part 3 - self
Reciprocal altruism
According to evolutionary psychology, a genetic predisposition for people to help those who have previously helped them.
Consistency
A basic motive •We strive to be consistent with ourselves oWe seek to establish consistency between our beliefs & attitudes • •We may confabulate up reasons to establish the feeling of consistency • •
Empathic concern
According to Batson's empathy-altruism hypothesis, observers who empathize with a person in need (that is, put themselves in the shoes of the victim and imagine how that person feels) will experience empathic concern and have an altruistic motivation for helping.
Big Five
A broad taxonomy of personality trait domains repeatedly derived from studies of trait ratings in adulthood and encompassing the categories of (1) extraversion vs. introversion, (2) neuroticism vs. emotional stability, (3) agreeable vs. disagreeableness, (4) conscientiousness vs. nonconscientiousness, and (5) openness to experience vs. conventionality. By late childhood and early adolescence, people's self-attributions of personality traits, as well as the trait attributions made about them by others, show patterns of intercorrelations that confirm with the five-factor structure obtained in studies of adults.
Reducing Cognitive Dissonance
1.Change the belief o"Cheating isn't bad and can be quite good for relationships" • 2.Change the behavior oStop cheating on the boyfriend, cut it off with the new girl oBreak up with the boyfriend so it's not cheating anymore 3.Reinterpret with a related idea oRationalization: "It's not cheating if it's with a woman" oRationalization "Polyamory is a total valid type of relationship, I just haven't told my boyfriend that we're polyamorous yet" oJustification: "My boyfriend was looking at other girls first, so really he was kinda cheating already" 4.Reduce importance of the inconsistency Don't resolve the inconsistency, but choose to care less about it o o"Cheating is bad, but it's not that big of a deal."
Personality
A person's relatively stable patterns of thought, feeling, and behavior.
Kin selection
According to evolutionary psychology, the favoritism shown for helping our blood relatives, with the goals of increasing the likelihood that some portion of our DNA will be passed on to future generations.
Empathy-altruism model
An altruistic theory proposed by Batson (2011) that claims that people who put themselves in the shoes of a victim and imagining how the victim feel will experience empathic concern that evokes an altruistic motivation for helping.
Negative state relief model
An egoistic theory proposed by Cialdini et al. (1982) that claims that people have learned through socialization that helping can serve as a secondary reinforcement that will relieve negative moods such as sadness.
Narrative identity
An internalized and evolving story of the self designed to provide life with some measure of temporal unity and purpose. Beginning in late adolescence, people craft self-defining stories that reconstruct the past and imagine the future to explain how the person came to be the person that he or she is becoming.
The Age 5-to-7 Shift
Cognitive and social changes that occur in the early elementary school years that result in the child's developing a more purposeful, planful, and goal-directed approach to life, setting the stage for the emergence of the self as a motivated agent.
Mastery goals
Goals that are focused primarily on learning, competence, and self-development. These are contrasted with "performance goals" that are focused on the quality of a person's performance.
When is Cognitive Dissonance Likely?
If it's self-relevant oe.g., you are forced to do something vs. you personally choose to do something •"You have to write an counter-attitudinal essay" vs. "I chose to write a counter-attitudinal essay" o The inconsistency has negative consequences oYou perceive the inconsistency will affect you negatively in the future o oEx.) Choices about smoking, drinking, drugs Patricia Steere, Flat Earth Theorist •Became prominent in promoting Flat Earth theories •However, people starting making conspiracy theories about her "But I know I'm not"
Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger)
Inconsistency is aversive, so people try to reduce dissonance and achieve consistency
Redemptive narratives
Life stories that affirm the transformation from suffering to an enhanced status or state. In American culture, redemptive life stories are highly prized as models for the good self, as in classic narratives of atonement, upward mobility, liberation, and recovery.
Counterfactual thinking
Mentally comparing actual events with fantasies of what might have been possible in alternative scenarios.
Local dominance effect
People are generally more influenced by social comparison when that comparison is personally relevant rather than broad and general.
Illusion of transparency
People overestimate the degree to which their personal mental state is known to others oPeople think they appear more nervous than others actually report oIn other words, we feel "see-through", as though others can see our nervousness
Pluralistic ignorance
Relying on the actions of others to define an ambiguous need situation and to then erroneously conclude that no help or intervention is necessary. 1.People privately reject a norm/belief 2.They perceive that other members of the group accept it. 3.This causes them to accept it as well.
Balance Theory vs. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Scope •Balance theory is about attitudes only •Cognitive dissonance theory is broader, including beliefs & behavior • Cause •Balance theory describes a motive to obtain balance between attitudes & beliefs •Cognitive dissonance theory describes an aversion that people are motivated to resolve. • • o
Ego
Sigmund Freud's conception of an executive self in the personality. Akin to this module's notion of "the I," Freud imagined the ego as observing outside reality, engaging in rational though, and coping with the competing demands of inner desires and moral standards.
Prosocial behavior
Social behavior that benefits another person.
Frog Pond Effect
The theory that a person's comparison group can affect their evaluations of themselves. Specifically, people have a tendency to have lower self-evaluations when comparing themselves to higher performing groups.
Identity
Sometimes used synonymously with the term "self," identity means many different things in psychological science and in other fields (e.g., sociology). In this module, I adopt Erik Erikson's conception of identity as a developmental task for late adolescence and young adulthood. Forming an identity in adolescence and young adulthood involves exploring alternative roles, values, goals, and relationships and eventually committing to a realistic agenda for life that productively situates a person in the adult world of work and love. In addition, identity formation entails commitments to new social roles and reevaluation of old traits, and importantly, it brings with it a sense of temporal continuity in life, achieved though the construction of an integrative life story.
Noticing the event
Step #1: •Seminary students going to give a speech •Manipulated whether in a hurry • •If not running late, 63% stopped to help •If running late, 10% stopped to help oEven if very religious oEven if giving speech about Good Samaritan
Interpret event as emergency
Step #2: •You noticed the situation - good job! Now, is it an emergency? •Most situations have some degree of ambiguity - is this an emergency or just a drunk person? Pluralistic ignorance: 1.People privately reject a norm/belief 2.They perceive that other members of the group accept it. 3.This causes them to accept it as well. • •Smoke-filled room study oAlone - 75% alerted experimenter in 6min oGroups - 38% alerted experimenter in 6min
Assume responsibility
Step #3 •Diffusion of responsibility: each bystander's sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of witnesses increases oAKA someone else will handle this Preventing diffusion of responsibility • •Point out an individual to call 911 • • •Recognize the possibility of diffusion, and act against it
Empathy
The ability to understand and share the feelings of another
Proximity
The relative closeness or distance from a given comparison standard. The further from the standard a person is, the less important he or she considers the standard. When a person is closer to the standard he/she is more likely to be competitive.
Cultural display rules
These are rules that are learned early in life that specify the management and modification of emotional expressions according to social circumstances. Cultural display rules can work in a number of different ways. For example, they can require individuals to express emotions "as is" (i.e., as they feel them), to exaggerate their expressions to show more than what is actually felt, to tone down their expressions to show less than what is actually felt, to conceal their feelings by expressing something else, or to show nothing at all.
Effort Justification
We attribute more value to an outcome if we put more effort in obtaining that outcome Hazing, Boot Camp, and Other Initiation Rites Belief 1: "Boot camp is horrible" Belief 2: "I put a lot of effort into boot camp" Inconsistency: "Boot camp is horrible, but I put effort into it." Possible Resolutions: •"The boot camp wasn't that bad" •"Boot camp made me and my fellow squad members closer" •"It gave me the discipline I needed" • • •
Diffusion of responsibility
When deciding whether to help a person in need, knowing that there are others who could also provide assistance relieves bystanders of some measure of personal responsibility, reducing the likelihood that bystanders will intervene. •each bystander's sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of witnesses increases oAKA someone else will handle this
insufficient justification
When the social situation actually causes our behavior, but we do not realize that the social situation was the cause leads people to like something less because they (incorrectly) infer that they did not engage in a behavior due to internal reasons
foot-in-the-door technique
a persuasion attempt in which we first get the target to accept a rather minor request, and then we ask for a larger request self-perception and commitment—once people label themselves as the kind of person who conforms to the requests of others in the relevant domain ("I volunteer to help safe driving campaigns," "I help people in my discussion group"), it is easier to get them to conform later. it will be relatively easy to get people to engage in a small behavior after which their perceptions of this initial behavior will change their attitudes, making it more likely for them to engage in a more costly behavior later.
principle of attitude consistency
if we engage in an unexpected or unusual behavior, our thoughts and feelings toward that behavior are likely to change.
Positive Self-Esteem
inding ways to affirm our self-esteem should reduce cognitive dissonance, threats to our self-esteem should increase it. Because cognitive dissonance poses a threat to one's self-esteem, people who are more motivated by self-concern should show bigger changes in their thoughts and feelings after they engage in a discrepant behavior than should those who are less motivated by self-concern.
Self-perception
occurs when we use our own behavior as a guide to help us determine our own thoughts and feelings can lead to either insufficient justification or overjustification to create true attitude change we should avoid using too much punishment or too much reward.
Overjustification
occurs when we view our behavior as caused by the situation, leading us to discount the extent to which our behavior was actually caused by our own interest in it The fascinating result was that the children who had been led to expect a reward for playing with the markers during the experimental session played with the markers less at the second session than they had at the first session. Expecting to receive the award at the session had undermined their initial interest in the markers. If we want someone to develop a strong attitude, we should use the smallest reward or punishment that is effective in producing the desired behavior.
low-ball technique
promises the customer something desirable, such as a low price on a car, with the intention of getting the person to imagine themselves engaging in the desired behavior Backing out on a commitment seems wrong and may threaten self-esteem, even if the commitment was obtained in an unethical way.
collectivist cultures
show dissonance effects when they are focused on their relationships with others advertisements that are framed in terms of personal benefits ("Use this breath mint!") are more persuasive in individualistic cultures, whereas ads that emphasize family or ingroup benefits ("Share this breath mint with your friends!") are more persuasive in collectivistic cultures (Han & Shavitt, 1994). Because dissonance involves self-concern, it is stronger when we do not feel very positively about ourselves and may be stronger in Western than in Eastern cultures.
Bystander Effect
tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present •In 1964, Kitty Genovese was murdered in front of her apartment building •As she was being attacked, she screamed for help and several of her neighbors witnessed aspects the crime •However, no one intervened to help her. Only two neighbors called the police. •Why did people fail to help in such an obvious emergency? •Kitty Genovese case recreated in lab oGroup discussion over mics, actor fakes a seizure o o85% of solo folks helped within a minute •100% within 2.5 minutes o62% of two-person groups helped within a minute •85% after 6 minutes o31% of 5-person groups helped within a minute •62% after 6 minutes • • •
bait-and-switch technique
which occurs when someone advertises a product at a very low price. When you visit to the store to buy the product, however, you learn that the product you wanted at the low price has been sold out. Again, people are more likely to buy an alternative higher-priced product after they have committed themselves to the purchase than they would have been without the original information. Once you imagine yourself owning the car, your attitude toward the car becomes more positive, making the idea of giving it up more costly and also making it more likely that you will buy it.
Kin Selection
•Behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection oIncreasing probability of the survival of blood relatives à increasing probability that their genes will be passed on
Self Perception Theory
•People infer their own attitudes & beliefs by observing their thoughts & behavior Inconsistency -> Perceive Thoughts & Behavior (vs. dissonance in CDT) -> Change in Attitudes & Beliefs •"A bottom-up" approach Cause •Cognitive dissonance theory describes a strong aversion that people are motivated to resolve. • •Self-perception theory describes a cognitive process by which we observe ourselves and infer our attitudes & beliefs from that observation • • oEveryday Example 1."I keep on ordering the entrée that has avocado in it." 2."I must like avocados." ● 1. "Anytime I think about this class, it makes me content." 2. "That must mean I like this class." Self-Perception: $20: "I said I enjoyed the task, but it was because I was paid $20" $1: "I said I enjoyed the task, so I must have meant it." Self-Perception: "I put all this effort into it, so it must have been worth it." Self-Perception: Amplify: "I chose this, so it must be valuable." Devalue: "I didn't choose this, so it must be not worth it"
Balance Theory
•We are motivated to have attitudes be consistent to each other Reason: Gestalt principles - we want to see things as a coherent whole Fritz Heider (1896-1988)
Other-oriented empathy
A component of the prosocial personality orientation; describes individuals who have a strong sense of social responsibility, empathize with and feel emotionally tied to those in need, understand the problems the victim is experiencing, and have a heightened sense of moral obligations to be helpful.
Helpfulness
A component of the prosocial personality orientation; describes individuals who have been helpful in the past and, because they believe they can be effective with the help they give, are more likely to be helpful in the future.
Agreeableness
A core personality trait that includes such dispositional characteristics as being sympathetic, generous, forgiving, and helpful, and behavioral tendencies toward harmonious social relations and likeability.
Cost-benefit analysis
A decision-making process that compares the cost of an action or thing against the expected benefit to help determine the best course of action.
Prosocial personality orientation
A measure of individual differences that identifies two sets of personality characteristics (other-oriented empathy, helpfulness) that are highly correlated with prosocial behavior.
Self-evaluation maintenance (SEM)
A model of social comparison that emphasizes one's closeness to the comparison target, the relative performance of that target person, and the relevance of the comparison behavior to one's self-concept.
Altruism
A motivation for helping that has the improvement of another's welfare as its ultimate goal, with no expectation of any benefits for the helper. The desire to help another person even if it appears to involve a cost to the helper
Egoism
A motivation for helping that has the improvement of the helper's own circumstances as its primary goal.
Personal distress
According to Batson's empathy-altruism hypothesis, observers who take a detached view of a person in need will experience feelings of being "worried" and "upset" and will have an egoistic motivation for helping to relieve that distress.
Choice Justification
After making a choice between multiple options, we: 1. amplify the value of the choice we made 2. devalue the option(s) we didn't choose Belief 1: "I bought an Android" Belief 2: "iPhones are cooler" Inconsistency: "I bought an Android, but iPhones are cooler." Possible Resolutions: •"iPhones are overpriced" •"Apple is an evil company" •"iPhones mean you have to buy into the whole Apple ecosystem of devices" • • •
Arousal: cost-reward model
An egoistic theory proposed by Piliavin et al. (1981) that claims that seeing a person in need leads to the arousal of unpleasant feelings, and observers are motivated to eliminate that aversive state, often by helping the victim. A cost-reward analysis may lead observers to react in ways other than offering direct assistance, including indirect help, reinterpretation of the situation, or fleeing the scene.
Prosocial Behavior
Any act performed with the goal of benefitting another person Three Motives 1.Evolutionary psychology: Pass on genes ● 2.Social exchange theory: Maximize rewards, minimize costs ● 3.Empathy-altruism hypothesis: Powerful feelings of empathy and compassion à selfless giving
Social category
Any group in which membership is defined by similarities between its members. Examples include religious, ethnic, and athletic groups.
Theory of mind
Emerging around the age of 4, the child's understanding that other people have minds in which are located desires and beliefs, and that desires and beliefs, thereby, motivate behavior.
help
In sum, you are more likely to help when... The person is related to you The benefits outweigh the costs/risks You think others will appreciate your help You feel empathy toward the person You are paying attention You assume responsibility You know what to do o
Development of Self-Awareness
In the second year of life, children begin to: •Recognize themselves in the mirror (Rouge Test) •Being using "me" and "mine" •Feel social emotions like shame & guilt o
Upward comparisons
Making mental comparisons to people who are perceived to be superior on the standard of comparison.
Downward comparison
Making mental comparisons with people who are perceived to be inferior on the standard of comparison.
Helping
Prosocial acts that typically involve situations in which one person is in need and another provides the necessary assistance to eliminate the other's need.
Individual differences
Psychological traits, abilities, aptitudes and tendencies that vary from person to person.
Autobiographical reasoning
The ability, typically developed in adolescence, to derive substantive conclusions about the self from analyzing one's own personal experiences.
Evolutionary Psychology
The attempt to explain human thought and behavior in terms of genetic factors that evolved over time •Basic Tenet: oGenes are likely to be passed on if they: •increases chances of survival •increase chances of creating offspring •increases the survival of genetically related others •
Fixed mindset
The belief that personal qualities such as intelligence are traits that cannot be developed. People with fixed mindsets often underperform compared to those with "growth mindsets"
Growth mindset
The belief that personal qualities, such as intelligence, can be developed through effort and practice.
Norm of Reciprocity
The expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood they will help us in the future •It is adaptive for individuals to learn norms from other members of a society; the best learners have a survival advantage over others oAbility to learn social norms has become part of our genetic makeup oEvolution favors groups whose members help each other
Self-esteem
The feeling of confidence in one's own abilities or worth. The extent to which a person feels that he or she is worthy and good. The success or failure that the motivated agent experiences in pursuit of valued goals is a strong determinant of self-esteem.
N-Effect
The finding that increasing the number of competitors generally decreases one's motivation to compete.
Self-enhancement effect
The finding that people can boost their own self-evaluations by comparing themselves to others who rank lower on a particular comparison standard.
Reflexivity
The idea that the self reflects back upon itself; that the I (the knower, the subject) encounters the Me (the known, the object). Reflexivity is a fundamental property of human selfhood.
Self-awareness theory
The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values we become objective evaluators of ourselves One example: People have been shown to be less likely to cheat on a test when mirror present; but, can also lead to negative consequences... Escaping Self-Awareness •Sometimes people go far in their attempt to escape the self in order to turn off the internal spotlight on oneself odrug abuse obinge eating •
Bystander intervention
The phenomenon whereby people intervene to help others in need even if the other is a complete stranger and the intervention puts the helper at risk.
Social comparison
The process by which people understand their own ability or condition by mentally comparing themselves to others.
Introspection
The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives •People do not rely on this source of information as often as you might think • •Even when they do, the reasons for their feelings and behavior can be hidden from conscious awareness •Sometimes external circumstances turn the spotlight of consciousness on ourselves o(e.g., you're watching a video that you're in, you catch your reflection in a mirror) o Limits •It can be difficult to know why we feel the way we do o o What is it about your girlfriend/boyfriend that made you fall in love? How much does sleep affect your state of mind? What really determines what mood you're in? • •We're often aware of the final outcome of our mental processes o"I know I believe this" o •We're often unaware of the reasons that led to that final outcome o"Why do I believe this?" • •We use heuristics to determine the origins of our thoughts oe.g., familiarity, accessibility, representativeness, beliefs about our own identity • Telling More than We Can Know(Nisbett and Wilson, 1977) 1. Sat at a store and pretended they were doing a consumer survey 2. Asked passersby to indicate which stocking was the highest quality •(In fact, they were all identical) 3. Asked why they thought it was highest quality People failed to realize that the position of the stockings influenced their judgment
The "I"
The self as knower, the sense of the self as a subject who encounters (knows, works on) itself (the Me).
The "Me"
The self as known, the sense of the self as the object or target of the I's knowledge and work.
Self as autobiographical author
The sense of the self as a storyteller who reconstructs the past and imagines the future in order to articulate an integrative narrative that provides life with some measure of temporal continuity and purpose.
Self as social actor
The sense of the self as an embodied actor whose social performances may be construed in terms of more or less consistent self-ascribed traits and social roles.
Self as motivated agent
The sense of the self as an intentional force that strives to achieve goals, plans, values, projects, and the like.
Dunning-Kruger Effect
The tendency for unskilled people to be overconfident in their ability and highly skilled people to underestimate their ability. •Unskilled people are especially likely to overestimate their skill •High-skill people underestimate their skill We judge ourselves based on the markers of skill we know about Low-skill people don't know what they don't know oNovices can't recognize their own mistakes oNovices can't recognize how others are acting more wisely High-skill people are cursed by their own knowledge oExperts assume others know what they know false consensus effect
Spotlight effect
The tendency to think that other people are paying more attention to you than they actually are • •Participants were forced to wear an embarrassing Barry Manilow t-shirt into a crowded room •How many did they think would notice their shirt? oGuessed 50%, 23% actually did
Social reputation
The traits and social roles that others attribute to an actor. Actors also have their own conceptions of what they imagine their respective social reputations indeed are in the eyes of others.
Insufficient Punishment
When we lack sufficient external reason to explain why we did NOT do something, we intrinsically devalue that thing Procedure: 1.Kid plays with toy 2.Kid receives instruction about punishment -> Insufficient Punishment "I don't want you to play with the [toy]. If you played with it, I would be annoyed." Severe Punishment [gives external attribution] "I don't want you to play with the [toy]. If you played with it, I would be very angry. I would have to take all of my toys and go home and never come back again. .... If you played with the [toy], I would think you were just a baby." 1.Kid is left alone and doesn't play with toy 2.Kid is asked how much s/he liked the toy
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
When we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain •The "pure" motive for helping •Carol was in an accident and needed help with lecture notes •Participants listen to an audio recording of Carol • •Manipulated perspective (empathy) oHigh (put yourself in her shoes) oLow (be objective) o •Manipulated cost of not helping oHigh (Carol comes to class. It would be embarrassing to deny her notes) oLow (Carol doesn't come to class. It wouldn't be embarrassing to deny her notes) o Low empathy social exchange concerns win High empathy help regardless of costs
Insufficient Justification
When we lack sufficient external reason to explain why we did something, we intrinsically value that activity more $1 condition enjoyed task more than before aft lie
Cognitive dissonance
aversive experience of inconsistency between two thoughts Example: inconsistency between two beliefs Belief 1:"Sandwiches are pieces of bread that contain stuff in between" Belief 2: "Hot dogs are not sandwiches" Inconsistency: "Sandwiches are pieces of bread that contain stuff in between, BUT hot dogs are not sandwiches" Example: inconsistency between belief & (belief about) behavior Belief 1: "Cheating on your partner is bad" Belief 2: "I cheated on my boyfriend" Inconsistency: "Cheating is bad BUT I did it anyway." • Common situations involving •Lacking external reasons for our action (insufficient justification) • •Lacking external reasons for our inaction (insufficient punishment) •We put effort into some outcome (effort justification) • •We made a choice for one thing over another (choice justification) First Demonstration of Cognitive Dissonance Festinger (1957) --> boring task
Cognitive Dissonance
reduced by changing behavior, by reducing dissonant cognitions, or by creating new consonant cognitions to counteract the dissonant cognitions. When we put in effort for something—an initiation, a big purchase price, or even some of our precious time—we will likely end up liking the activity more than we would have if the effort had been less.
postdecisional dissonance
the feeling of regret that may occur after we make an important decision But the desire to create positive self- esteem can lead to a succession of self-justifications that ultimately result in a chain of irrational actions. having too many choices can create dissonance and thus the opportunity for regret.
Affective Forecasting
•People's predictions about their emotional reactions to future events oHow sad would you be if your girlfriend/boyfriend broke up with you? oHow happy would you be if you got a great job after finishing your degree? • •Many of our most important life decisions involve thinking about what will make us happy in the future.
Balance Triads
•Principle: We want our attitudes to be in balance •How to figure out if they're in balance: Multiply the signs. oIf positive: Balance! You, your partner, and your cat all love each other You and your partner have a common enemy (the Fridge Repair Man) You hate two Democrats, and the Democrats like each other oIf negative: Imbalance! You like your friend from high school, your partner doesn't
Escaping Self-Awareness
•Sometimes people go far in their attempt to escape the self in order to turn off the internal spotlight on oneself odrug abuse obinge eating • •Example: Getting drunk oCan help avoid negative thoughts about oneself (at least temporarily). oIndication of how aversive self-focus can be o o •Recent study by Wilson et al (2014): people would rather give themselves painful shocks than sit by themselves with only their thoughts (and no cellphone...) •
Knowing how to help & implementing help
•Step #4: Knowing how to help •Step #5: Implement help o(and weigh the benefits, costs, risks) • Practical advice •Call 911! •Don't put yourself in danger, but do what you can •Good Samaritan laws - you can't get sued in ANY U.S. state o o
Social comparison theory
•The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves with other people Who do we compare against? Relevance Similarity Relationship Closeness is motivated When we want to improve ourselves: Upward comparison (maybe) • • When we want to feel better about ourselves: Downward comparison • • When we want accurate information: Compare with similar others • The people who are close to us have implications for our self-esteem. oThey do well? Pride oThey do poorly? Shame To regulate our mental health, we: Bask in Reflected Glory (BIRG): Associating ourselves with successful self-relevant people Cut off Reflected Failure (CORF): Distancing ourselves from low-status self-relevant people After their team won (vs. lost) a football game, university students were more likely to: •wear university apparel the day after •say "we" won (vs. "they" lost) •Bragging about a successful friend or relative • •Bumper stickers about what school your child goes to • •Citizens who voted for the winning political candidate kept up poster or lawn signs in front of their house longer than citizens who voted for the losing candidate (Boen et al., 2002)
Impact bias
•We tend to overestimate the strength and duration of our emotional reactions •Breakup? I will be extremely sad forever and ever •Loss of a loved one? I will never recover •We have difficulty in predicting responses to future emotional events, particularly negative events •But... oWe do not fully appreciate our ability to cope oWe focus only on the emotional impact of a single event, overlooking the effects of other life experiences •
Social Exchange Theory
•What we do stems from desire to maximize rewards and minimize costs • •Helping can be rewarding in a number of ways: oThe norm of reciprocity: Someone will help us if we need it oEmotions •e.g., relief of distress, increased feelings of self-worth oExternal Rewards •E.g., social rewards & reputation • •However, helping can also be costly: oDanger oPain oEmbarrassment oTime • people help when the benefits outweigh the costs • • In August 1996, a 3-year-old boy fell into a pit containing seven gorillas, at the Brookfield, Illinois, zoo. Binti, a 7-year-old gorilla, immediately picked up the boy. After cradling him in her arms, she placed the boy near a door where zookeepers could get to him. Question: Why did Binti, the gorilla, help the human boy? Evolutionary psychology: prosocial behavior is selected for and thus becomes part of the genetic makeup of the members of many species. Social Exchange Theory: Binti has been rewarded for helping in the past, and expects a reward now. In fact, Binti had been rejected by her mother and had received training in parenting skills from zookeepers, in which she was rewarded for caring for a doll
Self
•central to who we are...literally • • •Today --- we'll cover a lot of new ideas, but also revisit some concepts we learned previously with a focus on how they implicate our own identities
