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interview characteristics

- goal-driven - question-answer - structured - controlled - unbalanced.

Define credibility

Credibility involves establishing that the results of qualitative research are credible or believable from the perspective of the participant in the research (internal validity).

Ethical considerations

DR VICDR: Deception, Right to withdraw, Voluntary Participation, Informed consent, Confidentiality (anonymity), Debrief, Risk to participants

experiments research method

The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if this causes changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled research methods and random assignment of study subjects to test a hypothesis.

Informed Consent

An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough information about the study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Define back translation. Why would an interviewer use this technique?

Back translation is the process of translating a document already translated into another language back to the original language it was written in. Interviewers use this technique to check the accuracy of the translation that is made.

Debreifing

an essential part of the informed consent process and is mandatory when the research study involves use of deception. This provides participants with a full explanation of the hypothesis being tested, procedures to deceive participants and the reason(s) why it was necessary to deceive them.

Non probability sampling

Purposive sampling, Opportunity/convenience sampling, Volunteer sampling, Snowball sampling (POVS)

Case studies use an idiographic approach. Explain what is meant by this term.

Idiographic approach: relating the study to the individual.

snowball sampling characteristics

recruitment through referrals, non probability, hard to reach populations, potential bias, limited generalizability, quick and cost effective

What are the advantages of a non-participant observation?

• It is easier to collect data because the researcher does not interact with participants but only observes. • The researcher can observe natural behaviour. • It is a useful way of observing the behaviour of small groups or interactions between individuals. • Observational data can be cross-checked with other observers to establish credibility.

field-experiment characteristics

1) natural-high realism 2) many extraneous variables 3) low control 4) high cost 5) long duration 6) subjects unaware of participation

A case study, in and of itself, is not a method. What is meant by this statement?

A case study is not a method of study, but the researcher select methods of the data collect which will suit the case study like qualitative research and apply it to one participant.

research methods

COCIE

Representational generalization

- findings from qualitative research studies can be applied to populations outside the population of the study - qualitative research normally involves small samples that are not selected to be statistically representative - non- structured interview methods may be used (questions are not pre-arranged) -this makes it difficult to generalize findings - however it is argued that generalization is possible if evidence from other studies confirms the findings

opportunity/convenience sampling

Based on convenience of the researcher → using whatever population happens to be available Typically drawn from sampling frames that are Readily available (pre-determined) Nearby (geographical proximity) Willing to participate

Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data

QUALITATIVE DATA: - cannot be quantified - based off observations -highly descriptive - gathered through direct interaction with participants through 1-1 or group interviews -data consists of text (transcripts or field notes) - open- ended and flexible to interpretation - "rich thick" data Strengths: - provides rich data- in depth descriptions of individual experiences based on concepts, meanings and explanations -useful for investigating complex and sensitive issues (illness, sexuality, homelessness...) - explains phenomena - identify and evaluate factors that contribute to solving a problem - generate new ideas and theories to explain problems - people are studies in their own environment which increases validity Limitations: - time consuming - data analysis can be difficult, no clear analysis strategy - interpretation of data may be subjective (reflexivity can help minimize this) QUANTITATIVE DATA: - number based - easy to summarize and analyze - statistical tests can be done to come to conclusions

Explain reflexivity

Reflexivity: allows the researcher to reflect on ways in which bias may occur, by acknowledging that their background and beliefs can influence the way research is conducted. Personal reflexivity: involves reflecting on the ways in which the researcher's values, beliefs, experiences, interests and political commitments have influenced the research Epistemological reflexivity: related to how data was gathered, limited understanding of a particular group of people can restrict the amount of data gathered

systematic random sampling characteristics

(same as simply random), can be more efficient (less time and effort to select sample)

Purposive sampling

-targets a particular group of people - The researcher decides early on which criteria should be used for sampling -Participants are chosen on the basis of particular characteristics that will help the researcher to explore the research topic.

volunteer sampling

Depend on volunteer participations, especially if research may have strain on participant Personal characteristics affecting any research including (volunteers different to non volunteers): Greater intellectual ability Greater unconventionality Lower age Less authoritarianism Greater need for social approval Greater sociability

Discuss considerations involved during an interview

Establish a rapport (trusting and open relationship with participant) Important that interviewer demonstrates ethical conduct Make participant feel comfortable Interviewer should make sure the recorder (if used) is placed in in a position where it can record the conversation/discussion clearly. Interviewer should use an active listening technique (seem interested and being engaged)

What ethical considerations must be made when carrying out a case study?

In case studies the researcher must state the clear purpose of the study, while keeping information of the individual confidential, and cause no harm in while carrying out the study.

In general, what are the ethical considerations that must be made when carrying out qualitative research? Is this in any way different from the ethical considerations that must be followed when carrying out experimental research?

Same: informed consent, right of withdrawl, confidentiality, justification of use of deception,debriefing, consider implications and consequences Special: may not need consent (because the group does not know they are being studied), under 16 consent from parents must be issued, participants must know it is voluntary, protect participants against harm, identity and confidentiality kept a secret

Case studies

an empirical research method aims to discover information relating to a particular case or phenomenon. Place a large emphasis on real-life context.

simple random sampling

every member of the population has an equal probability of being selected for the sample

experiments research method characteristics

manipulation of independent variable, control over extraneous variables, use of control group, quantitative data, ethical considerations, random assignment

Observations

observe participants and phenomena in their most natural settings. This allows researchers to see their subjects make react to situations in their natural settings as opposed to structured settings like research labs or focus groups.

Extraneous variables

other potential variables that may influence relationship between IV and DV which we need to control

categorical variables

qualities that could be used to assign categories e.g. nationality, sex, gender

Probability sampling

simple random sampling systematic random sampling stratified sampling (SSS)

Confidentiality and Anonymity

these are important because they protect the privacy of those who voluntarily agree to participate in research.

Right to Withdraw

this does not just inform them that they can leave the study at any time, but also inform them that they have the right to withdraw their results from the study at any time. This is important because some participants may feel pressured into continuing with the study.

Anonymity and confidentiality

-the identity of the participants should not be known outside the research team, but in cases where snowball sampling has been used this cannot be done and participants should be informed - confidentiality means that research data will not be known to anyone outside the study -the researcher may have to change minor details in the report to avoid the possibility if the participants being recognized -confidentiality also refers to how the data was collected, if observations have been videotaped or archived it can be difficult to maintain anonymity, so they should be destroyed after transcripts have been made

Debriefing

-the true aims and purposes of the research must be revealed to the participants - any deception should be revealed and justified - all participants should leave the study without stress

characteristics of case studies

- A context-based study of the phenomenon, rather than a study conducted in a lab or through modelling. - tend to use multiple research methods when collecting data including observations, surveys and interviews. - It studies a specific event or behaviour using primary and secondary sources. - focus on a single case - qualitative research method - multiple sources of data

Inferential generalization

-Findings can be applied to setting outside the setting of the study -also called "transferability" or "external validity" - whether or not the findings can be transferred to another setting depends on the depth of the description of research and phenomenon - inferences (logical conclusions) may be made but will rest as a hypothesis until supported or disproven by further evidence

snowball sampling

Type of purposive sampling in which participants who are already in a study, help the researcher to recruit more participants Those partiicpants are then asked to recommend others Used when target population is rare, hidden or difficult to identify e.g. not likely to respond to advertisement seeking gang members

purpose sampling

selected according to predetermined criteria relevant to a particular research question. (Sampling with a purpose)

opportunity/convenience sampling characteristics

ease of selection, non probability, lack of representativeness, quick and cost effective, potential for bias, limited generalizability

Correlational research

experiment cannot be carried out, but data is collected to show a relationship between two variables.

Discuss how two different participant effects may overly influence an observation.

The participants' difference in opinion of the research and the researcher may affect the trustworthiness of the observation. There also could be participant bias because they are behaving differently influencing the observation.

Sampling technique

the method used to obtain the participants for a study from the population (SSS, POVS)

Focus group interviews

-normally consists of 6-10 people, if there are more it may be difficult for everyone to participate -members of the group have common characteristics which is relevant to the topic of investigation -researcher has the role of the facilitator -participants are supposed to interact as if they would outside of the study, it helps if they already know each other -facilitator preferably uses open- ended questions so the group can interact and expand on each others ideas Strengths: -quick and convenient way to collect data from several individuals -provides natural setting, maybe higher ecological validity than 1-1 - useful for exploring insight into what they think, how they think, and why they think that way - can highlight cultural values or group norms Limitations: -not appropriate for all questions (sensitive) -conformity

To what extent can one generalize from qualitative studies? (Be sure to use the terminology that is discussed in this workbook with regard to Guba & Lincoln's vocabulary for discussing qualitative research studies).

1)Representational Generalization- findings can be applied to populations outside the study. 2) Inferential Generalization: findings can be applied to settings outside the study setting. Also referred to as "transferability". (ex. one homeless program for research can be applied to other homeless programs.) 3) Theoretical Generalization-concepts from the study can be used to further develop the theory.

Evaluate naturalistic observations

Data are collected by the researcher who observe and record how people behave (or animals) The aim is to collect information in a natural environment to provide an account of the interactions in a particular social group Researcher often spends a long time 'in the field' to understand the naturalistic environment of the participants Notes are taken, for analysis Observations in the field can be complemented with eg. examples interview data and quantitative data Strengths -The research can observe natural behavior in a natural environment -It increases ecological validity (preferred in qualitative research) -Can be combined with data from other qualitative methods ( triangulation to increase credibility) -Observational data can be crossed-checked with other researchers to establish credibility Limitations -Ethical issues are involved if the naturalistic observation is covert -analysis of data can be time consuming and costly especially if the observation is unstructured

Discuss considerations involved before an interview

Data collection method and establishing interview guide Based on the aim, time and resources available Choosing the right interviewer Consider gender, age, ethnicity, language participants must feel comfortable Sampling and sampling method Depends on the aim, however in qualitative research purposive sample is often chosen (focuses on a specific group) Data recording Transcription of the data Ethical considerations reflexivity

Explain the three techniques of recording data during an observation: event sampling, time sampling, and point sampling.

Event sampling: recording observations in an unlimited amount of time but asking about all the specifics. Time sampling: observations, which are based on sets amounts of time. Point sampling: recording of observation aimed at individual points.

What are the limitations of the technique of inductive content analysis?

Inductive content analysis is a purely descriptive method. It describes what is there, but may not reveal the underlying motives for the observed pattern ('what' but not 'why').

What would be the advantage of gathering quantitative data for a study instead of qualitative data? Give an example to illustrate your argument.

It is easier and requires less amount of time. An example is by looking at surveys and determining the averages in data given.

Natural Experiments

Naturally occurring events or phenomena having somewhat different conditions that can be compared with almost as much rigor as in experiments where the investigator manipulates the conditions.

What are some of the difficulties of carrying out a one-on-one interview? A group interview?

One-on-one Interview: • Both data collection and analysis are very time consuming. • The one-on-one situation can appear somewhat artificial and may raise issues of ecological validity. Group Interview: • The presence of other participants may result in group dynamics such as conformity. • If the topic is particularly sensitive participants may not want to disclose private information.

Discuss considerations involved after an interview

Participant should be debriefed Post-interview situation is important and should ensure that the participant is fully informed and feels confident. Researcher should accept the request if a participant would like to withdraw some information after having read the transcript of the conversation

Explain what is meant by reflexivity - and why it is an important part of qualitative research.

Reflexivity: a strategy used by qualitative researchers to explain how a researcher's subjectivity contributes to the findings. This approach acknowledges that a researcher may be biased towards the findings because he or she perceives and interprets through his or her own individual lens (subjectivity). Reflexivity is linked to the validation of qualitative research, for example credibility and trustworthiness, and is of major importance in qualitative research studies. In order to achieve credibility a qualitative research report should include some information about the researcher as well as information about the researcher's relation to the topic or the people under investigation. The researcher demonstrates self-awareness and critical self-reflection by explaining how his or her potential biases could have affected the researcher process and conclusions.

What is researcher bias? How can a researcher try to minimize its effect on research?

Researcher bias is when the researcher takes the data and bases it on their own beliefs. To minimize the effect is by having a controlled procedure and come up with possibilities for hypotheses that are likely to come up.

Explain how an inductive content analysis would be used to analyze and interpret an interview.

The goal of inductive content analysis is to give credible representation of the social world under investigation. Inductive Content Analysis Process: • Identification of initial themes based on first readings of the raw data. • Organisation of low-level themes into higher-level themes. • Checking whether interpretations are credible occurs at every step. • Emergent themes are then structured and a table is made summarising all the low and high-level themes. • Inferences and conclusions are then formed based on the summary table. At this stage the researcher tries to identify relationships between themes. This is very important part of the process may reveal specific patterns in the themes which may lead to the formation of a theory.

Why is triangulation important in qualitative research? How does it affect the credibility of the study?

Triangulation is used to increase the credibility of the conclusions in a qualitative study. Researchers can use different procedures or sources in the study to ensure that the conclusion gives a true picture of the phenomenon under investigation.

Evaluate non participant observations

The researcher doesn't get involved with the group Merely observes and records the behavior in the setting Can take place in a naturalistic setting and the researchers record natural behavior The researcher will inform the participants about the observation in general terms Not about the exact behavior being studied Can be used to study the behavior in children or a parent-child interaction Strengths -Easier to collect data (than participant observations) The researcher can observe natural behavior -A useful way for observing the behavior in small groups -can be crossed-checked to establish credibility Limitations -There's a risk that the presence of the researcher will influence data (reactivity) -Deception may be necessary to avoid reactivity -coding for observational data may be difficult if it is not a structured observation -Analysis can be time consuming and costly

How could an interviewer increase the credibility of his findings?

The researcher should add insights based on the research and analysis without being biased with personal opinions.

What is meant by inter-coder or inter-rater reliability?

The test-retest method assesses the external consistency of a test. This refers to the degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same behavior. Inter-rater reliability can be used for interviews.

What is the difference between traditional and postmodern transcription methods?

Traditional methods focus on using the recorded interview and later transcribe the interview word for word, while post-modern methods involves the interviewer to do multi-tasking, asking questions and recording the answers even for the body language or non verbal communication the individual uses.

Field-experiments

a research method that uses some controlled elements of traditional lab experiments, but takes place in natural, real-world settings.

Quasi Experiments

a type of research design that attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship. e.g. A memory task with a group of clinically depressed participants compared to a control group of non-depressed participants. It does use random assginment

stratified sampling

a variation of random sampling; the population is divided into subgroups and weighted based on demographic characteristics of the national population

Quantitative variables

quantities that can be measured e.g. heigh or speed

research designs/experimental design

refers to how participants in an experimental study are grouped. The condition to which the participants are exposed to are determined by chosen research design. (IRM)

simple random sampling characteristics

representative sample, probability based, equal chance of selection, requires a sampling frame, large sampling size

stratified sampling characteristics

representative, probability based, equal chance of selection within each stratum, reduces variability, requires knowledge of population characteristics

Voluntary Participation

this means the people answering questions have made a free choice to be involved in the gathering of information. They should not be coerced into being involved in any way.

Repeated Measures

uses the same groups of participants for each condition

Independent Measures

uses two or more seperate groups of participants. Each participant is only exposed to one condition

What are three things that a researcher should remember when carrying out an interview?

• Establishing rapport between interviewer and participant(s): a trusting and relationship. • Data recording should be operating properly (from the start so as not to disrupt the research project). • The interviewer should perform active and neutral listening. • Maintain professionality- remember that the participant should be able to withdraw at any point of time if they wish.

What are two advantages of using a case study approach?

• It is well-suited to investigate sensitive and complex issues in areas that could not be studied otherwise. • It is useful for studying group processes within a social group (e.g. beliefs, norms and communication patterns).. • The results from a case study may generate entirely new knowledge, which challenges preconceived notions and contradicts established theory.

What are three disadvantages of using a case study approach?

• Researcher bias could potentially be a problem since the researcher's own beliefs and ideas could influence data collection. • Generalization of findings from a single case study or a small number of cases is not always possible. • There is a risk of participant expectancy (or researcher bias) since researchers and participant interact with each other for long periods.

What ethical considerations must be made when carrying out an interview?

• Whether the research is socially sensitive and if it involves emotional stress. • How informed consent and briefing will be addressed. • Maintaining a professional approach and allowing the participants to withdraw themselves from the research projects at any point. • Maintaining confidentiality and anonymity of the participants.

Types of interviews

(FUSS) Structured - the questions that are to be asked and the order in which they will be asked are predetermined and followed throughout the interview. Unstructured - the topics to be discussed are set, but not exact questions are predetermined. Semi-structured - some questions are predetermined and the interview flows like an informal conversation. The questions are often open-ended allowing for the interviewee to answer freely. Focus Group - conducted on a group of individuals using a format similar to unstructured interviews.

correlational research characteristics

- No manipulation of variables - Statistical analysis - Cannot establish causation: only association. It cannot determine if one variable causes changes in the other variable - Non-experimental - Often observational

observation characteristics

- quantitative or qualitative - objective, specific - visual conduction - naturalistic setting - no control over extraneous variables - no manipulation of variables

Protecting participants from harm

- researchers should take preventative measures in all research to avoid harming participants physically or psychologically - especially in sensitive topics such as sexual abuse, domestic violence, addiction.... - when using qualitative methods such as in depth interviews participants may disclose very private and sensitive information - before agreeing to participate they should have a clear understanding of the topics addressed - researchers must approach sensitive issues through clear and direct questions - if participants show discomfort, the experimenter should consider stopping the interview

Theoretical generalization

- theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop further theories -findings from the study may contribute to wider social theory

Deception

-Researcher might not want the participant to know the exact aim of a study because it might impact the results - deception should generally not be used because it can be considered unethical -deception must be explained to all participants at the end of the study

Informed consent

-informed consent should always be obtained - when deception is used informed consent is not usually obtained to maintain the validity of the data Things to include in the informed consent form: - participation is voluntary - sufficient information about the study should be given (who is conducting it, how the data will be used, what the research requires of the participants e.g times, topics to be addressed) - participants give consent to take part in the study -under 16 year olds need consent given from their parents

Evaluate semi-structured interviews

-involves preparation of an interview guide that lists themes that should be explored - serves as a checklist during the interview -makes sure that the same information is obtained from each interview -flexibility of the wording of the questions used -uses closed (specified) and open minded questions (freely) -encourages two-way communication - diaries and other pieces of writing may be used in analysis as well Strengths: -better to use semi-structured interviews for sensitive issues as it allows the elaboration on some topics -flexibility of open-ended approaches and structural approach which enables to researcher to either clarify or expand on areas of interest -compatible with many methods of data analysis allows for analysis in different ways -sets out themes to explore Limitations: -focus on individual processes -One-on-one situation can be considered artificial which calls into question ecological validity -reliability difficulties -researcher and subject bias (researchers will ask targeted questions to prove their hypothesis)

natural experiment characteristics

1. Exposure to an independent variable: 2. Comparison group: similar to the treatment group but did not experience the independent variable. 3. No random assignment: 4. Large sample size 5. No manipulation of the independent variable

Quasi experiments characteristics

1. Lack of Random Assignment 2. Limited Control: researchers have less control over the selection of participants and the assignment of treatments. 3. Pre-existing Groups 4. Use of Multiple Measures: control for potential confounding variables. 5. Greater Generalisability: more likely to reflect real-world conditions and settings.

Risk to Participants

Any participants in a research study who may come under some sort of emotional or physical danger as a result of their participation in the study. The degree of risk may vary from severe to minimal or not at all. Researchers must minimise risk as much as possible and provide participants with protection where required.

What is meant by a "focus group?" Why would a researcher use this method? What would be the strengths and limitations of this interviewing technique?

Characteristics of a focus group interview: • A group of around 6-10 people (the focus group) are interviewed at the same time. • A facilitator introduces the participants to each other, asks questions and leads group interactions. • Participants are supposed to interact with each other as they would in real life. They can use their own language and even people who are illiterate can participate. • Participants discuss and respond to each other's statements. This gives the special dynamic to the interview and generates rich data. Strengths: • It is a quick way to collect data from several participants at the same time. • It provides a natural setting for interactions between participants and the conversational approach may result in better ecological validity than the semi-structured interview. • It may be useful in socially sensitive issues because people may be more likely to reveal how they think and why they experience what they do. Limitations: • It may raise ethical issues when participants are not free, for example in institutions like prisons or nursing homes. • The presence of other participants may result in group dynamics such as conformity. This could result in data that do not really represent the individual participant's beliefs. • If the topic is particularly sensitive participants may not want to disclose private information.

What is a naturalistic observation? Explain the strengths and limitations of carrying out a naturalistic observation rather than a controlled observation.

Characteristics of naturalistic observations: • Data is collected by researchers who observe and record how people (or animals) behave. The aim is to collect information in a natural environment to provide an account of the interactions in a particular social group. • The researcher often spends a long time in the field in order to become familiar with participants' natural environment. The researcher collects data and writes field notes used for analysis. • Observations in the field can be complemented with, for example, interview data or quantitative data from questionnaires (triangulation). Strengths: • The researcher can observe natural behaviour in a natural environment. Qualitative researchers prefer naturalistic observations because it increases ecological validity. • It can be combined with controlled laboratory observations and data from other qualitative methods (triangulation to increase credibility). • Observational data can be cross-checked with other observers to establish credibility. Limitations: • Ethical issues involved if the naturalistic observation is covert. • Analysis of data can be time consuming and costly - especially if the observation is unstructured.

What is meant by a "semi-structured interview?" Why would a researcher use this method? What would be the strengths and limitations of this interviewing technique?

Characteristics of semi-structured interviews: • There is an interview guide giving themes to explore (a checklist of themes to cover to ensure standardization of interviews). • Open and closed-ended questions can be used. • These interviews are informal and conversational in nature. • They are mostly face-to-face interviews. Strengths: • Themes to explore are decided beforehand and noted in the interview guide. • The researcher can ask the interviewee to elaborate on answers and get in-depth knowledge. • It is useful in socially sensitive issues because themes can be fully explored. Limitations: • There is only limited space to explore themes that have not been planned beforehand. • The one-on-one situation can appear somewhat artificial and may raise issues of ecological validity. • Data analysis is very time consuming.

What is meant by a "narrative interview?" Why would a researcher use this method? What would be the strengths and limitations of this interviewing technique?

Characteristics of the narrative interview: • A narrative is a mix of facts and interpretations of experiences that help the individual to create meaning and identity. • A narrative is often constructed like a real story with an opening, a middle and an ending. It can be based on a life story or a story of a particular situation. • Interviewer stimulates narratives by asking questions such as: "Could you tell me more about the time when you were told you would never be able to have children?" • The interviewer does not interrupt during the narrative interview but may show interest through eye contact or other physical signs of attention or invite for further narrating by asking questions such as: "And then what happened?" Strengths: • It is a useful way to gain an in-depth understanding of how people construct meaning in their lives. • It can be used with all people because they can use their own language and can talk freely without being interrupted. • It may be useful in exploring socially sensitive issues because it gives insight into how people think and why they experience what they do. Limitations: • It is time consuming to transcribe and analyse the huge amount of data from narrative interviews. • The narrative may go in all directions because it is the participant who decides what to tell. Not all data can be used in the research. • Ethical issues involved in having people tell about traumatic experiences - especially if they experience a major life crisis.

What is a covert observation? When would this technique most likely be used (strengths)? What are some of the limitations of this technique?

Covert observation: participants do not know they participate in the research. Strengths: • It is possible to study groups that cannot be studied otherwise; or when it is vital to avoid reactivity. • There is limited or no reactivity since participants do not know about the research. Limitations: • Participants are not informed about the research and cannot give informed consent. • It can be dangerous if participants find out about the study.

What does it mean if we say that a study lacks "credibility?" Why is this important in qualitative research?

Credibility in qualitative research is equivalent to internal validity in quantitative research. It is used to judge the quality of the research. For a study to be credible it must present a true picture of the phenomenon under investigation and it should be possible to check how the results of the study were obtained. Credibility check is one of the most important factors in establishing trustworthiness in qualitative research.

Explain what is meant by "purposive sampling." Why is this often used in qualitative research studies?

In purposive sampling the characteristics of individuals are used as the basis of selection in order to reflect the diversity of the sample population. Recruitment of participants can continue throughout the research project until the researchers find that they have enough data to generate a theory. This is why it is often used in qualitative research, as it allows the research to collect enough information to help generate a theory, without having to repeat the entire research project.

Deception

Increases ethical concerns because it interferes with the ability of the subject to give informed consent, however it may be necessary in certain types of research so that results are not biased.

Explain how an inductive content analysis might be used to analyze and interpret an observation. How could the researcher increase the credibility of the findings?

Inductive content analysis for an observation: • Reading and rereading of the field notes to provide a complete description of the topic of interest. The more description the "thicker" the description (detailed) and this is considered as rich data. • Coding and connecting themes: - The data is then coded (organised into categories/themes). - A graphical representation of categories and their connection is created with case or text samples. - The analysis is summarised in "memos" so that independent readers can follow how and why the connections between the themes are suggested. - The categories (themes) are organised into lower-order and higher-order themes to create an overall picture of the meaning of the data. - The researcher interprets the data based on the summary table but it is important to consider alternative interpretations. • Researcher produces a coherent description of the phenomenon under investigation. This could lead to formulation of new concepts and theory, which has emerged from the data (grounded theory).

Discuss considerations involved in setting up and carrying out an observation

Methodological considerations overt/covert, participant/non-participant and how choice of method could influence the data Ethical considerations Informed consent: everything other than covert observations Debriefing participants after the study/ data collection Ensure anonymity Sampling method: Sampling depends on the research topic In qualitative data, purposive sample is often chosen because it focuses on a specific group of people, or specific situation/ condition or environment Data recording: Decisions of how to make the field notes in covert observations (usually a field diary) In overt observations- data collection is expected by participants but the researcher should decide what to note down In sensitive areas videos are audiotapes cannot be taken since it will reveal the participants' identity Observer characteristics Match observer to the target group. (A female observer will not fit in, in a street of male gangster) can't be covert Researcher should 'blend in' Degree of involvement in the group In overt observations, being involved may be rather superficial Objectivity of researcher The researcher often stays a long time 'in the field' and could become more subjective with time Adv. if more researchers work in the field (triangulation) the researcher should be attentive to potential biases Credibility checks and reflexivity could control for this analysis of data The researcher should decide how to analyse data from observations and field notes

What is an overt observation? When would this technique most likely be used (strengths)? What are some of the limitations of this technique?

Overt observation: participants know they participate in research. Strengths: • Participants can be informed about the topic and give informed consent. • Data collection can be triangulated with interview data. Limitations: • The researcher may lose objectivity and become too involved. • The researcher's presence is a potential source of bias (reactivity).

Effects of participant expectations and researcher bias

Participant expectations (reactivity): -the participants ideas of the research and the researcher which can affect the trustworthiness of thr data - if the participant feels they have to behave in certain ways in order to please the researcher this will affect the value of the data in a negative way Researcher bias: - researcher's own beliefs and ideas may be shown within the data and may determine the research process -important that participants perceptions, beliefs and understanding of social processes must be given priority -way to minimize researcher bias is reflexivity throughout the research process

What are two participant effects? How may they affect the findings of a qualitative research study?

Participant expectations: participants ideas of the research and the researcher which can effect the trustworthiness of the data. (ex: participant acts in a certain way to try to please researcher) Researcher bias: researcher not paying enough attention to participants so researchers own beliefs determine research process.

Define participant observation. What is one advantage of this method? One disadvantage?

Participant observation: the researcher participates actively in the participants' life, observes, listens, and produces field notes. Characteristics of participant observation: • The researcher becomes part of the target group under investigation. • The focus of the is on natural behaviour in its natural context. • The researcher enters the field (the place where the research takes place) and acts as the instrument of data collection. The aim is to obtain a close and intimate familiarity and empathy with the participants through personal involvement with people in their own environment. Strengths: • It generates detailed and in-depth information of a topic, which cannot be studied by other methods. • It is useful in exploring socially sensitive issues because the researcher can take many different aspects of a topic into consideration (holistic approach). • It is a good method to avoid researcher bias because the aim is to understand social processes from the perspective of participants. Limitations: • Data collection and analysis is very time consuming, especially in long-term projects. Often groups are small so it is difficult to generalise findings. • It is a highly invasive research method: can influence people's lives and environment. • The researcher may lose objectivity. It is difficult to keep a balance between involvement and detachment. Reflexivity can increase credibility.

Evaluate covert observations

Participants don't know they participate in the research The research usually has to make up a story to cover his presence Strengths -It makes it possible to study groups that cannot be studied otherwise -Access to difficult settings -There is limited or no reactivity since participants don't know about the research Limitations -The participants are not informed about the research -Do not give an informed consent -Can be dangerous if participants find out about the study -Ethical issues

Evaluate overt observations

Participants know they participate in the research The quality of the data depends on the researcher's relationship with participants Strengths -Participants can be informed about the topic and give informed consent (ethical) -Data collection can be triangulated with interview data Limitations -Researcher may lose objectivity and become too involved -The researcher's presence is a potential source of bias -Hawthorn effect- participants know they are being studied and thus might change their behavior

Experiments ACRONYM

QEFN

What would be the advantage of gathering qualitative data for a study instead of quantitative data? Give an example to illustrate your argument.

Qualitative data has more detail that goes beyond numbers and statistics. An example is when a person is asking people about their opinions on what is the best sport. From qualitative research you asked the individual directly about what they think, while in a quantitative research you can only get statistics from numbers.

Interview

Qualitative research method that relies on asking questions in order to collect data. Invovles two or more people, one of whom is interviewers asking

To what extent can findings be generalized from a single case study?

Qualitative researchers would say that generalizations from a single case study may be possible if there is: • Inferential generalization: the findings from a single case study can perhaps be applied in other but similar settings. • The researchers should provide rich descriptions of the case. • Theoretical generalization: Yin (1984) argues the results of single case studies can be generalised to existing theory (theoretical generalization). If the patterns from one case study can be repeated, the theory derived from this single case study is said to be robust.

What are the key differences between quantitative and qualitative data?

Quantitative data are data such as averages and numbers, which can be recorded, qualitative data are data gained from things such as emotions, or perspective, which cannot be recorded again simply.

purposive sampling

Selected according to predetermined criteria relevant to a particular research question Sampling with a purpose Only option if target population is rare basis of theoretical saturation → point at which new data will not give additional insight into the research question, so there is little point in sampling further

Two other types of sampling used are snowball samples and convenience samples. Explain why a psychologist may choose to use these samples, and explain one disadvantage of each.

Snowball Sampling: • A type of purposive sampling. • Participants who are already in the study can help the research recruit more participants. • May be used when it is difficult to recruit participants (e.g. because the research is socially sensitive, involving people such as drug addicts or the homeless). • Disadvantage: it is likely to be biased because participants know each other and may have same attitudes or experiences. Convenience Sampling: • Participants chosen on availability. • People at hand are simply asked if they are willing to participate in the research. • Disadvantage: it is likely to be biased and since the participants are not recruited based on any population so it is very difficult to generalise.

Evaluate the use of case studies in research

Strengths: Multiple data sources increase data (triangulation) Case studies are sensitive to context and are a way to see how people make meaning out of their lives. A case study might be the only way to investigate a certain topic/phenomena They help researchers come up with new theories. Good ecological validity. Limitations: Poor population validity if it is intrinsic Ethical complications Possible lack of validity Time-consuming Researcher bias could be a problem (expectations) There is a risk of participant expectancy since both the researcher and participant are involved Sources of evidence can be hard to obtain

In order to achieve a purposive sample, researchers often use self-selected samples. What are one strength and one limitation of this type of sampling?

Strengths: • Participants represent the research topic because they are selected specifically based on salient characteristics relevant to the research. • It is relatively easy to select a sample. The sample may be supplemented with more participants during the research. Limitations: • Sampling may be biased. If the sampling process is based on objective selection criteria, documented and explained then the bias is limited. • It is very difficult to generalise from a small purposive sample.

Evaluate participant observations

The researcher becomes a part of the target group under investigation The focus of the study is on natural behavior in its natural context It aims to obtain close and intimate relationship/bond with participants through personal involvement with people in their own environment The researcher must be able to initiate and maintain relationships with the people under investigation Strengths -Generates in-depth and detailed information of a topic (which cannot be studied by other methods) -Useful when exploring socially sensitive issues (holistic approach) -Good method to avoid researcher bias- the aim is to understand social processes through the perception of participants Limitations -Data collections and analyzing is very time consuming -often groups are small- difficult to generalize -Highly invasive research method- can influence people's lives -The research may lose objectivity -difficult to keep a balance between involvement and detachment

Define triangulation, giving two examples of how it works.

Triangulation is based on the assumption that by comparing data obtained by different methods or different researchers in the same setting it is possible to overcome potential biases from using a single method or a single researcher. The purpose is to establish credibility/ trustworthiness. Examples of triangulation are: method triangulation, data triangulation, researcher triangulation, and theory triangulation. Method comparison: use of different methods in the same study. Effect is that bias is reduced and credibility increased. Takes advantage of strengths of the different methods and compensates for their methodological limitations. Data triangulation: comparison of data from multiple sources. Effect is that bias is reduced and credibility increased. It provides additional sources to describe the phenomenon under investigation.

Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility/ trustworthiness of the data

Triangulation: cross-checking of information and conclusions in research brought by the use of multiple procedures or sources, if there is agreement between the procedures of sources there is corroboration of the interpretation of the data. Method triangulation: involves comparing data that comes from the use of different methods Data triangulation: comparing data that comes from data gathered from other participants or other sources Researcher triangulation: involves the use of several observers, interviewers or researchers to compare and check data collection and interpretation Theory triangulation: involves looking at the data using different theoretical perspectives

Matched Pairs

participants paired with other participants who have similar characteristics (age, ethnicity, etc). One participant from the pair is then randomly assigned to one condition and the other participant to the other condition.

volunteer sampling characteristics

participants self select, non probability, lack of representativeness, potential for bias, limited generalizability, quick and cost effective

systematic random sampling

similar to simple random sampling but the defined target population is ordered in some way, usually in the form of a customer list, taxpayer roll, or membership roster, and selected systematically 'Every kth item is selected to produce a sample size of n from a population of size N' formula : k = N/n

purposive sampling characteristics

specific purpose, non probability, based on specific criteria, flexibility, biased example, knowledge of population characteristics

Discuss three things that a researcher must do to prepare to carry out an observation.

• Take into account methodological considerations (covert/overt; participants/non-participant observation) and how they could affect results. • Take into account ethical considerations (informed consent, debriefing, anonymity of the participants, etc.) • Decide on the sampling method to be used. • Choose data recording method.

What are three things that a researcher should do when setting up or planning to conduct an interview?

• The data collection method should be decided on. • An interview guide should be established. • The right interviewer should be chosen and trained (consider gender, ethnicity, language and age). • The sample selection criteria should be decided. • The sampling method should be decided. • The data recording method should be decided and prepared. • The method of transcription of the data should be decided (verbatim or post-modern (including features such as pauses, laughter, etc.)) • Ethical considerations should be taken into account. • Reflexivity should be considered- how would it affect the research project and how can this be addressed?