Org Comps

Motivational Structure: Leaders can be distinguished by whether they are task-oriented or relationship-oriented. Assessed with a self-report instrument called the Least Preferred Coworker Scale (LPC). it consists of 18 bipolar adjectives. Leaders are instructed to think about the person with whom he/she has the most trouble working and rate which of the two words with opposite meaning describes someone (e.g., unpleasant to pleasant). A high LPC score indicates the leader is relationship-oriented. A low LPC score indicates that the leader is task-oriented.

According to Fieldler's Contingency Theory, what is the key personal characteristic of the leader? How is it assessed?

Leader Situational Control: The amount of power and influence a supervisor has over subordinates, or in other words, how consistently supervisor's actions will predict subordinate behavior. It has 3 components: (a) Leader-Member Relations: The extent to which a leader gets along well with subordinates (b) Task Structure: The extent to which subordinate tasks are clearly and specifically defined. (c) Positional Power: The amount of formal authority that leaders have over subordinates. A leader with good leader-member relations, high task structure for subordinates, and strong positional power will be in a place of high situational control.

According to Fieldler's Contingency Theory, what is the key situational characteristic for a leader?

Hackman & Oldham (1976) proposed that core job dimensions are linked to outcomes via "critical psychological states." They state that these critical psychological states represent what employees experience on a psychological level when performing a job with these characteristics. (a) Jobs with high skill variety, task identity, and task significance experience the state of "experienced meaningfulness." (b) The critical psychological state associated with autonomy is "felt responsibility." (c) The critical psychological state associated with feedback is "knowledge of results." Findings: 1) Fried & Ferris (1987) conducted a meta-analysis and found that the five core job dimensions do not correlate predictably with their proposed critical psychological states. In addition, the magnitude of the correlations is not stronger with psychological states than with outcomes, indicating that they are not mediators. 2) Research has showed instead that job engagement is a better mediator of these relationships. A meta-analysis of 91 studies by Christian et al. (2011) found that job engagement was positively related to all five core job dimensions and that it partially mediated relationships of skill variety, task significance, and task identity with job performance.

According to Job Characteristics Theory, what mediates the relationship between the 5 core job dimensions and personal and work outcomes? What has research found regarding these mediators?

Predictors: 1) Uncertainty 2) Social costs of information seeking Outcomes: 1) Role ambiguity 2) Role conflict

According to Miller & Jablin's (1991) model of newcomer information-seeking behaviors, what predicts use of information-seeking tactics? What are outcomes associated with information seeking?

1) Characteristics of the subordinate: (a) Perceived ability (b) Personality (e.g., locus of control, regulatory mode). For example, Kruglanski et al. (2007) found that employees with a "locomotion" mode (move from goal to goal) preferred a directive style from their leaders, while employees with a "assessment" mode (comparing progress to reference values) preferred a supportive leadership style. 2) Characteristics of the situation or work environment: (a) Prevailing norms on leadership + authority in the organization (b) Task structure (c) Nature of the work group (e.g., experienced vs. not)

According to Path-Goal Theory, what are the two factors to be considered in choosing a leadership style? Provide sample research findings for each.

1) Choice: Motivation is reflected in the choices we make. For example, if someone chooses to work 12 hours a day, this indicates what is important to them and what motivates them, such as career success or financial gain. 2) Allocation of Resources: Because we can't do everything at once, motivation involves selective allocation of resources. For example, choosing to study indicates that one is motivated by achievement, but choosing to spend time friends indicates one is motivated by immediate gratification. 3) Multilevel Process: The recognition that we are motivated by many things at the same time, and some actions may allow us to meet multiple aims at once (e.g., helping a coworker allows us to feel like a good person and earn a salary), while other times, actions may conflict with other things that are important to us (e.g., helping a coworker means we cannot visit a valued friend).

According to recent reviews of the motivation literature (Diefendorff & Chandler, 2011; Schmidt et al., 2013), what are 3 basic assumptions pervasive in work motivation theories?

Collective: Examples include group training, onboarding courses PROS: 1) More economical 2) Provides newcomers opportunity to develop a sense of cohesion and camaraderie among themselves CONS: 1) Most likely to produce only a custodial orientation among newcomers 2) May not feasible when organizations do not have large numbers of new employees at the same time Individual: Examples include skilled apprenticeship programs, mentoring PROS: 1) Allows an organization somewhat more control over info passed to newcomer 2) May lead to greater role clarify CONS: 1) More costly and time-consuming 2) May be detrimental for roles where a custodial-role orientation is encouraged (e.g., police officer)

Compare collective vs. individual socialization tactics. What are two pros and cons of each approach?

Fixed: A newcomer knows in advance when certain transition points will occur. For example, a tenure track positions. Tends to allow employees to feel more a part of the organization and facilitate innovative role responses. Variable: The organization does not tell the new employee when transitions will occur, typically "when you're ready to handle it." For example, a sales training role. Tends to motivate conformity and anxiety among new employees.

Compare fixed vs. variable socialization tactics. What is an example of each, and which is more advantageous?

Formal: Example is police academy. Used more often in situations where newcomers are expected to assume new ranks or achieve a certain status, where there is a large body of knowledge for newcomers. Informal: Example is on-the-job training. Used more often when it is necessary for newcomers to quickly learn new skills and work methods

Compare formal vs. informal socialization tactics. What is an example of each, and when is each form used?

Investiture: The organization capitalizes on the unique skills, values, and attitudes the newcomer brings to the organization, "be yourself." Newcomers tend to react more favorably to this approach in terms of job attitudes and retention. Divestiture: The organization seeks to make the new employee forget old ways of doing things, or old attitudes and values.

Compare investiture vs. divestiture socialization tactics. What is an example of each, and which is more advantageous?

Sequential: Occurs when there is a clearly defined sequence of steps. For example, the path to becoming a physician is very clearly defined. Used when employees are being socialized to move up through a hierarchy. Random: There is no clear sequence of steps that one must follow, so long as they gain the necessary skills and experience. For example, the route to management positions is quite varied. Used when employees may need to be exposed to a greater variety of views and opinions, be innovative.

Compare sequentialvs. randomsocialization tactics. What is an example of each, and when is each form used?

Serial: Experienced members groom newcomers to assume similar positions. Example is with police officers being paired with experienced partners. Tends to facilitate embeddedness and acceptance from others as they "came up through the ranks", however it may perpetuate a culture of mediocrity within the organization. Disjunctive: Occurs when no role models are available, such as when an employee occupies a newly created position or one that has been long vacant. Is more likely to facilitate innovation, however unmotivated employees may flounder without guidance.

Compare serial vs. disjunctive socialization tactics. What is an example of each, and what is the advantage and disadvantage of each?

Person-job fit approach: Job satisfaction will be high when there is a good fit between the person and the job. Much of this research has looked at the correspondence in what people say they want in the job, and what they have. Studies have been quite consistent in showing that the smaller the discrepancy between wanting and having, the higher the job satisfaction (Virker et al., 2003)

Describe the person-job fit approach to job satisfaction. What have studies shown regarding the efficacy of this approach?

Motivation: An internal state that induces individuals to engage in particular behaviors. Motivation involves direction, intensity, and persistence of behaviors over time. (a) Direction: Choice of specific behaviors from a large number of possible behaviors (b) Intensity: The amount of effort one expends on a task (c) Persistence: Continuing engagement in a behavior over time

Define motivation. What are its 3 components?

Organizational Politics: Influence behavior within organizations that falls outside of the recognized legitimate power system. Major sources that motivate political behavior: 1) Uncertainty 2) Scarcity of resources 3) Technological change (introduces uncertainty) 4) Ambiguity in decision-making (opportunities for influence) 5) Organizational change

Define organizational politics. What are 5 major sources that might motivate political behavior?

Campion et al. (1993) provided an extensive review and synthesis of the team effectiveness literature. Their meta model is simpler and includes only five factors directly influencing team effectiveness: 1) Job Design: Centers on the nature of the task the team is performing (e.g., degree of self-management, level of variety, significance, identity, and opportunity for feedback built into team task) 2) Interdependence: Represents degree to which team members are interdependent in terms of tasks they perform, goals adopted, feedback they receive, and rewards they strive for. 3) Composition: Largely involves characteristics of team members themselves (e.g., heterogeneity of skills, flexibility of roles, relative size, preference for group work) 4) Context: Comprised of factors in the organizational environment in which the team performs (e.g., training available, manager support, inter-team cooperation) 5) Process: Represents team potency, levels of social support, workload sharing, and communication within the team. Team effectiveness is made up of productivity, satisfaction, and manager judgments. Findings: Has received empirical support that many of the characteristics are related to team effectiveness (e.g., Campion et al., 1993, 1995). However, its weakness is that it proposes only direct relations between inputs and effectiveness criteria.

Describe Campbell et al.'s (1993) Model of Team Effectiveness. How has it fared?

According to Campion, organizations can use four different approaches to design jobs, and each approach is associated with different outcomes for both individual employees and the organization: 1) Motivational approach: Emphasized by those in psychology and related fields. The focus is on making job content intrinsically interesting and meaningful to employees. (a) Pros: Positive outcomes associated with this approach are increases in job satisfaction, internal motivation, performance quality, and fewer withdrawal behaviors. (b) Cons: To alter jobs in this way makes jobs more complex, requiring higher skill, and often higher compensation. 2) Mechanistic Approach: Emphasized by those in industrial engineering. Focuses on the mechanistic approach to design jobs with maximum efficiency in mind. Job tasks are simplified, work cycles are generally made to be short. (a) Pros: Employees performing jobs designed this way will be efficient in speed, and these jobs will be easy to staff and train. (b) Cons: Jobs designed this way may foster boredom and alienation among employees, contributing to CWBs. 3) Biological Approach: Emphasized by those in ergonomics and biomechanics. Focuses on designing jobs to maximize employees' physical comfort. (a) Pros: Employees and organizations may reap benefits such as reduced healthcare costs and lower worker's comp claims. (b) Cons: Designing jobs in this way may require considerable org investment and expense. 4) Perceptual Motor Approach: Emphasized by those in human factors engineering. Focuses on designing jobs with task-related information processing demands in mind. (a) Pros: May cut down on errors and fatigue, particularly for jobs with heavy information-processing requirements. (b) Cons: May lead to high levels of boredom if information is highly simplified. May also require considerable R&D cost.

Describe Campion's Multidisciplinary Approach to Job Design (Campion & McClelland, 1991). What are the pros and cons of each approach?

Alderfer's (1969) ERG (Existence, Relatedness, Growth) Theory of Motivation is a direct descendant of Maslow's (1943) Needs Hierarchy. It collapses physiological and safety/security needs into Existence, translates love + belongingness into Relatedness, and esteem and self-actualization to Growth. ERG Theory also allows for the possibility that needs do not have to operate hierarchically, such that people may meet multiple needs at once (e.g., focus on an artistic career while trying to scratch out a living) and also regress if their needs at one level are not satisfied (e.g., focus on Relatedness Needs if Growth needs are thwarted). How has it fared / what are its contributions? While it is an improvement to Maslow's theory, it has not fared too much better in terms of empirical support (Wanous & Zwany, 1977). It is occasionally used in empirical research, but its contributions are in serving as a foundation for future theories.

Describe ERG Theory. How is it modified from Maslow's (1943) Hierarchy of Needs? How has it fared / what are its contributions?

Equity Theory (Adams, 1965) is a type of social exchange theory that focuses on how people determine the fairness of social exchanges. Basic Premise: A basic assumption of the theory is that employees bring to the workplace what they perceive to be an amount of inputs, such as academic credentials, prior experience, job skills, and effort. Employees perceive outcomes from the work environment, such as compensation, praise, feelings of accomplishment, and camaraderie from colleagues. Employees cognitively compare their ratio of inputs-to-outcomes to some comparative standard and either experience a state of equity or state of inequity. Two forms of Inequity: 1) Underpayment: Occurs when ratio of inputs-to-outcomes is perceived as less favorable than the comparative standard. Results in feelings of anger (Spector & Fox, 2005). 2) Overpayment: Occurs when ratio of inputs-to-outcomes is perceived as more favorable than the comparative standard. Results in feelings of guilt (Spector & Fox, 2005). How inequity can be resolved: 1) Attempt to Increase Outcomes (e.g., ask supervisor for a raise) - can backfire and result in worse feelings if unsuccessful 2) Reduce Inputs (e.g., reduce effort at work) - can backfire if it is perceived negatively by supervisor or coworkers and result in fewer outcomes 3) Cognitively Adjust Perceptions of Inputs or Outputs (e.g., decide outputs are more favorable than previously thought) - most successful, least risky, and requires least effort, however can lead to being taken advantage of 4) Change Comparative Standard (e.g., compare oneself to lower target) 5) Withdrawing from Inequitable Exchange (e.g., psychological withdrawal or turnover) - typically taken after other steps have failed

Describe Equity Theory, including its citation.

Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964; 1995) is focused on the cognitive processes that drive employees' decisions regarding where they will direct their efforts. The basic premise is that employees will direct their efforts towards behavior or courses of action when: 1) There is a high probability that they will be able to perform the behavior if they try (Expectancy) - can be based on factors such as a person's innate abilities, level of training, or existence of organizational constraints 2) There is a high probability that the behavior or course of action will lead to some outcome (Instrumentality) 3) The outcome that will result from the behavior/course of action has value to the person (Valence) An equation can be used to determine the amount of motivation to engage in a job behavior, or "force." The equation is that Force = Expectancy*Sum(Instrumentalities * Valences)

Describe Expectancy Theory, including its citation.

Gladstein (1984) proposed a similar input-process-output model to McGrath's (1964) model. (a) Inputs are at the group-level, including group composition (e.g., heterogeneity, tenure) and group structure (e.g., size, role and goal clarity). Inputs are also at the organizational level, including resources available (e.g., training and technical, markets served) and organizational structure (e.g., rewards for group performance, supervisory control) (b) Group process (e.g. open communication, supportiveness, conflict) (c) Output is group effectiveness, made up of performance and satisfaction (d) Relationship of Process --> Effectiveness is moderated by Group Task (e.g., task complexity, interdependence) Differences to McGrath: 1) Gladstein proposes that inputs have a direct impact on team effectiveness, in addition to the effect mediated by team process (e.g., a team with extraordinary skill may be effective regardless of their process). 2) Gladstein proposed that a team's task moderates the relationship between team process and team effectiveness (e.g., a freewheeling interaction style may be useful for a creative task, but inappropriate for a direction-following task). Findings: Gladstein's (1984) test of her model found mixed support, with strongest support for team member's perceptions of effectiveness, rather than actual sales revenue. In addition, task characteristics were not significant moderators.

Describe Gladstein's (1984) Model of Team Effectiveness. How does it differ from McGrath's (1964) model? How has it fared?

Basic Premise: People's behavior is motivated by their internal intentions, objectives, or goals (Locke, 1968). Goals are proximal constructs that can be tied closely with specific behaviors. A goal is what a person consciously wants to attain or achieve. Functions of Goals (Locke & Henne, 1986) 1) Goals direct our attention and action to behaviors to achieve goals 2) Goals mobile effort, or in other words get us to try harder 3) Goals help us to maintain task persistence 4) Goals facilitate the search for effective strategies to attain them Factors Necessary for Goal-Setting to Be Effective (Locke, 2000) 1) Goal Commitment: The goal must be accepted 2) Feedback: Allows people to know if their behavior is moving them towards or away from their goals 3) Goal Difficulty: Research has strongly supported that the more difficult the goal, the more motivating, at least until the person's level of capacity (Locke & Latham, 1990) 4) Goal Specificity: Specific, hard goals are superior to "do your best" goals 5) Self-set Goals: Goals set by the person are generally more effective than those that are organizationally-assigned.

Describe Goal-Setting Theory, including its citation. Note the function of goals and the factors necessary for goal-setting to be effective.

Identifies 5 factors of the job environment that contribute to job satisfaction: Is also considered a Theory of motivation. 1) Skill variety: Number of different skills necessary to do a job 2) Task identity: Whether an employee does an entire job or piece of a job 3) Task significance: The impact that a job has on other people 4) Autonomy: The freedom employees have to do the jobs as they see fit 5) Feedback: The extent that it is obvious to employees whether they are doing their jobs well or poorly These 5 factors define the scope or complexity of a job, and it is theorized that the higher the job scope, the greater the satisfaction.

Describe Hackman & Oldham (1976)'s job characteristics theory.

Hackman (1987), building on the input-process-output framework, developed a "normative" model of team effectiveness intent on revealing the performance levels that organizations could use to enhance team effectiveness. (a) Inputs: Organizational context (reward, education, and information systems) + Group design (structure of the task, composition of the group, norms about performance processes) (b) Process Criteria of Effectiveness (e.g., level of effort, amount of knowledge and skills applied, appropriateness of strategies used) (c) Output: Group effectiveness (e.g., task performance, viability of team, member needs satisfied) (d) Moderators: Group synergy moderates input --> process path and material resources moderate process --> effectiveness paths

Describe Hackman's (1987) Model of Team Effectiveness.

Emotional State: The immediate experience of a particular emotion (e.g., anger or fear) that is generally in response to a situation (e.g., being yelled at by supervisor) Mood: A longer-term state that is less specific, with a positive or negative direction (Fischer, 2000)

Differentiate between emotional states and moods.

Citation: Herzberg (1968) Suggests that motivation comes from the nature of the work itself. 1) Job aspects relevant to animal needs are known as "Hygiene Factors," and include things such as pay, fringe benefits, relationships with coworkers, and organizational politics. These factors are necessary to keep employees from being dissatisfied, but cannot truly motivate them. 2) Job aspects relevant to growth needs are known as "Motivator Factors," such as autonomy, recognition, responsibility, and the nature of the work itself. These factors can motivate employees by making work content intrinsically rewarding. How has it fared / what are its contributions? 1) It has not fared well. Herzberg et al. (1959) provided some of the only support for the theory, with a critical incident study of work factors that were "very satisfying" or "very dissatisfying." This study likely only found this distinction because dissatisfying factors described related to others (e.g., coworkers, pay), while satisfying factors related to the self (e.g., autonomy, recognition). Other attempts to test the theory have been unsuccessful (Locke, 1976). 2) However, this study has lasting impact because it was the first to focus on job content as a source of employee motivation. It also served as the basis for Hackman & Oldham's Job Characteristics theory.

Describe Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, including its citation. How has it fared / what are its contributions?

Maslow's (1943) Need Hierarchy: Based on Maslow's clinical observations, he proposed a hierarchy of needs to explain the driving forces behind all purposeful behavior. Needs are defined as "variable internal states that, when activated or aroused, energize and direct behavior" (Pittman & Ziegler, 2007), and the argument here is for the existing of psychological needs. Hierarchy (lowest to highest level): 1) Physiological Needs: Food, oxygen, water 2) Safety Needs: Shelter from the elements, protection from predators 3) Love & Belonging Needs: A desire to form meaningful social relationships and to feel a sense of belonging 4) Esteem Needs: A desire to feel a sense of competence and mastery 5) Self-Actualization Needs: To realize one's potential and maximize capabilities, where very few people ever completely satisfy this need. How has it fared / what are its contributions? - The theory has fared very poorly as a predictor of work behavior (Locke & Henne, 1986). Empirical research has not supported the number of levels in the theory or the notion that lower levels of the hierarchy must be satisfied before higher-level needs can motivate behavior (Hall & Nougaim, 1968). - The primary contribution of Maslow's theory, and why it continues to be included, is for its historical value, because it has inspired researchers to consider the role of needs in employee motivation.

Describe Maslow's Needs Hierarchy Theory, including its citation and a definition of needs. How has it fared / what are its contributions?

McGrath (1964) proposed that team effectiveness is determined by a basic input-process-output sequence, where certain inputs lead to differences in team process, which leads to differences in team output. (a) Inputs included individual-level factors (e.g., patterns of member skills, attitudes, personality), group-level factors (e.g., structure, level of cohesiveness, size) and environmental-level factors (e.g., group task characteristics, reward structure) (b) Team Interaction Process: Represents the manner in which a team performs its task (e.g., performance strategies adopted, level of interpersonal harmony) (c) Outputs include performance outcomes (e.g., performance quality, speed to solution) and other outcomes (e.g., member satisfaction, group cohesiveness, attitude change) McGrath's model has had a tremendous impact on team literature. Ilgen et al. (2005) noted that most team research has either explicitly or implicitly been guided by the input-process-outcome model due to its breadth and simplicity.

Describe McGrath's (1964) Model of Team Effectiveness. How has it fared?

Need for Achievement Theory (Atkinson, 1964; McClelland, 1965) Rather than focusing on multiple needs, the emphasis is primarily on Need for Achievement in explaining differences between people in their goal-directed behavior. Findings: 1) The work of McClelland and others has distinguished characteristics of those high in Need for Achievement (e.g., choosing moderate levels of risk, having a strong desire for knowledge of results + feedback, tendency to become absorbed in work). 2) Results have extended outside realm of achievement-related behavior, for example finding that need for achievement is negatively related to all three dimensions of burnout. (Moneta, 2011) How has it fared / what are its contributions? The theory is very narrow in focus. Rather than trying to account for all needs and forms of behavior, it focuses on only one need and very specific forms of behavior (i.e., achievement-related). McClelland did not attempt to develop a full-blown theory of human motivation. This makes it useful to organizations. However, it is also problematic in that there is no explanation for why need for achievement relates to outcomes.

Describe Need for Achievement Theory, including its citation. What are some findings related to the theory? How has it fared / what are its contributions?

Reinforcement Theory: Talks about how rewards and reinforcements can impact behavior. Reinforcements are any stimulus that increases the probability of a given behavior. Note that this definition is not conceptual, and that reinforcement is being defined in terms of its consequences. The Law of Affect (Thorndike, 1913) states that the probability of a behavior is increased if it is followed by a behavior/reinforcement, and will decrease if it is followed by a punishment. According to Luthans & Kreitner (1985), schedules of reinforcement describe the various strategies that can be used to administer reinforcement. It can be fixed or variable, and interval or ratio. Common forms are fixed interval schedules (e.g., salaries). It's also worth noting that variable ratio reinforcement is very powerful (e.g., basis for gambling) for outcomes like praise and recognition. Findings: 1) A meta-analysis of rewards and performance found that average reward systems result in a 16% increase in performance. They also found that monetary rewards have a larger impact than non-monetary rewards. (Stagekoff & Luthans, 2003). 2) Applications of behaviorism (rewards, punishment, extinction, shaping, and feedback) in organizations is known as Organizational Behavior Modification. This approach has been successfully used to influence a number of behaviors, notably safety (Ludwig et al., 2010) and absenteeism (Camden et al., 2011). However, one limitation is that it works best for relatively simple jobs and tasks. How has it fared / what are its contributions? This theory has largely fallen out of favor with I-O psychologists, likely because it provides little insights about motivational processes (Locke, 1980). Other complaints are that is is unethical, because we manipulate employees to behave how we want to.

Describe Reinforcement Theory. What are some research findings related to the theory? Finally, how has the theory fared / what are its contributions?

The Ohio State Leadership Studies (Stockdill, 1963) began in 1945 and collected almost 2,000 descriptions of critical incidents representing either very good or very bad supervisory behavior. These descriptions were the basis of a 150-item questionnaire on leader behavior. The scale was administered to a sample of employees and factor analysis was conducted to attempt to distill a reduced number of underlying dimensions. They found two aspects of leadership: 1) Consideration: Amount of concern that supervisors show for the happiness and well-being of employees. 2) Initiating structure: The extent to which the supervisor defines roles and makes clear his/her expectations of subordinates.

Describe the Ohio State Leadership Studies.

Self-Determination Theory (Deci, 1975; Sheldon et al., 2003): A collection of a number of smaller theories that all emphasize the importance of individuals performing tasks out of intrinsic interest or a sense that task performance is relevant to important aspects of their identity. Some important components of SDT are: 1) Individuals can develop to their fullest potential when they are able to satisfy three types of needs: (a) need for autonomy, (b) need for relatedness, and (c) need for competence. As such, aspects of the work environment helping people satisfy these needs will be motivating. 2) Cognitive Evaluation Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) makes the important point that how individuals interpret or evaluate the reasons for their behavior determines whether the behavior ends up feeling autonomous versus controlled (e.g., did you receive a bonus because management wants to control your behavior or as recognition for your good work) 3) To expand the theory to more monotonous jobs, Ryan & Deci (2000) broke extrinsic motivation into 4 types: (a) external motivation (performing for rewards), (b) introjected motivation (performing to avoid guilt), (c) identified motivation (performing to express values), and (d) integrated motivation (aggregated reasons of identified motivation). They argue that external and introjected motivation are perceived as controlling, but identified and integrated motivation are perceived as autonomous.

Describe Self-Determination Theory, including its citation.

Self-Efficacy Theory: States that motivation and performance are determined, in part, by how effective people believe they can be (Bandura, 1982). Specifically, self-efficacy is an individual's confidence about his/her abilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources, and behaviors necessary to successfully execute a specific task (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998). It's important to note that the self-efficacy concept is concerned with specific tasks or courses of action. You can have high self-efficacy for one task, and low self-efficacy for one another. Findings: 1) Locke & Latham (1990) conducted a meta-analysis of self-efficacy and performance and found a correlation of about 0.4 2) There is evidence that strong performance can increase self-efficacy (Davis et al., 2000). Positive feedback can increase a person's self-efficacy, as demonstrated in a speed-reading task (Carl et al., 1993) 3) The Galatea effect suggests that people's beliefs about their own capabilities lead them to perform better, as in a self-fulfilling prophecy. This has been demonstrated to prevent sea sickness and performance loss among Naval cadets at sea (Eden & Zuck, 1995). 4) One danger is that high self-efficacy can, at times, be detrimental. Vancouver et al. (2001) have shown that high self-efficacy can result in not trying as hard on tasks, and thus not performing as well. Increasing Self-Efficacy: Bandura (1982) suggests that self-efficacy can be developed via a series of successes in increasingly difficult tasks. Carl et al. (1993) also suggests this approach for training, indicating that training can increase self-efficacy. How has it fared / what are its contributions? The theory has been well-tested, and research is quite supportive (Bandura & Locke, 2003).

Describe Self-Efficacy Theory, including its citation. What are some research findings on this theory? What can be done to increase self-efficacy? Finally, how has the theory fared / what are its contributions?

Shea & Guzzo's (1987) model is much less extensive than prior models, but highlights important determinants of team effectiveness. According to their model, team effectiveness is a consequence of: 1) Outcome interdependence: Reflects the extent to which members of a team share a common fate. High outcome interdependence fosters cooperation and workload sharing, low outcome interdependence fosters competitiveness. 2) Task interdependence: Involves degree to which members of a team have to depend on each other to get work done. A test of team appropriateness of the task. 3) Potency: Reflects the collective belief among team members that the team can be effective, and is the most proximal determinant of team effectiveness. Potency is enhanced via resources, rewards, and goals. Support: (a) Riggs & Knight found that potency is the most proximal determinant of team effectiveness, and a recent meta-analysis supported this strong relationship (Gully et al., 2002) (b) Research has shown that resources, rewards, and goals all contribute to potency, and ultimate, to team effectiveness (Guzzo & Campbell, 1990).

Describe Shea & Guzzo's (1987) Model of Team Effectiveness. How has it fared?

Stages (in order): 1) Forming: Typically characterized by great deal of uncertainty and anxiety as they are unfamiliar with one another and are setting expectations. 2) Storming: Characterized by conflict over issues such as team norms, who should be the leader. Conflicts must be both addressed but not too intense or personal. 3) Norming: The collection of people becomes a "team", role differentiation occurs, and behavior of the team develops into consistent patterns 4) Performing: Team accomplishes the major task(s) for which is was formed. Not all teams reach this stage in development if problems occurred in earlier stages. 5) Adjourning: Can range from mundane (team members simply move on) or can be difficult time for long-lasting team. Important to consider reflections of team members (was it rewarding, did they enjoy working with each member, was team successful).

Describe Tuckman's (1965) Stage Model of Team Development

Findings: 1) Research has shown that perceptions of underpayment equity are unpleasant and will motivate employees to do something about the inequity (Greenberg, 1990; Lord & Hohenfeld, 1979). 2) Although feelings of overpayment can be induced in laboratory settings (e.g., Lawler et al., 1968), there is little evidence for this effect in organizational settings. This may be due to the fact that overpayment is questionable, both in its occurrence (e.g., actually being paid too much is infrequent) and in how quickly people may cognitively adjust to it. How has it fared / what are its contributions? In general, research has supported Equity Theory very well, particularly with respect to the underpayment condition. The weakest support has come from the overpayment condition (Pritchard, 1969). In more recent years, Equity Theory has evolved into Organizational Justice Theory (Folger & Cropanzano, 1998), with researchers distinguishing equity in terms of outcomes received and the process used to determine those outcomes. Future Research: 1) Culture: It is likely that culture plays a role in how we perceive and act on perceptions of fairness. For example, Bolino & Turnley (2008) put forth 16 propositions of how different cultural values can influence components of equity theory, for example how different past-, present-, and future-oriented cultures will choose referent others to compare themselves to. Future research is needed to test these and other propositions. 2) Individual Differences: Huseman et al. (1987) proposed that people differ in terms of equity sensitivity, such that those who are equity sensitive follow the basic propositions put forth by Adams (1965), while those who are "benevolent" prefer their ratio less than comparison others and those who are "entitled" prefer their ratio be greater than comparison others. There is some initial evidence that this impacts fairness perceptions and reactions to inequity (Kickul & Lester, 2001), but more research is needed on individual differences and fairness/equity perceptions.

Describe a couple findings related to Equity Theory. How has it fared / what are its contributions? What are 2 directions for future research?

1. History: Organization's history, including long-held customs and traditions (e.g., history of the university) 2. Language: All organizations use some terminology and jargon that is more familiar to org members than to outsiders (e.g., military) 3. Politics: The unwritten rules that govern behavior within the organization (i.e., how to get things done, how to obtain desirable work assignments, who the most influential people in the organization are) 4. People: Establishing relationships both within the work group and in the organization as a whole 5. Organizational goals + values: Learning and, to some degree, assimilating the vision and values of the organization 6. Performance proficiency: Learn how to perform jobs, including specific job duties and skills necessary to perform them. (Chao et al., 1994)

Describe each of the 6 dimensions of organizational socialization

Hedonic Theories of Motivation: The employee is viewed as a calculating individual who is motivated by the desire to pursue positive consequences and avoid negative consequences. They emphasize needs, cognitive processes, and behavioral consequences used in service of allowing individuals to maximize pleasure and avoid pain (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Organismic Theories of Motivation: Assume that humans are inherently motivated to develop their interests and skills, to connect and contribute to others, and to move toward their fullest potential. These theories are growth-oriented, emphasizing people's innate need to develop (Sheldon et al., 2003).

Distinguish between the two types of theories of motivation, hedonic and organismic.

Organizational socialization: The process by which an individual makes the transition from outsider to organizational member. Much broader and longer-term process Onboarding: All of the formal and informal practices, programs, and policies enacted or engaged in by an organization or its agents to facilitate newcomer adjustment

Distinguish organizational socialization from onboarding

Groups are often said to be superior to individuals in generating ideas and in problem-solving. Studies of problem-solving have often found that groups perform as well, or better, than their best member. For this type of task, a group can be a better choice. (Bonner et al., 2002). Regarding idea generation, brainstorming is a group technique that is supposed to result in improved performance for this type of task. Research has failed to find that, within interacting groups, brainstorming is superior to nominal groups (McLynn et al., 2004). Some reasons for this phenomena 1) Part of the difficulty is undoubtedly attributable to process loss. The group may not spend as much time as individuals in generating ideas. 2) Individuals can also be reluctant to share ideas in a group because of shyness or anxiety. 3) When working in a live group, members are spending most of their time listening to others than generating ideas. An alternate option is to engage in electronic brainstorming. Electronic brainstorming has been shown to enhance performance in an idea generation task, using computers (Dennis & Velacich, 1993). Individuals are asked to enter ideas into a computer rather than writing them down. Electronic brainstorming produces better performance, in part, because individuals do not have to wait their turn to speak. Polis (2000) argued that the basic idea that group members inspire one another may be correct, but that group process gets in the way. Research shows that the initial group session helps facilitate the subsequent solitary session and results in increased performance (Polis, 2000).

For what tasks are groups thought to be superior? Has research supported this claim? What explanations have been put forth for the findings? Finally, what are some alternate options to enhance this effect?

By asking people how they feel about their jobs, either via questionnaire or by interview. Summing different facets is at best an approximation of global job satisfaction, since it assumes that all facets have been measured and that everyone weighs each facet equally in determining their overall satisfaction.

How is job satisfaction typically assessed? Can different facets approximate global job satisfaction?

The most comprehensive test of the theory has been a meta-analysis by Schriesheim et al. (1994). This study found that differences in mean performance levels of high vs. low LPC leaders in different levels of situational control generally supported Fieldler's theory. Generally, high LPC leaders always have high scores across situations, thus the paper recommended that organizations might consider trying to make all leadership situations favorable. The greatest criticism of the theory is the LPC scale, since the logic and construct validity behind it remains unclear. The greatest contribution of the theory is in drawing attention to the importance of the role of the situation in understanding leadership behaviors.

Has Fieldler's Contingency Theory been supported? What is its greatest criticism? What has been its most important contribution?

Unfortunately, research has only tested parts of the many hypotheses put forth by path-goal theory. However, tests of the various parts of the theory have been relatively successful (Wofford & Liska, 1993).

Has Path-Goal Theory been empirically supported?

1) Conflicts can be distinguished as cooperative vs. competitive (Hempel, 2009). (a) Cooperative: A conflict in which individuals openly share diverging views, respect one another's opinions, and focus on finding solutions that are acceptable to all team members. (b) Competitive: A conflict in which team members promote their own points of view, have little regard for other's opinions, and try to get their own position adopted. Cooperative conflict in teams has been shown to relate positively to team performance, while competitive conflict has been shown to relate negatively to team performance (Hempel et al., 2009). 2) Conflicts can also be distinguished as task-related or relationship-related (Shaw et al., 2011) (a) Task: Conflict related to the completion of key job tasks (b) Interpersonal: Conflict between co-workers Shaw et al. (2011) found that high relationship conflict exacerbated the effect of task-based conflict on performance. Both forms of conflict are consistently, negatively related to team member of attitudes.

How can team conflicts be distinguished? Describe associated research findings.

Hackman's (1987) definition of team effectiveness is used most often by researchers. This definition states that team effectiveness is a multidimensional construct consisting of 3 interrelated dimensions: For a team to be successful... 1) Output: Its productive output should meet or exceed the performance standards of those receiving and/or reviewing the output. 2) Viability: The social processes used in performing the task should maintain or enhance the capability of the team members to work together in the future. 3) Satisfaction: Experiences of team members should be positive.

How did Hackman (1987) define team effectiveness?

According to Steiner (1972), team effectiveness is: Actual productivity = Potential productivity - Process loss. Potential productivity represents the highest level of performance attainable by a time Process loss is time and effort expended by team members that does not directly contribute to production or task achievement. It represents less-than-optimal ways of combining inputs of team members into a team product, and generally occur because of a lack of coordination among team members or because the motivation of individuals may change when they are performing in a team setting. Two limitations: 1) The basic model does not specify which aspects of the team or the organizational context can be used to enhance the coordination of team members or prevent process losses. 2) Model is based on naïve assumption that organizational goals and team goals are perfectly aligned

How did Steiner (1972) define team effectiveness? What are 2 limitations of this definition?

Both job satisfaction and job performance are most strongly related to affective commitment, with approximately the same magnitude. Continuance commitment relates negatively to job performance, although the relationship is quite small. Turnover relates to all 3 forms of commitment, with the strongest relationship to continuance commitment (Cooper et al., 2005). Antecedents: A meta-analysis demonstrated that antecedents of organizational commitment are job stress and organizational justice. The relationships with these variables are stronger for affective commitment (Meyer et al., 2002).

How do the 3 forms of organizational commitment relate to job satisfaction, job performance, and turnover? Additionally, what are some meta-analytic antecedents of commitment?

There have been few gender-related or race-related differences found in organizational commitment (Ng et al., 2006).

How does organizational commitment differ by race and gender?

When researchers compared individuals to groups on task performance, they are usually concerned with an additive task. An additive task is one where the output is countable and total output is the sum of individual member outputs. The effects of group process on additive group tasks can be seen by comparing the output of an interacting group of people with an equal group of individuals who do not interact (nominal group). Research has consistently shown that nominal groups do as well, or usually better, than interacting groups (Davis, 1969). The sum of individual efforts often surpass the efforts of an equal number of those working together. Explanations for these findings are varied. 1) The first common explanation is the possibility of process loss - group members might interfere with one another's task performance, or they may expend effort on maintenance activities rather than the task at hand. 2) A second, and more likely explanation, is social loafing. This is where people do not put forth as much effort while working in a group as they would working individually. Generally, the larger the group, the more social loafing occurs. Social loafing is widespread in both laboratory and field settings.

How does research typically compare the performance of individuals vs. groups? What has this stream of research shown? What are the explanations for these findings?

To determine what supervisory approach to take given the characteristics, the Vroom-Yetton(-Jago) model will tell you what to do (Vroom & Yetton, 1973). Each of the 8 situational characteristics is transformed into a yes/no question, and the pattern of responses determines the best practice. For example, if quality is not importance but acceptance by subordinates is important and subordinates are unlikely to accept a decision made by the supervisor alone, the best supervisory approach is democratic. In most cases, the more democratic approach is most appropriate.

How does the Vroom-Yetton(-Jago) model work?

The presence of others increases physiological arousal, which has effects on task performance. Performance is improved (social facilitation effect) by other-induced arousal when the task is simple or well-learned (e.g., riding a bicycle). By contrast, performance is decrased (social inhibition effect) by other-induced arousal when the task is complex or new to the individual (e.g., solving a complex mathematics problem). (Zajonc et al., 1965)

How does the presence of others impact task performance?

Although Kozlowski & Bell (2003) note that there is no convergence on a core set of team processes across different taxonomies, there are certain elements that consistently emerge as important: Behavioral: 1) Communication: Teams in which members share little information with each other and communicate infrequently tend to perform more poorly than teams with free-flowing communication (Hackman, 1987). However, task-unrelated communication is negatively related to team performance (Toquam et al., 1997). Furthermore, it is important that communication be balanced across team members - Wang et al.'s (2013) meta-analysis found that shared leadership was associated with higher levels of team performance, especially for complex activities. 2) Coordination 3) Cooperation Cognitive/Affective: 1) Team Cohesion: It is important to distinguish between task and interpersonal cohesiveness. Meta-analysis shows that task cohesion is a stronger predictor of team performance than interpersonal cohesion (Muller & Cooper, 1994). (a) Task Cohesiveness: Members' attraction to the team is based on their attraction to the task the team is performing (e.g., team members campaigning for a presidential candidate). (b) Interpersonal Cohesiveness: Members' attraction to the team is based on how much they like the other team members and enjoy their company (e.g., members of a college frat). 2) Team Efficacy: Team efficacy, belief in the team for achieving a specific objective, has been found to predict better team performance on a variety of tasks (Gully et al., 2002) 3) Team Empowerment: Team empowerment is team members' collective beliefs in the meaningfulness of their tasks. Kirkman et al. (2004) found that team empowerment predicted performance of virtual teams, and was especially strong when teams had fewer face-to-face meetings. 4) Team Cognition: Includes shared mental models and transactive memory. Both have been shown to be related to team performance (Mathieu et al., 2002; DeChurch & Mesmer-Magnus, 2010). 5) Team Conflict: Task-based conflict does not always detract from team effectiveness, while interpersonal conflict can and often does detract (Jehn, 1994).

Is there convergence in a taxonomy of team processes? List and (if applicable) describe research findings related to 3 behavioral and 5 cognitive/affective within-team processes

Models of Team Development: 1) Stage Model of Team Development (Tuckman, 1965) 2) Gersick's Punctuated Equilibrium Model (Gersick, 1988) Team Effectiveness Definitions: 1) Steiner's (1972) definition based on productivity and process loss 2) Hackman's (1987) definition based on team output, viability, and member experience Team Effectiveness Models: 1) McGrath's (1964) model: Input-process-output model 2) Gladstein's (1984) model: Task-moderated input-process-output model 3) Hackman's (1987) model: Normative (performance levels) model 4) Shea & Guzzo's (1987) model: 3 determinants of outcome interdependence, task interdependence, potency 5) Campion et al.'s (1993) synthesis of team effectiveness models Common determinants of team effectiveness: 1) Team Composition factors: Team member abilities, personalities, heterogeneity, preference for team work, similarity of attitudes, interaction of temporal phase of team performance 2) Task Design factors: Task appropriateness, motivational impact, strategy appropriateness, stressor level 3) Organizational Resources: Team training/consultation, meeting space/time, leadership quality, management support 4) Rewards: Must consider task interdependence, interplay of individual and team-level rewards, control over performance, and attitudes towards team-based rewards 5) Team Goals: General goal-setting, interplay of individual and team goals, goal mechanisms, and goal difficulty

Please list the following, with citations for each: 1) Two models of team development 2) Two conceptions of team effectiveness 3) Five models of team effectiveness 4) Five common determinants of team effectiveness

One example is the interaction between Hackman & Oldham's job characteristics and Growth Need Strength. Growth Need Strength is a personal characteristic specified by Hackman & Oldham's (1976) theory that refers to a person's desire for the fulfillment of higher-order needs such as autonomy and achievement. It moderates the relationship between job characteristics and job satisfaction (Lower et al., 1985).

Provide an example of the interaction of person and job characteristics in predicting job satisfaction.

1) Compliance: Refers to an influence attempt where the target of influence does what is requested, but not necessarily done willingly (e.g., children obeying parents' orders to not eat a cookie). 2) Identification: The target of influence does what the leader requests, primarily because they like the leader (e.g., staying late to help your leader meet a deadline) 3) Private acceptance: The target of influence does what the leader wants because they believe it is the right thing to do (e.g., accept safety guidelines because you want a safe workplace) 4) Resistance: The target of influence simply does not do what the leader asks. May take the form of overt refusal or evasiveness.

What are four potential outcomes of influence attempts?

1) Using Project GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness) data from 62 countries, House et al. (1999) found that many specific attributes of managers are considered universally positive (e.g., intelligent, trustworthy), but others vary in whether they are viewed as good or bad (e.g., individualism, being willing to take risks) 2) Consideration is more strongly related to leadership effectiveness than initiating structure in the U.S., but the opposite is true in the Middle East (Scandura et al., 1999) 3) A study of clerical workers in India and the U.S. found that lack of control was the most commonly mentioned biggest stressful incident in the past month, while the most commonly mentioned in India was insufficient structure (Narayanan & Spector, 1999). 4) Directive approaches have more negative effects in individualistic rather than collectivist cultures. The results suggest that leadership style preferences and effectiveness (Euwema et al. 1997).

Provide some examples of cross-cultural leadership findings.

Two caveats: 1) Teams may not strictly adhere to the sequence of steps in the model. For example, a team may have to come together and perform immediately, and address other issues later. 2) The model is best thought of as cyclical. Teams may need to occasionally disgress to earlier stages as conflicts arise or as new team members join. This model ultimately became quite popular and has endured very well over time (Kozlowski & Bell, 2003). Bonebright (2010) recently discussed the lasting legacy of the model for both researchers and practitioners.

What are 2 caveats for Tuckman's (1965) Stage Model of Team Development? How has it endured over time?

Contributions: 1) It focuses attention on the individual relationships of each supervisor 2) It presents leadership more realistically than previous theories, as subordinates are not simply passive recipients of leaders' influence. Criticism 1) Differential treatment of subordinates within a workgroup can be destructive (Eukle, 1989). Equity theory describes how employees can react negatively to unequal treatment. The high turnover and low job satisfaction of the out-group in Danseraeu et al. (1975) could be interpreted as a response to inequity. 2) Refinement is needed on what actually constitutes the exchange relationship (e.g., unidimensional, multidimensional?)

What are 2 major contributions of LMX theory? What are 2 criticisms or limitations?

Most research studies attempting to determine the traits of good or bad leaders have taken one of two approaches: 1) Uses a methodology similar to employee selection studies: A sample of leaders in an organization is chosen and a criterion (often job performance) to regress on. Relationships between the personal characteristics and performance are interpreted as the effect of traits on performance. 2) Leader Emergence approach: In order to determine who will become a leader, studies bring a sample into the lab and have them work on a laboratory task, with the criteria being who becomes the leader.

What are 2 research approaches to studying the traits of leaders (trait approach)? Provide an example finding for each approach.

Strengths: 1) Models highlight a number of organizational and team factors influencing team performance (are comprehensive) 2) There is a good deal of consensus across models of what these contextual factors are (e.g., composition of team, rewards system, design of task) Limitations: 1) Ilgen et al. (2005) point out that many of the team-level variables found to influence relationships are not necessarily processes, but rather emergent states such as a sense of collective efficacy. 2) The model structure implies linearity, where Kozlowski & Bell (2013) recommend that "input" be added to the end of the sequence to better reflect its cyclical nature and include the importance of temporal factors.

What are 2 strengths and 2 limitations of input-process-output style models of team effectiveness?

1) The social loaf effect can be diminished when group members believe their individual output is being assessed (Lataine et al., 1979). 2) Early (1989) found that Chinese management trainees that came from a collectivist country, where emphasis is placed on the group and society, did not demonstrate social loafing.

What are 2 ways that research has found of dealing with social loafing in teams?

1) Establish a positive diversity climate: Communicate to newcomers that diversity is valued in the organization 2) Assess and develop capabilities: Don't assume all minorities are homogenous, facilitate traits like extraversion and openness 3) Enhance social support: Via mentoring programs 4) Promote collective identities + Support unique identities: Highlight the shared mission of the group, while recognizing the unique contributions of diverse group members.

What are four recommendations provided by Hurst et al. (2012) to include diversity in socialization of organizational members?

1) Job Descriptive Index (JDI): Most popular with researchers, and most thoroughly validated. Assesses 5 facets: (a) work (b) pay (c) promotion opportunities, (d) supervision, and (e) coworkers. (Smith et al., 1969). Biggest limitation is that it only has 5 facets, so it may not cover what you are interested in studying. 2) Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ): Has a 100-form long version, and a 20-form short version. Both forms cover 20 different facets of job satisfaction, but can only be examined with the long form. The short form is used for either global satisfaction, or is broken into extrinsic (fringe benefits and pay) and intrinsic (nature of job tasks and work) facets. (Weiss et al., 1966). Has good reliability and validity, but it has been questioned how items have been classified into their categories (Shrishim et al., 1993). 3) Job-in-General Scale (JIG): Developed by Ironsen et al. (1989) to measure global job satisfaction. It is patterned on the JDI and contains 18 items with adjectives or short phrases about the job in general. The scale has good reliability and correlates well with other scales of overall job satisfaction.

What are 3 different popular methods of assessing job satisfaction? Describe each. What evidence is there of the reliability and/or validity of each?

1) Selection 2) Organizational Reward Systems 3) Team Development Interventions

What are 3 general approaches that organizations can take to enhance team effectiveness?

Fit with... 1) Organizational culture profiles (e.g. conscientious person prefers organizations that are detail-oriented, place an emphasis on tangible outcomes) 2) Personality (applicants ascribe personality to organizations, often based on secondhand info) 3) Values (e.g. individualist might not be attracted to an organization placing a strong value on teamwork and collective achievement)

What are 3 ways that applicants might evaluate their fit with an organization in the recruitment process?

1) Cost 2) Yield ratio: Total number of candidates generated by a given recruiting source, can also be relative to number of highly qualified applicants 2) Time lapse data: Estimates of the time it takes to go from one step to the next in the recruitment and hiring process

What are 3ways that an organization can evaluate the potential usefulness of different recruiting sources?

1) Provide realistic job information to potential employees (individuals reciprocate org's honesty with high commitment) 2) Investiture approach to socialization (conveys org's respect for employee) 3) Development of internal promotion policies 4) Compensation forms such as matched pension/401k programs (continuance commitment only) and profit-sharing or employee stock ownership plans

What are 4 practical ways that Meyer & Allen (1997) suggested for organizations to increase commitment among their employees?

1) Examine the socialization of new employees who have been in the workforce for several years (not just those initially entering workforce) 2) Examine socialization of employees with temporary, contingent, and contract employees. 3) Examine how organizational incumbents view newcomers and the tasks they undertake to socialize them. 4) Document descriptive research on variation in what organizations do to socialize employees.

What are 4 recommendations for future organizational socialization research?

1) Need-Based Theories: Explains work motivation in terms of the extent to which employees satisfy important needs in the workplace. (a) Maslow's (1943) Needs Hierarchy (b) ERG (Existence, Relatedness, Growth) Theory of Motivation (Alderfer, 1969) (c) Need for Achievement Theory (McClelland, 1965) 2) Cognitive Process Theories: Emphasize the decisions and choices that employees make when they allocate their efforts. (a) Equity Theory (Adams, 1965) (b) Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964) (c) Goal-Setting Theory (Locke, 1968) 3) Behavioral Approach: Emphasizes applying principles of learning to the work environment (c) Reinforcement Theory 4) Self-Determination Theories: Emphasize the importance of the distinction between motivation driven by extrinsic factors vs. intrinsic factors (a) Control Theory (b) Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura, 2001) 5) Job-Based Theories: Place the source of motivation primarily in the context of jobs that employees perform (a) Herzberg's (1968) Two-Factor Theory (b) Job Characteristics Theory (Hackman & Oldham, 1976) (c) Multidisciplinary Approach to Job Design (Campion & McClelland, 1991)

What are 5 broad categories of employee motivation theories? Provide examples of theories fitting into each.

1) Impression management: Behaviors designed to enhance one's visibility or stature within organizations 2) Information management: "Information is power", thus you can control others' access to information 3) Promotion of the opposition: Eliminate a political rival by getting them promoted out of your way 4) Pursuing line responsibility: Actively seeking a position within the organization that makes it easier to exert one's influence 5) Ingratiation: Put people in a good mood (favors, agreements, compliments) before asking them to do something 6) Forming coalitions: Entering into agreements with others to support your position in exchange for your support of their position. (Allen et al., 1979)

What are 6 commonly-used political tactics in organizations?

1) Individualism / Collectivism: (a) Individualism: Extent to which people see themselves as autonomous and focused on their own needs High: Western countries like Canada, UK, Australia (b) Collectivism: Extent to which people see themselves as interconnected and focused on the needs of their group High: Asian countries such as China + Korea and Latin countries such as Ecuador + Guatemala 2) Masculinity: Reflects the extent to which organizations focus on achievement and job performance as opposed to health and well-being of their employees. Low: Scandinavian countries High: Japan + Austria (the U.S. is in the upper third) 3) Power Distance: The tolerance that people have for status and power differences at different hierarchical levels of organizations and in society. Cultures with high power distance tend to have managers who demand obedience from subordinates. High: Latin countries like Guatemala + Panama Low: Australia + Israel (the U.S. is in the lower half) 4) Uncertainty Avoidance: Reflects level of comfort for situations that are uncomfortable. Predictability can be built in with high adherence to procedures and rules, thus in countries high on this dimension, organizations tend to be very rule-oriented. High: Greece + Portugal Low: Singapore + Jamaica (the U.S. is in the lower third)

What are Hofstede et al. (2001)'s four cultural dimensions? Define each and note countries that tend to be highest on each distal end.

Group cohesiveness: The sum of forces attracting group members and keeping the group together. For a group to be highly cohesive, most, if not all group members, must have strong motives to remain in the group. A meta-analysis suggests that cohesiveness is more likely to result in high than low performance (Mann & Lamb, 2003).

What is group cohesiveness? What has research shown about the outcomes of group cohesiveness?

Interventions for work groups: 1) Autonomous work team: A system whereby an entire product is assembled by an entire team of employees. The group is relied on to manage themselves, requiring far fewer supervisors. Autonomous work teams are best-suited to tasks that require a high level of interdependent effort in order to complete tasks. Findings: Research has shown that autonomous work teams can benefit organizations and employees. Job satisfaction is higher with autonomous work teams than more traditional approaches (Corderey et al., 1991). Job performance has been found to be the same or better in manufacturing organizations (Banker et al., 1996). 2) Quality Circles: Groups of employees who meet periodically to discuss problems and propose solutions relevant to their jobs. Findings: In theory, quality circles have advantages for both employees and organizations. They should allow individual employees to enjoy greater participation, and organizations improvement in production procedures. Too little research has been done on quality circles to draw any firm conclusions about their effects (van Fleet & Griffin, 1989). The few studies that have investigated quality circles have yielded mixed results (Bettenhausen, 1991). 3) The German Health Circle: An intervention in which groups discuss ways to improve health and well-being. Findings: Ost & Ducky (2004) identified 11 studies, with results that showed mostly positive effects of health circles. Not only did most studies show that many suggestions were implemented, but some found increases in both health and well-being as well. 4) Team Building: Any number of activities designed to enhance the functioning of work teams or groups. They may be either task-oriented (help team members improve how they accomplish their tasks) or interpersonal-oriented (concerned with how well team members interact). According to Fuller (1986), three factors characterize team-building efforts: (a) Team building is a planned activity. It consists of one or more exercises or experiences designed to accomplish some objective. (b) Team building is typically conducted or facilitated by a consultant or trainer who is an expert in the particular type of team building that is being done (c) Team building involves an existing work team. Findings: Studies have shown that team building can have positive effects on both teams and team members. Klein et al. (2009) showed that team building resulted in better team performance, better coordination among team members, enhanced team skills by members, and better attitudes about the team. Furthermore, interventions that were task-oriented had stronger effects than those that were interpersonal-oriented, although both had positive effects.

What are four types of interventions that can be done in work teams or groups?

Norms: Unwritten rules of behavior accepted by members of a work group. Norm violators are often informed, scolded, punished, and then ostracized from the group. Example study: Kotch & French (1948) conducted a classic study of a pajama factory with a piecerate system. In this factory, employees assembled pajamas and could work at their own pace. Groups, however, would adopt production norms that specified how much group members should produce. The researchers documented the output of a worker who began to exceed the 50 units-per-hour production norm of her work group. When pressured by other members of the group, she restricted her output to about 45 units-per hour. A short time later, the work group disbanded, and within a matter of days, her production rate had doubled.

What are group norms? What action is taken against norm violators? Provide an example research study.

1. Trait Approach 2. Leader-Behavior Approach: Ohio State Leadership Styles 3. Contingency Approaches: (a) Fieldler's Contingency Theory (b) Path-Goal Theory (c) Vroom-Yetton-Jago model 4. Other approaches (a) LMX Theory (b) Transformational Leadership

What are some different leadership approaches or theories?

INTERNAL: 1) Internal job postings (transfers, promotions) 2) Employee referrals Benefits: a) Less expensive than bringing in new employees b) May provide positive incentives for existing employees c) May require less training and socialization d) Are more likely to stay with an organization EXTERNAL: 1) Advertising (print + electronic media) 2) Walk-ins 3) Use of employment agencies / executive search firms 4) On-campus recruiting Benefits: a) Bring a fresh perspective to the organization b) May be necessary to increase skills of an organization's workforce not available internally

What are some examples of different forms of internal and external recruiting sources? What are the benefits of each?

Findings: 1) Van Eerde & Thierry (1996) conducted a meta-analysis of 77 studies testing Expectancy Theory predictions, examining correlations between the theory's components and outcomes such as performance, effort, intention, preference, and choice. The results of the study were mixed. (a) Many individual expectancy and instrumentality components were correlated with outcomes, but multiplying scores did not improve prediction. (b) Force scores relate to job performance as expected, but they were more predictive of effort. (c) A key finding is that correlations based on studies with within-subject designs had stronger correlations than studies with between-person designs. This supports that expectancy theory is superior for predicting a person's choice from different behaviors/courses of action, rather than predicting performance or effort between individuals in a large sample. 2) The theory has received indirect support from studies examining the impact of financial incentives (e.g., Jenkins et al., 1998; Lawler & Jenkins, 1992). How has it fared / what are its contributions? Expectancy Theory has been one of the dominant motivational theories in organizational psychology. There is strong support for its propositions in predicting how people will direct their efforts when faced with different behavioral choices.

What are some findings related to Expectancy Theory? How has it fared / what are its contributions?

Findings: 1) Judge et al. (2005) conducted a longitudinal study and found that high core self-evaluation was related to greater autonomous motivation for work goals, which then related to goal attainment and job satisfaction. 2) Greguras & Diefendorff (2009) found that all three needs (autonomy, relatedness, and competence) mediated relations between perceptions of person-environment fit and both affective org commitment and job performance. How has it fared / what are its contributions? SDT is just beginning to be applied to employee motivation within organizational psychology. More research is needed, but there is support thus far.

What are some findings related to Self-Determination Theory? How has it fared / what are its contributions?

ANTECEDENTS: 1) Dulebohn et al. (2012) conducted a meta-analysis and found that various employee characteristics (e.g. employee competence and positive affect, low negative affect), leader characteristics (providing contingent rewards, transformational leadership qualities), and relational characteristics (e.g., leader-member similarity, liking, trust) predicted positive LMX. OUTCOMES: 1) Researchers conducted a field experiment in which one group of supervisors was trained in LMX. The training was intended to help supervisors improve relations with subordinates. Supervisors met with each individual subordinate to discuss working issues and their working relationship. The subordinates of the trained supervisors subsequently had higher job performance + satisfaction than subordinates of a control group of untrained supervisors. (Graen et al., 1982) 2) Gerstner & Day's (1997) meta-analysis found that LMX was positively related to job performance, job satisfaction, org commitment, and negatively related to turnover and role stressors. However, correlations between leaders' and subordinates' reports of LMX quality was relatively small (r=0.30).

What are some findings supporting LMX principles (outcomes + experiments)? What are antecedents of LMX?

Surface acting leads to emotional dissonance, which is stressful and leads to negative effects (Zaff, 2002). Deep acting and surface acting are related oppositely to the emotional exhaustion component of burnout (Johnson & Spector, 2007). Yinkus et al. (2010) found that surface acting is related to low levels of life satisfaction. The negative effects of emotional labor are reduced when employees report having high levels of autonomy and control (Grandey et al., 2005)

What are some negative consequences of the different forms of emotional labor? What factor can reduce the harmful effects of surface acting?

Boundary Conditions of Goal-Setting: 1) Tunnel Vision: Because goals narrow one's focus, research has shown that they can be counterproductive in situations when an employee needs to alter a poorly designed task (Staw & Boettger, 1990) and lead to less spontaneous helping of coworkers (Wright et al., 1993) 2) Law of Diminishing Returns: As the number of goals increases, the probability of conflict between goals increases, as does the probability of not being able to keep track of them all (Gilliland & Landis, 1992) 3) Task Complexity: Research has shown that goal-setting is more effective for simple vs. complex tasks (Mone & Shalley, 1995). 5) Goal Orientation: People differ in their goal orientation, which can be learning/mastery orientation (enhance knowledge/skills), or performance orientation (achieving a certain level of performance) (Dweck, 1986). These can moderate many basic principles of goal-setting. 6) Regulatory Focus: People can differ in terms of having a promotion focus (seeking to minimize discrepancies between actual and ideal self) and prevention focus (seeking to minimize discrepancies between actual and ought self) (Higgins & Silberman, 1998). This impacts goal-setting and how goals are viewed. For example, promotion-focused individuals are eager to strive for goals and experience joy/sadness when they are attained/failed. Prevention-focused individuals are cautious during goal-striving and experience relaxation/nervousness when they are attained/failed (Brockner & Higgins, 2001). How has it fared / what are its contributions? Goal-setting theory has been one of the most useful motivational theories for I-O psychologists (Locke & Latham, 1990), and has been well-supported as indicated by meta-analysis (Klein et al., 1999).

What are some of the boundary conditions related to Goal-Setting Theory?. How has the theory fared / what are its contributions?

1) Job characteristics 2) Social information processing 3) Dispositions

What are the 3 broad categories of job satisfaction predictors?

Bass & Riggio (2006) argue that transformational leadership has 4 components: 1) Idealized Influence: Extent to which leaders encourage followers with their statements and model high standards of behavior 2) Inspirational Motivation: Provides a vision for followers 3) Intellectual Stimulation: Encouraging followers to question the status quo and think of better ways to do things 4) Individual Consideration: Paying attention to the development and well-being of followers

What are the 4 components of transformational leaders?

1) Collective vs. Individual 2) Formal vs. Informal 3) Sequential vs. Random 4) Fixed vs. Variable 5) Serial vs. Disjunctive 6) Investiture vs. Divestiture (Van Maanen & Schein, 1979)

What are the 6 dimensions of organizational socialization tactics?

1) History 2) Language 3) Politics 4) People 5) Organizational values + goals 6) Performance proficiency (Chao et al., 1994)

What are the 6 dimensions of organizational socialization?

1) Overt questioning 2) Indirect questioning 3) Testing limits 4) Disguised conversations 5) Observation 6) Surveillance 7) Questioning third parties

What are the 7 information-seeking tactics of Miller & Jablin's (1991) model of newcomer information seeking behaviors?

1. Rational persuasion: The person uses logical arguments and factual evidence to persuade you that a proposal or request is viable and likely to result in the attainment of task objectives. 2. Inspirational appeal: The person makes a request or proposal that arouses your enthusiasm by appealing to your values, ideals, or aspirations or by increasing your confidence that you can do it. 3. Consultation: The person seeks your participation in planning a strategy, activity, or change for which your support and assistance are desired, or the person is willing to modify the proposal to deal with your concerns and suggestions. 4. Ingratiation: The person seeks to get you in a good mood or to think favorably of him or her before asking you to do something. 5. Exchange: The person offers you an exchange of favors, indicates a willingness to reciprocate at a later time, or promises you a share of the benefits if you help to accomplish a task. 6. Personal appeal: The person appeals to your feelings of loyalty and friendship toward him or her before asking you to do something. 7. Coalition: The person seeks the aid of others to persuade you to do something or uses the support of others as a reason for you to agree also. 8. Legitimating: The person seeks to establish the legitimacy of a request by claiming the authority or right to make it or by verifying that it is consistent with organizational policies, rules, practices, or traditions. 9. Pressure: The person uses demands, threats, or persistent reminders to influence you to do what he or she wants.

What are the 9 common influence tactics used by leaders? (Yuki & Tracey, 1992)

TURNOVER: Turnover is negatively related to job satisfaction, -0.29 (Blough, 2007). The relationship is moderated by the job market, such that the relationship is stronger when there are more employment opportunities ABSENCE: The relationship between satisfaction and absence is typically quite small and inconsistent, meta-analytic p = -0.13 (Bowling & Hammond, 2008). One possible reason for this small relation is that a person can be absent for many reasons (Kohler & Matthew, 1993). HEALTH/WELL-BEING: Dissatisfied employees report more physical symptoms (e.g., sleep problems, upset stomach), p = -0.22. Satisfaction is also negatively correlated with negative emotions at work, including anxiety and depression. (Bowling & Hammond, 2008) LIFE SATISFACTION: Life and job satisfaction are positively correlated, p = 0.41 (Bowling & Hammond, 2008). Spillover (+ relationship), compensation (- relationship), and compartmentalization (no relationship) have been hypothesized as possible relationships between the two variables. Empirically, the spillover hypothesis is the only one supported by research (Rain et al., 1991).

What are the associations of job satisfaction with: (a) Turnover (b) Absence (c) Health & Well-Being (d) Life satisfaction

Group Polarization: The deviation of the group mean, or that the group is more extreme (closer to one pole or another) than the mean of the individuals. Specifically, in groups, the majority position typically holds more weight than the minority position, and the shift of the group is towards the majority view (Lamb & Myers, 1978). For example, if the majority of members make a risky choice, the group decision will likely be riskier than the mean of the individuals.

What is group polarization? Provide an example.

The four dimensions of political skill (Ferris et al., 2005): 1) Social astuteness: The ability to understand people in social situations 2) Interpersonal influence: The skill of convincing other people to engage in the behaviors desired or to accept a position 3) Networking ability: Developing relationships with a wide range of individuals and managing those relationships to achieve objectives 4) Apparent sincerity: The skill of appearing to be, or really being, open, honest, and trustworthy.

What are the four dimensions of political skill?

1) Needs-Based Theories: Generally, need-based theories fare the worst. 2) Job-Based Theories: Job-based theories fare considerably well in terms of practical value. Managers can relate to job content and tend to have some control over it. 3) Cognitive Theories: Cognitive process theories have considerable practical value, although it varies for each theory. Expectancy theory is important in helping managers design reward systems and diagnose performance problems. Goal-setting theory is useful and can be applied extensively in organizations. However, Equity theory has less practical value because managers may have a difficult time altering employee perceptions of inputs and outcomes. 4) Behavioral Theories: Behavioral approaches can be useful to managers and are relatively easy to grasp. Locke & Latham (2004) have recommended that the different motivation theories be somehow integrated into a comprehensive model to yield novel recommendations for managers.

What are the implications and practical value of the various motivation theories? What is one future research direction in this regard?

1) Anticipatory socialization: Processes that occur before an individual joins an organization, such as secondhand info gathered during recruitment, or via internships or RJPs 2) Encounter: Represents the point at which the newcomer begins to see the job and organization as they really are 3) Change and Acquisition: Newcomer has become fairly comfortable with their new role and organizational culture and is "firing on all cylinders" 4) Behavioral + Affective Outcomes of Socialization (a) Behavioral: Extent to which employees are capable of carrying out their role-related assignments (b) Behavioral: Extent to which an employee is spontaneously innovative and cooperative (c) Behavioral: Turnover - May be failure of socialization (d) Affective: Attitudes toward work, level of motivation, job embeddedness (Feldman, 1976)

What are the steps of the Stage Model of Organizational Socialization?

Diversity, or differences among people, can be divided into two types: Cognitive and demographic (van der Vegt & Janssen, 2003). (a) Cognitive: Concerned with differences in knowledge, skills, and values (b) Demographic: Concerned with more visible attributes of people, such as age, gender, and race/ethnicity. An important issue is how diversity within work groups affects performance and member reactions. 1) Cognitive diversity is likely to be beneficial for team innovation, while demographic diversity is not (Manox & Neil, 2005). 2) Demographic diversity is helpful when there is a need to get the perspectives of a diverse population of potential customers and clients in marketing situations (Jackson & Joshi, 2004). 3) Diversity can have negative effects when people have no stake in getting along with one another because their jobs are independent and their goals are not linked. However, when there is a necessity to work well with others, not only does the negative effect of diversity disappear, but there can be significant advantages in performance and satisfaction.

What are the types of diversity in work groups? What are some research findings regarding advantages and disadvantages of each type for teams?

!) Although tactics are each described as discreet forms of socialization, in reality they represent opposite ends of a continuum 2) The model largely depicts socialization as a largely one-way process. In reality, newcomers have an impact on established members and the overall culture of the organization.

What are two disadvantages of Van Maanen & Schein's (1979) model of organizational socialization tactics?

Mathieu & Day (1997) examined the interactions between teams within a nuclear plans and identified 5 important processes occurring between teams and varying across teams: 1) Formalization: The extent to which there are rules, procedures, and standard methods for team members to coordinate their activities 2) Coordination: The sequencing and spacing of activities between departments to accomplish a common goal. 3) Cooperation: Extent to which employees from different departments maintain a positive interpersonal relationship. 4) Goal priority: Extent to which employees from different departments agree about the priority of organizational goals. 5) Interdependence: Refers to the extent to which the actions of one department affect the operations of another department. More recently, Faraj & Yan (2009) highlighted the importance of how teams embedded within organizations manage the boundaries they share with other teams. Key concepts include: 1) Boundary spanning: Teams reaching out to other teams for resources and guidance 2) Boundary buffering: Teams preventing other teams from undue influence on their core functions 3) Boundary reinforcement: Teams engaging in behaviors that clearly define who they are and how they are separate from other teams in the organization. The authors found that effectively managing boundaries through all 3 actions predicted better performance and sense of psychological safety.

What are two models of between-team processes?

Virtual Teams: Communicate via email, instant messaging, telephone, web cameras, and other technologies. However, virtuality is not an all-or-none phenomena, and teams very in their use of these virtual tools (Kirkman & Matthew, 2005). Research Findings: (a) A meta-analysis of approximately 50 studies compared face-to-face with virtual groups and showed that virtual groups have worse task performance, take more time to complete tasks, and have lower group member satisfaction (Baltes et al., 2002) (b) The use of richer media, for example using video + voice, results in better performance than just text alone (Martins et al., 2004)

What are virtual teams? What has research shown in regards to how they compare with face-to-face groups? What can be done to improve the use of virtual teams?

Leadership: Involves influencing the attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and feelings of other people.

What do leadership definitions typically have in common (i.e., what is leadership, simply defined)?

SIP Theory (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978) proposed two primary mechanisms by which employees develop feelings of satisfaction with their job: 1) Employees look at their behaviors retrospectively and form attitudes about job satisfaction in order to make sense of it (e.g., "I've been in this job for 20 years so I must like it.") 2) Employees develop attitudes such as job sat. by processing information from the social environment (e.g., hearing about colleagues disliking their job makes you dislike your job)

What does Social Information Processing Theory hypothesize about the antecedents of job satisfaction?

The concept of role implies that not everyone in the team has the same function or purpose. Different people have different jobs or responsibilities in the group or team. (a) Formal roles: Specified by the organization and are a part of the job description (e.g., in a surgical team, each person's job title like surgeon, nurse, and anesthesiologist, defines the role in a formal way). (b) Informal roles: Arise from group interaction, rather than from the formal roles and specifications of organizations (e.g., the role of the individual in the group who puts together cards for members' special occasions).

What does a "role" mean within a team? Differentiate between formal and informal roles.

A meta-analysis of over 65 studies found that both on-the-job and off-the-job embeddedness were both uniquely associated with greater turnover intentions and actual turnover. This research suggests that is worthwhile to distinguish the two in predicting important outcomes. (Jiang et al., 2012)

What does research suggest about the relationship between the two dimensions of job embededdedness?

Meta-analytic: Fried & Ferris (1987) have found that each of the 5 characteristics are related to job satisfaction, with meta-analytic coefficients ranging from 0.20 (task identity) to .45 (overall job scope). The characteristics were also associated with motivation, absenteeism, and turnover. However, it's important to note that very few studies have tested the model as a whole. Method-varied: However, not all methods of assessing the job characteristics have supported their association with job satisfaction. Spector & Jex (1991) used both questionnaires and job analysis techniques to assess job characteristics in a sample of employees across a range of jobs. While the questionnaire measures of characteristics correlated with job sat, the job analysis measures did not. Quasi-experimental: Quasi-experimental field studies where job characteristics are modified have provided some support for the short-term effects for job satisfaction. Holman et al. (2001) found that job satisfaction increased over 9 months for those who had their core job characteristics increased. However, longer-term studies have shown that quasi-experiments increasing job characteristics resulted in increased job satisfaction initially, but it had returned to its initial level by a 2-year follow up (Griffin, 1991). These results suggest that once people adjust to the improvement in their task characteristics, satisfaction returns to a baseline.

What has (a) meta-analytic, (b) method-varied, and (c) quasi-experimental research found regarding the support for Job Characteristics Theory (Hackman & Oldham, 1976)

The majority of Americans like their jobs (SHRM, 2009). Americans are typically very satisfied with their coworkers, supervisors, and the nature of their work. They tend to be less satisfied with rewards such as pay, promotion opportunities, and fringe benefits. Spector et al. (2001) compared job satisfaction among managers in 24 countries across the globe. They found that Americans ranked 6th, while Asian countries (e.g., China, Japan) tended to be lower.

What has research found about the job satisfaction of Americans? What facets have higher mean satisfaction, and what facets have lower mean satisfaction? Additionally, how do Americans compare to other countries in their satisfaction?

Leader Performance: (a) Research has shown that traits such as cognitive ability predict performance (Hogan et al., 1994), where the criterion is job performance. (b) Judge et al.'s (2002) meta found that all Big 5 traits were positively related to leadership performance (p=0.20s for all except conscientiousness, p=0.16) Leader Emergence: (a) Judge et al. (2002) conducted a meta-analysis and found that those rated as leader-like were high on the Big 5 traits of extraversion, emotional stability, openness, and conscientiousness (p=0.24-0.33).

What has research found as trait-based predictors of leadership performance and leader emergence?

Some research shows that customers can distinguish between employees either deep or surface acting. Deep acting results in more positive perceptions of the service encounter, thus only deep acting can achieve the goals of the organization by providing positive customer experiences (Groff et al., 2009).

What has research found in the customer effects of different forms of emotional labor?

Outcomes: 1) Judge & Piccolo (2004) conducted a meta-analysis of 87 studies and found that transformational leadership was positively related to job performance, job satisfaction, OCBs, organizational commitment, and perceptions of justice. Transformational vs. Transactional: 1) Judge & Piccolo's (2004) meta also found a correlation of 0.80 between transformational and transactional leadership. 2) Wang et al. (2011) found that transformational leadership predicted OCBs and group performance above and beyond transactional performance, but transactional leadership predicted task performance above and beyond transformational leadership. Experiments: 1) Towler (2003) conducted a lab experiment with business students, randomly assigning each person to either transformational or control training. The students delivered a speech to a supposed group of employees. The transformational group was rated as being higher in transformational leadership than controls. 2) Barling et al (1996) were able to successfully train bank managers to be more transformational and showed that the training had a positive impact on the financial performance of those branches. Mediators of transformational leadership --> performance: 1) Perceived job characteristics (task variety, task significance, autonomy) (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006) 2) LMX (Wang et al., 2005) 3) Team potency (Gully et al., 2002)

What has research found regarding (a) outcomes of transformational leadership, (b) transformational vs. transactional leadership, (c) experiments, and (d) potential mediators

People from collectivist countries tend to be more satisfied with coworkers than those from individualist countries (Hui et al., 1995) People who are tolerant of large power distances are less satisfied with their jobs than those with low power distances (Huang & Van de Vliert, 2003)

What has research found regarding differences in job satisfaction by Hofstede's (2001) four cultural dimensions?

The fairness with which pay is distributed, or equity, is more important determinant of pay satisfaction than the actual level of pay itself. (Williams et al., 2006). Distributive (r=0.6) and procedural (r=0.45) justice are strongly correlated with pay satisfaction (Cohen et al., 2001). Distributive justice is the extent to which people perceive the allotment of rewards at work to be fair. Procedural justice is the extent to which people perceive that the process by which rewards are allotted to be fair. Job satisfaction and facet satisfaction of pay, supervision, and nature of work correlate significantly with both forms of justice. Pay satisfaction is more strongly related to distributive than procedural justice. Supervision is more strongly related to procedural rather than distributive justice.

What has research found regarding fairness of pay and pay distribution with job/pay satisfaction?

Positive mood is associated with (a) higher creativity, (b) greater job satisfaction, (c) less turnover, and (d) more OCBs, and (e) greater overall performance Negative mood is associated with (a) lower job satisfaction, (b) more absence and turnover, and (c) more CWB (Ashkenazi et al., 2002) Fuller et al. (2003) asked 14 employees to complete measures on over 1000 occasions of stressful job events, mood, and job satisfaction. Results showed that stressful events led to more negative moods, and more positive moods were associated with greater job satisfaction.

What has research found regarding job attitudes and outcomes associated with positive and negative mood at work?

Abilities & Skills (a) Ability: One of the most robust findings is that teams staffed with more highly skills members are more effective (Guzzo & Shea, 1992). Meta-analysis has found that the relationship between cognitive ability and team performance is strongest when teams are performing an unfamiliar task (Devine & Phillips, 2000). (b) Skill Heterogeneity: Diversity of team skills is positively related to team performance (Guzzo & Shea, 1992). Personality (a) Personality: The most reliable personality predictor of team performance is conscientiousness (Barrick & Mount), and meta-analysis shows that team agreeableness and conscientiousness are both related to superior team performance (Peeters et al., 2006). Barrick et al. (1998) found that teams with at least one member low on emotional stability reported lower levels of social cohesion, flexibility, communication, and workload sharing and higher levels of conflict - however, it did not impact performance. Furthermore, an effective team member has effective team member has good social skills (Morgesson et al., 2005), in order to communicate with and influence others. (b) Personality Heterogeneity: Meta-analysis shows that variability among team members in conscientiousness and agreeableness, holding absolute levels constant, is negatively related to team performance (Peeters et al., 2006). Attitudes (a) Preference for teamwork: Campion et al. (2003) found that where the average level of preference for teamwork was low, teams performed lower on several performance criteria. (b) Values: Jackson et al. (2006) showed that individuals who were collectivistic, as opposed to individualistic, performed better in teams. (b) Attitude Heterogeneity: Teams are more likely to function effectively when there is at least a moderate level of similarity in their attitudes towards important issues such as effectiveness of the team leader or supportiveness of the organization (Bliese & Britt, 2001). However, agreement cannot be too high or it will result in groupthink (Janis, 1982).

What has research found regarding the effect of 3 factors of team composition on team effectiveness?

Rewards are an important determinant of team performance, and there are many considerations to the development and implementation of teams-based rewards systems: 1) Extent of task interdependence: Work must be truly interdependent to reward teams rather than individuals (Wageman & Baker, 1997) 2) Interplay of team- and individual-level rewards: Behaviors rewarded in each level of reward systems cannot undermine one another 3) Control over performance: It is counterproductive and unfair to hold teams to high standards when they are limited by organizational resource constraints (Shea & Guzzo, 1987) 4) Attitudes towards team-based rewards: Haines & Taggar (2006) found that individuals who performed well as individuals were less inclined to want team-based reward systems, while belief in the value of teamwork was positively related to wanting teams-based rewards.

What has research found regarding the effect of 4 considerations for rewards on team effectiveness?

1) Team training/consultation: Team members need training and assistance in learning how to work cooperatively with others, how to coordinate their efforts with other team members, and how to resolve task-related disputes (Driskell et al., 2001). 2) Meeting time/space 3) Leadership Quality: DeChurch & Marks (2006) found that quality of leader coordination and strategizing is positively related to team performance in an F-22 battle simulation. 4) Management Support: Research has found that perceived management support is related to team processes (sharing information, consideration of opinions, and consideration) which were then associated with team potency.

What has research found regarding the effect of 4 factors of organizational resources on team effectiveness?

1) Task appropriateness: Task design is important because it speaks to the issue of whether the task a team is performing is appropriate for teams. 2) Motivational impact: Individual's motivation can be increased by redesigning jobs to enhance job characteristics (Hackman & Oldham, 1980), and this same logic applies to teams. 3) Strategy appropriateness: Research has shown that teams tend not to allocate much of their time towards discussion of task-related strategies, however they tend to be more effectiveness when they do, particularly for complex tasks (Hackman & Morris, 1975; Hackman et al., 1976). 4) Stress of task: Drach-Zahavy & Freund (2007) found that among primary care teams, teams performed better with complex tasks when they were laid out in a straightforward, mechanistic manner; however, the teams performed better with workload-heavy tasks when they had more choice of how to structure their team activities

What has research found regarding the effect of 4 factors of task design on team effectiveness?

1) General Goal-Setting: Meta-analysis in the team goal-setting literature finds strong support for the impact of goals on team performance (O'Leary et al., 1994) 2) Interplay between individual and team goals: Organizations must be cognizant of the overall goal system when setting objectives for teams, because research has shown that team-level goals are much more effective when individuals either do not have goals or their goals are compatible with team goals (Mitchell & Silver, 1990) 3) Team Goal Mechanisms: There is evidence that the processes responsible for team goal-setting effects are quite different from those at the individual level. For example, Whitney (1994) found that teams that were assigned difficult goals reported higher levels of collective efficacy. which then leads to higher performance. 4) Difficult Goals: Difficult goals enhance members' attraction to the team, or team cohesion (Whitney, 1994), or in other words "draws members together". Other research has shown that team goal commitment is positively related to team effectiveness (Aube & Rousseau, 2005).

What has research found regarding the effect of 4 factors of team goals on team effectiveness?

Several studies have attempted to find out what subordinate reports of their supervisor really mean. In one study, all subjects watching the same videotape of a supervisor's behaviors were split into groups and told that the supervisor was rated either high or low on performance. Subjects rated the supervisor differently by group, despite watching the same supervisor behaviors. (Lord et al., 1978)

What has research found regarding the meaning of subordinate reports of supervisor behavior?

Expert, referent, and reward power are associated with good relationships between college professors and their students, while coercive power is associated with poor relationships (Aguines et al., 1996) French & Raven (1959)

What has research found regarding which bases of power are better than others?

Negative Affect: Connelly and Viswesveran (2000) conducted a meta-analysis of 27 studies and found a relationship between negative affect and job satisfaction of -0.30. Locus of Control: Meta-analysis shows that those with high locus of control ("internals") have been found to be more satisfied with their jobs (Ng et al., 2006)

What personality characteristics have been found to be the strongest predictors of job satisfaction?

1) Brasher & Chen (1999) surveyed recent college graduates and found their level of starting pay related more strongly to pay satisfaction (r=0.36) than global satisfaction (r=0.17). 2) Spector (1985) found only a mean correlation of only 0.17 between salary level and pay satisfaction, across 3 samples in which employees held varied jobs. 3) Rice et al. (1990) found a much larger correlation of 0.5 between pay and job satisfaction in a sample of mental health professionals. Pay satisfaction is affected by how individual's salary compares to others who have the same job, rather than those in general.

What have 3 different studies found regarding associations of pay with pay satisfaction?

1) Bowling et al. (2006) explored the stability of satisfaction by studying those who changed employers. They found that job satisfaction was correlated over a 5-year period, indicating that job satisfaction is influenced by personal characteristics. 2) Dorman & Zaff (2001) conducted a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies, showing that job satisfaction is far more stable over time when people stay in the same job (r=0.4) versus when they change jobs (r=0.2). Thus, while personality characteristics contribute to job satisfaction, so do job conditions. 3) Staw et al. (1986) studied people's job satisfaction over the span of decades. They found that personality assessed in adolescence predicted job satisfaction up to 50 years later.

What have 3 longitudinal studies found to support the stability (contribution of personality characteristics) to job satisfaction?

Gender: Meta-analytic studies have failed to find gender differences of global job satisfaction (Witt & Nye, 1992). Age: Many studies have shown that older workers are more satisfied with their jobs than younger workers (Su et al., 1999). Birdie et al. (1995) found a curvilinear relationship between age and job satisfaction, where job satisfaction declined until it reached its lowest level at age 26-31, then increased through the rest of the working career. Job Tenure: It's been shown that job satisfaction is high at the time of hiring, and then declines after an initial "honeymoon period" (Boswell et al., 2009). Thus, age may be confounded with job tenure in predicting job satisfaction. Race: Some studies have found that Black people have slightly lower satisfaction (Greenhaus et al., 1990), however other studies have found that when controlling for factors such as age, education, and type of work, there were no differences among race (Summers & Birnbaum, 2001).

What have studies found regarding (a) gender, (b) age, (c) job tenure, and (d) race differences in job satisfaction?

In studying the interaction between organizational tactics and newcomer information-seeking methods, studies suggest that organizational tactics may not be needed when newcomers are highly proactive about seeking information and feedback, and when they develop strong working relationships with supervisors (e.g. Gruman et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2005). A meta-analysis of both tactics (Bauer et al., 2007) found that both tactics were positively related to proximal and distal outcomes.

What have studies found that take an interactionist perspective to studying organizational socialization?

Fieldler's (1978) Contingency Theory: Primary idea is that leadership is a function of both the person and the situation. One characteristic of the leader (motivational structure) and 3 characteristics of the situation (situational control) determine leadership effectiveness. Fieldler's theory postulates that leaders who are low in LPC (task-oriented) are most successful in either highly favorably or highly unfavorable leader situations. When situations are moderately favorable, leaders who are high in LPC (relationship-oriented) are most effective.

What is Fieldler's Contingency Theory? What does it postulate about the

Basic premise: Teams might go through periods of relative inertia versus rapid change depending on team members' awareness of time and deadlines. Team members may spend a good portion of initial time "spinning its wheels" in an attempt to define the task, decide how to approach the task, and possibly deal with internal conflicts. However, once the halfway point is reached, the model predicts that team members will recognize that their time is limited and a great deal of progress will be made in a short period of time. Support: The model has received support using a variety of methodological approaches (e.g., Gersick, 1989; Hackman, 1992). Implications: 1) Managers should be patient with teams when they are beginning to work on a task 2) It is desirable for members of task-performing teams to be aware of deadlines.

What is Gersick's Punctuated Equilibrium Model? What has research found regarding its support? What are its 2 primary implications for team leaders?

LMX Theory: Focuses on the subordinate-supervisor dyad, rather than on the supervisor and workgroup (Dansereau et al., 1975). They propose that supervisors treat individual subordinates differently, and that there are two sets of subordinates in a workgroup: 1) In-group: Consists of subordinates who are trusted and influential members of the work group. The supervisor typically adopts a participative work style with them. 2) Out-group: Subordinates who have more formal relationship with the leader. They are typically supervised with a directive style and are given little input into decisions.

What is LMX Theory (Vertical Dyad Linkage Model)?

Sexual harassment: Behavior of a sexual nature that is unwanted, can aversely affect the person's employment, interferes with job performance, and creates a hostile/intimidating work environment. Illies et al. (2003) conducted a meta-analysis of over 50 studies and found that 58% of women reported experiencing these types of behaviors at work. However, fewer than half felt that they were actually harassed. This may be because harassment is in the "eye of the beholder," and the decision that one makes about the intent and motives of the other person, including norms.

What is a common form of power abuse at work? What is its prevalence, both definitionally and self-reported?

Work group: Collection of two or more people who interact with one another and share some interrelated task goals. Work team: A group who cannot do their jobs, at least not effectively, without the other members of their team. Type of work group that has 3 specific properties (West et al., 1998): (a) The actions of individuals must be interdependent and coordinated (b) Each member has a particular specified role (c) There are common task goals and objectives.

What is a work group? What is a work team, and how is it distinguished from a work group?

Emotional labor: The required expression of certain emotions at work, recognizing that it can take effort for employees to maintain the appearance of positive feelings. (Gloom & Toos, 2004) Deep acting: Form of emotional labor in which the individual feels the emotion that he/she is trying to display. Surface acting: The person fakes feeling good while hiding his/her real feelings.

What is emotional labor? Distinguish between deep acting and surface acting.

Groupthink is a phenomena that can occur when groups make decisions that individual members know are poor ones (Janis, 1972). According to Janis (1972), groupthink is likely to occur when (a) there are highly cohesive groups (b) with strong leaders, (c) an isolated group, and (d) where the social pressure is to maintain harmony and conformity. in the group take precedence over sound decision-making. Of these factors, group cohesiveness may not be necessary (Aldag & Fuller, 1993). Janis (1972) offered several suggestions for avoiding groupthink. 1) Group leaders should serve as impartial moderators in group meeting rather than attempting to control the decision alternatives that are recommended. 2) Group members at every stage of the decision-making process should critically evaluate decision alternatives and continually seek new information that could confirm or refute the decision. 3) In order to maintain a critical and objective frame of mind, groups should periodically break into smaller subgroups to discuss critical issues. 4) Members of the decision-making groups should discuss decisions with subordinates.

What is groupthink? When is it likely to occur? What are some suggestions for avoiding groupthink?

Innovation is the introduction of new ideas, procedures, or products into a team (De Dreu, 2006). Teams that take time to critically discuss how they do things and try to make them better are the best innovators (Somech, 2006). A moderate level of conflict is optimal in facilitating innovation in teams (De Dreu, 2006), especially when the conflict is cooperative.

What is innovation? What factors can improve innovation in work groups?

Job embeddedness occurs when employees (a) experience a high level of fit between themselves and their job, org, and community, (b) when they have established links between other people in the org and community, and (c) when they would sacrifice a lot in financial/emotional costs if they were to leave their org or community. "On-the-job": Focused on the organization "Off-the-job": Focused on the community

What is job embeddedness? What are the two components?

Job Satisfaction: An attitudinal variable reflecting how people feel about their jobs overall, as well as various aspects of their job. Global Approach: Single, overall feeling towards the job Facet Approach: Feelings about aspects of the job such as rewards, other people on the job, job conditions, and the nature of the work itself. Provides a more complete picture

What is job satisfaction? What are two approaches to thinking about job satisfaction?

Occupational Commitment: Commitment to one's occupation or profession, rather than the particular organization (Meyer et al., 1993). Some research shows that occupational commitment in samples of engineers and scientists is positively related to job performance, while organizational commitment does not (Keller, 1997)

What is occupational commitment? How does it differ in its nomological network from organizational commitment.

Organizational Commitment: A person's identification with, and involvement in, their organization (Meyer & Allen, 1991) 1) Affective commitment: An employee wishes to remain with an organization because of his/her emotional attachment 2) Continuance commitment: A person must remain with an organization because he/she needs the benefits/salary or cannot find another job. 3) Normative commitment: Comes from an employee's values that they must remain with the organization because it's the right thing to do Research has supported the idea that the 3 forms of commitment are separate variables (Dunham et al., 1994)

What is organizational commitment? What are its 3 dimensions?

Organizational Identification: The degree of oneness an employee feels toward an organization (Ashforth & Mael, 1989)

What is organizational identification?

Organizational justice: People's perceptions of fairness in organizations along with their associated behavioral, cognitive, and emotional reactions (Greenberg, 2011). Distributive: Perception that rewards and benefits are distributed to employees fairly. Procedural: The perceived fairness of the manner in which outcomes are determined. Interactional: Concerns the way in which outcomes and procedures are explained to employees and how employees are treated when outcomes are distributed.

What is organizational justice? What are the 3 forms?

Path-Goal Theory (House & Mitchell, 1974) is a type of contingency theory that is more complex than Fieldler's. The basic idea, based on expectancy theory, is that the supervisor can enhance the motivation and job satisfaction of subordinates via four different leadership styles. The efficacy of each is determined by subordinate and situational characteristics. (a) Directive Leadership: Similar to the OSU style of initiating structure. It involves structuring job tasks for subordinates and letting them know what is expected. (b) Supportive Leadership: Similar to the OSU style of consideration. It involves showing concern for the needs and welfare of subordinates. (c) Achievement-Oriented Leadership: Emphasizing achievement and job performance via setting challenging task goals and providing high performance standards. (d) Participative Leadership: Involves seeking input from subordinates and allowing them to participate in decision-making.

What is path-goal theory?

POS: Employee beliefs concerning the extent to which organizations value their contributions and care about their well-being (Eisenberger et al., 1986)

What is perceived organizational support?

Political skill: The extent to which a person is able to influence others to engage in behavior that is beneficial to that person or the organization (Zellers et al., 2008) Political skill in leaders results in leadership effectiveness, including perceptions of greater LMX, transformational leadership (Ferris et al., 2005)

What is political skill? Why does it matter?

Power: The extent to which one person can influence another to do something. French and Raven's (1959) Bases of Power: 1) Expert Power: Based on the knowledge and expertise that the subordinate perceives the supervisor has (e.g., derived from a title like PhD) 2) Referent Power: Extent to which the subordinate likes and identifies with the supervisor. 3) Legitimate Power: Power inherent to a supervisor's job title. Derived from the subordinate's belief that the supervisor has the right or authority to be in charge. 4) Reward Power: The ability of the supervisor to reward subordinates with meaningful rewards such as desirable job assignments, bonuses and raises 5) Coercive Power: The ability of the supervisor to punish subordinates with disciplinary actions, fines, firing, and salary reductions.

What is power? What are the 5 bases of power?

Team Commitment: The strength of an individual's involvement in a team, and consists of (a) acceptance of team goals, (b) willingness to work hard for the team, and (c) desire to remain in the team (Bishop & Scott, 2000) Findings: (a) Bishop & Scott (2000) found that work team performance is postiviely related to team commitment. Team commitment is positively related to supervisor and coworker satisfaction and organizational commitment. (b) There is a positive correlation between team commitment and general job satisfaction and team satisfaction (van der Vegt et al., 2000).

What is team commitment? What are some research findings on correlates of team commitment?

Vroom-Yetton(-Jago) is a prescriptive model that indicates the supervisory approach that is expected to be most effective in decision-making scenario. This is only designed for decision-making. Specifies 5 approach to making a decision ranging from autocratic to democratic. 1) The supervisor makes the decision alone 2) The supervisor gets information from subordinates and makes the decision alone. 3) The supervisor discusses the problem with some subordinates and then makes the decision. 4) The supervisor discusses the problem with all subordinates in a meeting and then makes the decision. 5) The supervisor presents the problem to all subordinates in a meeting and then allows them to decide. Situational Factors (of the problem and the subordinates) 1) The quality requirements of the result/decision. 2) The sufficiency of the information the supervisor has 3) The problem structure 4) The necessity for subordinates to accept the decision 5) The likelihood that subordinates will accept the decision if made by the supervisor alone 6) Subordinate commitment to solving the problem 7) Subordinate conflict over solutions 8) Whether subordinates have relevant info to make decision on their own

What is the Vroom-Yetton(-Jago) model of leadership? What are the 5 supervisory approaches? What are the 8 situational factors to consider?

Leader-Behavior Approach: Concerned with what leaders do rather than what their personal characteristics might be. Most approaches have focused on leadership styles. Leadership styles are cluster of related behaviors representing an approach to dealing with subordinates.

What is the leader-behavior approach, and what has been the focus of most of these approaches?

The most widely used is the Leader-Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) and is completed by subordinates about their supervisor. Fleishman & Harris (1962) found that the mean LBDQ of supervisors are related to the number of grievance complaints and turnover in their department. Supervisors scoring lowest on consideration had a turnover rate almost 4x higher than the supervisors with the highest score on the LBDQ.

What is the most widely used scale measuring the Ohio State Leadership Study dimensions? What are some findings regarding supervisors using this scale?

Trait Approach: Concerned with determining the personal characteristics of good leaders.

What is the oldest approach to studying leadership?

Team mental model: Shared understanding among team members of the task, team, equipment, and situation (Mohammed & Dumville, 2001). Smith-Gents et al. (2005) explained that team mental models are complex and can be divided into two types: task + team (a) Taskwork mental model: Concerns the nature of the job that needs to be done (b) Teamwork mental model: The shared conception of the team and how its members are to work together. Findings: (a) The quality of the team mental model is related to team performance, with both accuracy and similarity of mental models among team members leading to better performance (DeChurch et al., 2010)

What is the team mental model? What are some research findings on outcomes of team mental models?

A meta-analysis of about 300 studies found that there was an modest correlation of 0.19 between global job satisfaction and job performance (Judge et al., 2001). The correlation between the individual facets of job satisfaction and job performance may be higher, ranging from 0.05 (pay satisfaction) to 0.2 (intrinsic work satisfaction) (Iaffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985). Two explanations: Satisfaction --> Effort --> Performance Performance --> Rewards --> Satisfaction (most likely to be reciprocal)

What is the typical relationship between both global and facet job satisfaction with job performance? What are two hypothesized ways that they might be associated with one another?

Transformational Leadership: Deals with leaders who have considerable and unusual influence over their followers (i.e., are charismatic). Leads by inspiring others to adopt high goals and strive to achieve them. He/she articulates a vision for followers and encourages them to pursue it. While it addresses the traits necessary for good leadership, it goes beyond trait approaches by attempting to determine how leaders affect their followers.

What is transformational leadership? How does it extend beyond trait approaches?

Women have made considerable strides in achieving management and supervisory positions, but remain underrepresented in higher-level management positions in the U.S. Many explanations have been put forth for the "glass ceiling" phenomenon reflecting women's inability to get beyond the lower levels of management: 1) Differences between men and women in their career preparation and attitudes (a) A Dutch study conducted in 2002 suggested that women are less ambitious, care less about salary and status, and were more concerned with WFC relative to men. While these findings might explain why fewer women seek promotions or management, but it does not explain why those who wish to achieve higher levels have more difficulty doing so. 2) Bias against women as managers, specifically bias and stereotypes of women by those who make decisions about hiring. (a) Research by Sheen et al. (1996) demonstrated how subtle stereotypes of men and women put women at a disadvantage. Participants were asked to describe men, women, and managers. The descriptions of men and managers overlapped, but did not for women and managers. (b) In laboratory and field studies, men have been found to be more autocratic, while women are more democratic in their styles. (c) Bass et al. (1996) found across 3 samples that women had either the same or higher means than men on transformational leadership.

What issues remain in women's advancement in management positions? What are some explanations put forth for this phenomenon, and empirical findings for each?

Women and older workers are more likely to engage in deep acting than men and younger workers (Johnson & Spector, 2007; Dahling & Perez, 2010). The effects of surface acting are more severe for women than for men (Johnson & Spector, 2007) and for introverts than extraverts (Judge et al., 2009).

What personal characteristics distinguish engaging in deep acting vs. surface acting? Furthermore, who is more affected by emotional labor?

For the most part, studies support the recommendations of the theory. Research has shown that the quality of decisions made with the theory (62%) are higher than those made without it (37%) (Vroom & Jago, 1988). While initial findings are promising, too few field studies have been conducted and too many reliant on retrospective descriptions by managers to conclude that following the model leads to better qualify decisions. More recent studies that have not relied on retrospective reports (e.g., Field & House, 1990; Parker, 1999) have provided more limited support for the theory.

What support is there for the Vroom-Yetton(-Jago) model of leadership?

One of the major contributions of the Ohio State Leadership Studies was the idea of developing questionnaires to assess leadership styles.

What was the major contribution of the Ohio State Leadership Studies?

The idea that job satisfaction might be influenced by personal characteristics can be traced back to the Hawthorne studies. These researchers noticed that a group of employees, who they called "chronic kickers," were continually complaining about the job (Roethlisberger, 1941).

What was the origination of the idea that job satisfaction might be influenced by personal characteristics?

1) Motivation is key to understanding many forms of behavior in organizations, including the dynamics underlying behaviors such as job performance, absenteeism, turnover, and CWBs. 2) Understanding the dynamics underlying various forms of behavior enhances our ability to predict these behaviors (e.g., for selection) 3) Understanding motivation can help organizations take steps to encourage productive work behaviors and discourage CWBs.

Why is the study of employee motivation so important in organizational psychology?