultures

they studied 62 organizations demeed excellent cultures by employees and organizational experts then identified "themes" that characterized the cultures of these organizations. Peters and Waterman's book would conclude that excellence could be best achieved through the themes

KW Theory: The idea that organizations exist in an environment.

this environment is not merely a physical environment but is an information environment. the information environment of an organization does not exist "out there" in an objective manner. Rather, individuals create the environment that confronts them through the process of enactment. In Weick's model, the major goal of organizing is the reduction of equivocality in the information environment organizational members use assembly rules and communication cycles

What is the first task of a systems theorist?

to identify the relevant components that comprise the system.

Bridge

to individuals outside of the group.

Pacanowsky and O'Donnell-Trujillo (1983)

took this emergent approach into the cultural realm in their work on "Organizational Communication as Cultural Performance," arguing that a study of organizational culture should concentrate on the communication processes through which culture is created. further argue that these communication processes can be best conceptualized as "performances" that are interactional, contextual, episodic, and improvisational. highlight the communicative processes through which organizational cultures emerge and shift over time

Systems Metaphor

views organizations not as self-contained and self-sufficient machines but as complex organisms that must interact with their environment to survive.

When we look at an organization as a system...

we see it as a collection of system components that are: hierarchically arranged, interdependent, and permeable to each other and the environment. The organizational system is characterized by input-throughput-output processes that require exchange with the environment and positive and negative system feedback. Because of the openness and interdependence of organizational systems, they are characterized by the properties of holism, equifinality, requisite variety, and negative entropy.

the 1960s and 1970s

were marked by extensive attention to the systems metaphor as a way of understanding the processes of organizational behavior and communication.