Part B Assignments EH

Conclusions

'It is not yet possible to state categorically that Strabo's description of the Thinia isthmus is confirmed by geoscience. However, the results to date show that his account remains feasible. The airborne electromagnetic survey, together with the precise alignment of the marine bedrock at the channel's diagnosed southern exit, are thought-provoking and clearly deserve further investigation. The massive scale of slope failure, rockfalls and landslides in the Thinia valley provides a plausible explanation of why Strabo described this channel as 'often' rather than 'always' submerged from sea to sea, since any channel at this location would have been periodically interrupted by debris - both by rockfalls and by the erosion of the soft Miocene marl on its eastern side. The hypothesis would be refuted, however, if a buried land bridge of limestone bedrock were encountered above sea level in a future critical borehole. The research priorities now are therefore to core and date samples from sediments in the ancient Lake Katochori, which onlaps onto rockfall debris; to conduct more comprehensive gravity and seismic reflection surveys of the diagnosed channel route, and (subject to these results) to drill one or more deep boreholes to below sea level from which core samples can be extracted and dated.'

Camprubi et al. 2003

'The Gavà Neolithic Mining Complex (GNMC) near Barcelona was active during the Neolithic age, since ca. 6000 BP until about 700 years after. These mines show up to five different underground mining levels, developed as galleries and chambers, communicated through pits, drawing a complex network with a total known length of over 1000 m. These are some of the oldest underground mines in Europe but, contrary to the rest of the mine workings known of the same epoch, this is the only mining complex reported to date whose aim was not mining for conventional substances for the epoch such as chert, ochre or copper. The main aim of the GNMC was variscite, a green phosphate mineral similar to turquoise that can be easily cut and polished to make ornaments such as necklaces or bracelets. This paper is focused mainly on the geological mapping and examination in surface and underground exposures of the different phosphate mineralization types (stratabound and veins) and other relevant geological features such as discordances, thrusts, faults, and folds.'

Roman mining works

- 'Miners of antiquity utilized water to remove the waste alluvial overburden and to wash and concentrate the gold grains from the auriferous gravel. Ditches ("corrugi") collected water, supplied by seasonal snowmelt, streams, and incidental flooding. No dams were utilized. The ditch bottoms and upslope sides were typically constructed on bedrock surfaces. Wood plates or slabs of shale were commonly used to construct the down-slope sides of the ditches. Ditch widths ranged between 1-5 Roman feet (0.3-1.5 m) and had an average gradient of 0.5% (Fernández-Posse and Sánchez-Palencia, 1988). Ditches ranged in length from hundreds to thousands of meters in order to supply water to the tops of alluvial sections chosen for exploitation (Sánchez-Palencia et al., 1992). Water was collected here in small reservoirs for storage, distribution and for use in later booming operations (described later) and for washing and concentration of auriferous gravel. - As waste overburden, consisting primarily of alluvial fan deposits, overlies some of the Miocene gold bearing gravel, it was necessary to remove these deposits in order to access the underlying auriferous gravel. This was accomplished by means of hydraulic power to remove the waste overburden. Where the overburden was thicker (30-100 m), Roman miners used a complex booming method, the "Ruina Montium" (mountain collapse). This technique is partially described by Pliny in his "Naturalis Historia" (Pliny, H.N., 33, in Sánchez-Palencia, 1983) which makes reference to the gold mines in the NW of Iberia. - The booming system utilizes a hydraulic network to collapse the talus pile. It consists of a water reservoir ("piscina" or "stagnum") built on top on the talus, a ditch ("emissarium") to carry the water from the reservoir to a vertical pit that extends down to the base of the talus, and several galleries which extend outward toward the talus surface from the bottom of the vertical pit. There is no outlet, however, as the horizontal galleries do not breach the talus pile. After the necessary infrastructure has been built, the contents of the water reservoir are discharged. The liberated water runs along the ditch, falls into the vertical pit and spreads into the lower galleries. The effect is to saturate the base of the talus which ultimately leads to collapse and the flushing of the talus pile.We must bear in mind two questions when attempting to reconstruct the booming method utilized by the Roman miners. As the resulting collapse destroys most of the hydraulic infrastructure, it is difficult to reconstruct the mining pattern. Another problem is the relatively low availability of water in the region at the time. This is supported by the present day climate, as many of the streams, from which the ancient miners collected the water, are ephemeral in nature and dry up in summer. The fact that no upstream reservoirs were constructed, that supply ditches show erosion of only a few centimeters and that the reservoirs built on top of the slopes to be collapsed are small, all suggest that large amounts of water were not necessary to achieve the required collapse.Placer miners in the gold rush of California used a water/gravel ratio of 10 m3/1 m3 in the softest alluvial deposits, as recorded by monitors (Sauvage, 1876). Here, the water collapsed and carried the gravel to sluices. In the Ruina Montium system, the maximum water/gravel ratio was believed to be the reverse: 1 m3/10 m3. - Water saturation of the talus base is proposed to explain the booming collapse with restricted use of water. As the base of the talus represents essentially an impermeable bed, the water filling the galleries, which run from the vertical pit in the direction of the slope, would fill the pores of the alluvial overburden near the slope as the galleries have no outlet. Water saturation would greatly decrease the failure resistance of the talus pile, which would result in subsequent collapse. Auriferous gravel of lesser thickness was exploited using a ground sluicing method, an "in situ" washing and concentrating system performed in trenches having a 5% gradient. The lighter material was removed by means of water, leaving the heavier material behind to be collected and worked by panning. The biggest stones were heaped up at the trench sides and are one of the most characteristic aspects of old Roman mining sites. Where it was not possible to wash the gold bearing gravel directly in place, a drifting method was utilized instead. Auriferous gravel was mined by means of tunnels and moved to the portals where it was washed in sluices (Bowie, 1910).

And at Las Médulas specifically...

- 'There are 16 ditches that carried water to the mine in successive times. The ditches average 80 km in length and have an aggregate length in excess of 1000 km. Along their route, no tunnels and bridges were built, yet all arrived at the mine leveled to the required elevation. As good maintenance of the ditches was essential, several hill forts were built to take care of them. Near the mine sites the ditches flowed into reservoirs where the water was stored for later use in the overburden collapsing, or for washing the gold bearing gravel. Studies show that in the last Ruina Montium operation a water reservoir of 16,000 m3 was utilized to collapse about 1 Mm3 of overburden. - Owing to the great thickness of the overburden (Las Médulas Fm) at the Las Médulas mine, the Ruina Montium system was employed extensively. To wash the auriferous gravel (Santalla Fm.), the Roman miners used the above-mentioned ground sluice method, but when the overburden thickness was greater than 8-10 m, they were forced to remove the gravel and haul it to the sluices. To remove overburden with wide-frontal exposures, deep trenches were excavated parallel and close to the slope and charged with water. The combination of the hydrostatic thrust of the water filling the trench and the resultant saturation of the talus base lead to collapse of the talus edges. After failure, additional water was added to guide the gravel to the sluices. Small underground mining operations were also developed in the lower part of the Santalla Fm., close to the contact with the barren Orellan Fm. - Waste accumulations are an important aspect of past mining operations at Las Médulas. There are six valleys coming from the mine and each is filled with waste material. The largest valley contains an impressive accumulation of debris measuring more than 2 km long and 0.3-1.5 km wide. The debris has blocked the valley, producing a small lake. This waste fan was evaluated by means an electrical survey taking into account the swell effect which results from the loss of fine material. Pliny wrote that "Hispania" grows at the expense of its gold mines, and when the more than 15 Mm3 of fines that were washed to sea are taken into account, the total alluvium (overburden and auriferous gravel) moved by the Roman miners approximate 90 Mm3.' - 'The artificial plains created by the wastes from the mines created new access routes to the zone. The Carucedo Lake (see Fig. 15), produced by blocking up a valley with these wastes later became a valuable fishing resource and is today a protected wetland. The old courses of the canals that carried the water used in the gold-mining process were re-used as "lanes" or routes for communication and moving cattle by the inhabitants of the zone. The crops introduced during the Roman era, particularly the chestnut, have survived and become an inseparable sign of identity of Las Médulas'.

Video Player: Swaziland: Geology of the Early Earth

- 1 million people, oldest rocks on earth - arcane era = oldest era - 3 phases, first = nation mining by Sun or Bushman people for hemitite for paintings/makeup/rituals - 2nd phase 450 AD = Bantu, iron ore, for tools/weapons - 1964 = third phase by americans commercial mining iron ore by dynamite -

climate variability and haiti

- As climate variability has become a dominating concern affecting all nations, there is a renewed emphasis on building physical and social resilience, as well as enhancing preparedness among developed and developing nations alike. And resilience must take into account the institutional and social capacity of a nation to respond to environmental challenges as well as socioeconomic changes — in other words, the ability of a nation to adapt. - Adaptation is now a signature goal of climate risk management strategies, mainly through the design of institutions and interventions that emphasize flexibility in the face of long-term emergent risk. By emphasizing adaptation, we may be able to change the way societies prioritize earthquake risk. - The adaptive ability of a nation could be defined by its capacity to ingest new information about future earthquake occurrence as it becomes available, and to use it tactically. This requires scientific and technical abilities; free flow of information embedding scientific knowledge in government (and private) policymaking; and the willingness of a nation to change or refine its approaches to disaster management when directed by the evidence. - It is imperative to tackle this problem in developing nations in particular, because the impacts of earthquakes and other natural hazards can be so extreme. The first issue — building scientific and technical capacity — is more than just a matter of training. It involves supporting a culture of curiosity and innovation with adequate resources. This will lead to a motivated and trained indigenous workforce. Collaborative research at the international level provides one mechanism for achieving this goal. - The second issue — data flow and analysis — requires the deployment and integration of earthquake monitoring at the national level with the global monitoring infrastructure. This should be matched with the development of local and regional data centres, and exchange of data in real time. The vast investments already made in international earthquake-monitoring infrastructure could be leveraged by the multilateral development agencies to improve monitoring capacity in developing countries. - Lastly, developing an evidence-based approach to disaster resilience relies on access to the evidence. This includes mapping active faults with high-quality seismometers and geological field work, conducting palaeoseismic investigations to determine earthquake repeat times, measuring real- time crustal deformation with GPS, and understanding wave propagation and site- specific ground motion. New analytical methods, produced by the global geoscience community, must be translated from the basic science literature and downscaled into national research agendas by locally trusted institution

Effects of retreating ice Ireland

- As mentioned above, during glacial periods water is trapped in ice and so global sea level drops. During warm periods, or interglacials, ice melts, returning water to the oceans and increasing sea level. - Another factor to consider is the vertical adjustment of the Earth's surface in response to unloading of the formerly glaciated area. - When a large ice sheet forms its weight causes the Earth's crust to sink (e.g. much of Antarctica and Greenland currently lies below sea level). This is possible because the upper mantle, or asthenosphere, is soft enough to flow slowly out of the way -When the ice sheet melts, the crust rises slowly upwards and the asthenosphere flows slowly back underneath, filling the space. This process is called glacial rebound (or glacial isostatic adjustment). Because the asthenosphere flows so slowly, this process can take thousands of years. Glacial rebound from the last Ice Age is still taking place in some areas today!

geoscience and haiti

- As we approach the first anniversary of the quake, much will be written about the disproportionate impact of disasters on the poor, the pace of recovery and the goal of building a better Haiti out of the rubble. In contrast, very little will be written about the underlying role played by the geosciences in the transition from recovery to longer-term resilience. Whether Haiti will be able to build national scientific and technical capacity along with edifices of bricks and mortar will determine its future ability to withstand natural catastrophes. - Scientific input has played a central role in the short-term response to the earthquake and in early recovery efforts. In the days after the earthquake, interactions between the geoscience community and relief agencies were unprecedented in their intensity: authoritative seismological information was shared in real time and calculations of aftershock risks were incorporated into day-to-day decisions on the ground as soon as completed. - For example, in the immediate aftermath, the United Nations relief effort formed an ad hoc working group of seismologists, engineers and risk-perception specialists who interpreted aftershock and triggered earthquake probabilities calculated by several teams, including the US Geological Survey, so that relief workers could adjust to the ongoing risks. - Seeing the value of this high-level analysis, the United Nations has now asked Eric Calais, a geoscientist from Purdue University in the United States, to provide advice to the Haiti recovery and planning teams for at least the next year.

before the haiti earthquake

- Before the event, however, geoscientists had little impact on policy. The likelihood of significant quakes along both the segment of the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault system that ruptured in January, and the Septentrional fault in northern Hispaniola, were highlighted and communicated to high levels of the government of Haiti - But the uncertainties inherent in long-term earthquake forecasting, a governing culture forced to deal with the day-to-day constraints of the poorest nation in the Western Hemisphere, and an indifference to seismic risks among the international agencies that supported Haiti meant that the research had only a limited impact on national policies. - As a result, scientific advances have, in the past, not been used to improve Haiti's preparedness. - If the effort to rebuild Haiti is to lead to a country that is better prepared for dealing with natural disasters, and more resilient to their impacts, systematic information flow between the local government and international communities of geoscientists and engineers, as well as technical and geoscientific know-how at the national level, must be established. - It is not only the decision-makers in government and aid agencies that are responsible for the indifference to existing geoscience research. The difficulty in translating fundamental research into actionable advice held up progress as much as the innumerable problems that beset Haiti before the quake. This problem is not unique to Haiti. Despite periodic attempts to translate the geological inevitability of natural disasters into present-day concerns, economic and social development strategies continue to focus on the near term and, whether by accident or design, discount the future.

Earliest evidence for humans in Ireland

- Compared to the rest of Europe, Ireland seems to have been occupied by humans at a relatively late date. - The earliest evidence of humans in Ireland is found at the Mesolithic site of Mount Sandel, Coleraine. This site, situated just above the River Bann, is c. 10,000 years old and contains evidence of stone tools, hut foundations, campfires and the burnt remains of what these early humans ate.

Grimes Graves Neolithic Flint Mining Complex

- Contrary to what the name suggests, Grimes Graves was not a burial site but a Neolithic flint-mining complex, near Brandon, England, dated to c. 4500 BP - 9 meters deep, with picks from cattle bone - 400 shafts, shows collaboration

Early copper mine Rudna Glava Serbia

- Copper is one of the earliest metals used by humans. The video below shows how our ancestors may have discovered how to turn copper-bearing rock into malleable metal. Note that this video is set in the Middle East. However, the earliest known copper tools and evidence for copper smelting come from near Prokuplje, Serbia, at a site dated to c. 7500 BP. - c. 7500 BP copper smelting is known from near Prokuplje, Serbia. The earliest known copper mine, Rudna Glava, is also found in Serbia (Fig. 3) and has been dated to c. 7000 BP - The ore deposit at Rudna Glava is found in limestone and contains both iron- and copper-bearing minerals (Fig. 4). The early miners were interested in the copper-bearing minerals, particularly malachite (the distinctive green rock in the YouTube video above). More recently (until the late 1960s) however, Rudna Glava was mined for a mineral called magnetite, an iron-rich, magnetic mineral, Fe3O4. - Excavations at the Rudna Glava mine in the 1970s revealed around 20 prehistoric mine shafts that followed veins of copper-bearing minerals in the limestone host rock (Fig. 5). Some of these mine shafts were up to c. 20 m deep and had horizontal access platforms. In some cases, where these platforms were in danger of collapsing, they were supported by stone walls made from leftover mining debris - The early miners at Rudna Glava were part of the Vinča Culture

Roman hydraulic mining

- During the 1st and 2nd Centuries AD, gold became an important commodity for the Romans who used it as currency (the gold standard 'Aureus'; Fig. 12a). In order to extract the vast quantities needed they employed a novel technique called hydraulic mining. - Hydraulic mining is a technique that diverts water (in the case of the Romans, using aqueducts = artificial channels for carrying water) towards the mine where it is used to remove unwanted overburden (loose unconsolidated material of no economic interest) and to wash and concentrate gold-bearing gravel - .The most famous example of this type of Roman mine is the Las Médulas Mine, Leon, Spain, where Roman hydraulic mining left a lasting imprint on the landscape. Las Médulas is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site

The subsurface search for Strabo's channel - Geophysical techniques

- Electromagnetic instruments were flown by helicopter over the Thinia Valley to map the resistivity of the Thinia Valley. Resistivity surveys, which have a depth of penetration of c. 90 m, can measure how material at depth conducts electricity (resistivity is a measure of the resisting power of a material to the flow of an electric current). The results are summarised in the figure below (Fig. 14), where the different colours correspond to different resistivities. The blue colour indicates areas of high resistivity and corresponds to solid bedrock. The green values are intermediate and indicate the presence of rock fall debris with bedrock beneath. The yellow values indicate areas of low resistivity and represent loose unconsolidated material. Red values denote the very low resistivity of salt water. The data show that to a depth of c. 90 m at least (the limiting depth of this analysis), loose, unconsolidated material is present along the proposed route of Strabo's channel. In order to prove conclusively that a marine channel once existed in this area and was subsequently infilled by landslides, it must be demonstrated that no solid bedrock occurs above sea level in this region. - Gravity surveys were also conducted across the proposed channel. Rock fall and marl have lower densities than solid limestone bedrock and therefore have less of a gravitational pull. Transects conducted across the proposed channel indicate the presence of lower density material (i.e. material with lower gravitational force) in the region of the proposed channel.In addition to the above techniques, a sub-sea profile was constructed from a combination of seismic reflection and sonar surveys. Seismic reflection surveys produce a subsurface view of the area beneath the seabed. Waves of energy are sent from a source into the crust where they are reflected back by the sedimentary layers and bedding planes of sediments and bedrock, respectively. Sonar surveys tell you about the depth of the seabed (bathymetry; you should remember this from Assignment 4). These data show a pre-Holocene U-shaped erosional surface in the bedrock at the supposed channel's southern exit, which also coincides with the deepest area of the seabed (Fig. 15). -The data discussed above support the hypothesis that a marine channel once existed between the Paliki peninsula and the rest of Kefalonia. However, given the limitations of some of the techniques involved (i.e., the subsurface depth of penetration limit of some of the techniques used) these data do not prove conclusively that the hypothesis is correct

Trends in Global Urban Earthquake Risk

- Fifty years ago, the population of the world's largest earthquake-threatened cities was equally divided between rich and poor countries. - Today, there are five times as many people in poor as in rich earthquake-threatened cities. - Fifty years ago, the earthquake resistance of buildings in rich countries was better than that of buildings in poor countries, and since then it has steadily improved, while that in poor coun- tries has steadily worsened. - Data of the U.S. Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance indicate that the average number of deaths resulting from fatal earthquakes in rich countries decreased by about a factor of 10 between the first half of the 20th century and the last half. - This improvement in seismic safety is presumably the result of, among other things, better building and land-use codes and better enforcement of those codes. - By contrast, there are indications that earthquakes in developing countries will increase their lethality in the future. At last year's SSA conference, Roger Bilham described how we should expect in this century an earthquake that will kill as many as one million people in a developing country. - We can see this trend of growing lethality of earthquakes in developing countries by considering large earthquakes in northern India. - The 1950 M 8.6 earthquake in Assam killed 1,500 people, but Max Wyss estimates in "Human Losses Expected in Himalayan Earthquakes" (Natural Hazards 32, 2004) that an earthquake of the same size and location today would kill about 45,000 people, an increase of about a factor of 30. - The population in this region is estimated to have increased since 1950 by only a factor of 3, thus indicating an order of magnitude increase in the lethality of earthquakes due, presumably, to poorer construction. - Similarly, a repeat today of the 1897 M 8.3 earthquake near Shillong would kill, Wyss estimates, 60 times as many people as were killed in 1897. - Because the population of the region has increased by only a factor of about 8 since 1897, this suggests again about an order of magnitude increase in the lethality of earthquakes in the region. - The replacement of single-story bamboo homes with multistory, poorly constructed concrete-flame struc- tures, often on steep slopes, makes this region perhaps a worse case, but more typical settings (e.g.,Kathmandu, Nepal) also indicate a significant worsening of construction practice and urban planning in recent years in cities of developing countries.

An International Earthquake Safety Advocacy Federation

- Following the thinking of Rischard, we who are concerned about global earthquake risk could create an international earthquake safety advocacy federation. - The word "federation" is suggested here as opposed to "Federation", because we might not want or need to create a formal legal entity. As should become clear, this international organization would be very different from the International Association of Physics and the Earth's Interior and the International Association for Earthquake Engineering. - Richard suggests that this federation would have three primary components. There would be a network of carefully selected representatives of government, business, universities, and the civic sector. This network would not be all inclusive but would contain only the individuals who are able and willing to contribute to the development of this movement. - The second component would be an independent advisory panel of respected members of the Earth science and earthquake engineering communities. This would give the movement its needed credibility. The third component would be an ongoing electronic town meeting, that is, an international Internet linkage. - The initial work of this movement, according to Rischard, would be to agree on where the at-risk countries need to be in 20 years, how they can get there, and what the norms to measure their progress should be. Its ongoing work would include rating countries and businesses on meeting norms, applying moral pressure when necessary, lobbying governments for support of prevention and mitigation activities, and promoting best practices and the exchange of information. - We can imagine various products of such a federation. It might conceivably be able to exert fiscal and moral pressure to encourage the application of sound construction and zoning techniques. What if, for example, the degree to which inter-national construction projects incorporated seismic-resistant techniques were known and made public? What if the efforts of governments to enforce their own building codes were made known to Wall Street and other centers of international investment that consider development projects in those countries? This could be a powerful new way to motivate the development of a culture of earthquake safety. - A list could be published of the, say, five countries having the best earth-quake-risk management programs and the five that have the least adequate programs. This list could be distributed to international reinsurance companies, international corporations, and publishers of tour guides.

Tectonic setting of Iceland

- Iceland is located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a divergent plate boundary where two plates, the Eurasian Plate and the North American Plate are pulling apart. East Iceland is on the Eurasian Plate, whilst West Iceland is on the North American Plate. - Volcanism in divergent plate boundary settings is characterised by fissure eruptions along long cracks or fissures that form between the diverging plates. As the plates move apart, magma rises up from the mantle, fills the gaps between the diverging plates and cools to form new crust. With each spreading episode a new crack, or zone of cracks, forms and infills with magma. Over time this produces a symmetrical pattern of rocks either side of the spreading ridge - Iceland also lies above a mantle plume

Submerged Landscapes Archaeological Network (SLAN)

- It is possible that some of the areas now submerged beneath the sea (see Fig. 5, page 3) may have been sites of early human activity. With this in mind, a research initiative called the Submerged Landscapes Archaeological Network (SLAN) was set up in 2006 to investigate further - will aim to rediscover the lost lands once inhabited by our prehistoric populations, long since lost to rising sea-levels. It is likely, too, that, given current concerns over climate change and rising sea-levels, our research will contribute to the understanding of future impacts of sea-level change on coastal communities and resources around the North Atlantic

Katla

- Katla, which also lies below an ice cap, the Myrdalsjökull ice cap, has erupted 20 times in recent history! - The last eruption at Katla occurred in 1918. This eruption produced an estimated c. 0.7 km3 of tephra - The more recent eruptions at Katla (in the last 1000 years) have been basaltic in composition, however more intermediate and acidic eruptions are known from the past (e.g. rhyolitic domes were erupted at the caldera rim during the last glacial period). - The extensive ice cover above Katla (which reaches thicknesses of more than c. 600 m above Katla's central caldera) means that its eruptions tend to be extremely explosive (phreatomagmatic eruptions).

What is beingdoneto improveglobal urbanearthquake risk management?

- More is being done today to address the increasing seismic risk of developing countries than at any time in history. (A comprehensive review of recent activities concerning natural risk reduction will soon be published by the United Nations' International Strategies for Disaster Reduction.) - The United Nations' International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) launched many activities around the world from 1990-1999. - Under the IDNDR, the national governments of a majority of countries drafted National Action Plans and submitted them at the Yokohama Conference in 1994. Through its Secretariat and prestigious Science and Technology (S&T) Committee, the IDNDR was to provide the required scientific and technological leadership to the National Committees and to the individuals and insti- tutions committed to the issues of disaster risk reduction. - With the IDNDR's 1994 Yokohama Conference recom- mending a shift of focus from disaster responseto disaster mitigation, the importance of the S&T Committee grew. Individuals, myself included, were motivated by the ideals of IDNDR, stirringly expressed by Frank Press at the 8th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, when he proposed the establishment of the IDNDR. - Many other organizations have, since the launch of the IDNDR, joined the cause. The rest of the UN familym including UNDP, UNESCO, UNICEF, UNCRD, WHO, and PAHOmis active in natural disaster management. - Many multinational governmental organizations, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the Organisation for Economic Development and Co-operation, and the Organization of American States, have their own distinct activities to improve seismic safety. - Nongovernmental organizations focusing on the needs of particular regions have also been created, for example, CEDPREDENAC in Central America; PREAN- DINO in the Andes; and, in Southeast Asia, ASEAN, the Asian Disaster Reduction Center, and the Asian Disaster Pre- vention Center. Many national governmental agencies work- ing on international development have been reanimated and focused. - These agencies include the U.S. Agency for Interna- tional Development, the Japan International Cooperation Agency, the U.K.'s Department for International Develop- ment, Germany's Gesellschaft fiir Technische Zusammenar- beit, and similar Scandinavian organizations

haiti geological future

- Nine months have passed since the disastrous earthquake in January 2010, but the state of emergency in Haiti has not ended. - Refugee camps are still prevalent, and acceptable levels of security are a distant dream, particularly for women. - conditions are just not going away: infrastructure, funding and a governmental organization capable of facilitating swift action are all lacking. The humanitarian crisis will take a long time to recede. - Nor is the case on the 2010 Haiti earthquake closed from a scientific point of view. As documented in this special issue on the disaster, no evidence for surface rupture has been found along the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault. - This fault is the prime suspect for the generation of earthquakes in the region around Port-au-Prince. But given the lack of a smoking gun — offsets in straight lines running through the landscapes, such as rivers, roads or fences — it is not clear whether any slip occurred on this particular fault. - So there is no doubt that better provisions against natural catastrophes urgently need to be implemented. - the quake came as no surprise. And it has been known for decades how to build houses that resist earthquakes. In fact, in the same year, stronger quakes in more-developed regions resulted in only a fraction of the damage seen in Haiti, at least in terms of loss of life. - The catastrophic impact of the quake stems from the apparently insurmountable difficulty of implementing efficient building standards in a country that needs money as desperately as it needs a stable political system. - Redevelopment is not helped by the fact that hurricanes also ocur in Haiti - the cheapest, lightest types of housing fared relatively well in the January earthquake. But if the next disaster happens to be caused by a hurricane, building cheaply and lightly is unlikely to be a successful strategy. - Safer buildings for Haiti must protect its citizens from the forces of nature overhead as well as underfoot. - In theory, the path to a safer country can be laid out. Rebuilding efforts should be swift, carried out according to the latest engineering know-how and supplemented by insurance to cover the unavoidable economic damage. At the same time, local scientific expertise should be fostered and built into a national centre of seismic and meteorological monitoring that entertains close links to both the international research community and local government - In the country's present traumatized state, it will be almost impossible to put these plans into practice. Nevertheless, geoscientists, the international community at large, development agencies and the people of Haiti must work together to make as much headway as possible towards protecting the population from future devastation.

Possible Reactions

- One is that advocacy is outside the mission of many professional associations. Another is that advocacy can feel like "lobby- ing", which does not sit well with the personalities of many researchers: - Researchers collect facts, and elected officials decide how to apply them to public policy. One concern is that the amount of funding for earthquake risk is fixed and therefore, if we were successful in describing the needs of developing countries and their relevance to, say, the U.S., the amount of funding available for current research would be reduced. This would cause difficulties with current research programs and teams. - Another criticism is that there already are too many organizations working on earthquake risk; cre-ating yet another would not be helpful. Finally, these ideas are outdated, naive, and idealistic. - There are various possible responses. If one refers to the mission statements of some professional associations, for example, those of SSA and EERI, one might conclude that if we continued to restrict ourselves to research and its application to the U.S., we would actually be failing to fulfill the missions of our organizations. - All members of the professional associations would not need to become lobbyists; rather, the associations would merely have to include advocacy among their activities. If society supports research on earthquakes merely to learn about the Earth, in the case of Earth science, then there would be no need to help assure that the results of our research are applied to society. But if our work as Earth scientists and earthquake engineers is supported by society because we can make society safer, then we must augment our research with activities that influence public policy. - Influencing public policy involves politics. Advocacy for new research would not necessarily reduce the level of funding for current research and it might even increase it. It could add new topics of research. - Clearly the proposed federation must be unlike anything that exists today. Finally, and most importantly, it might be argued that it would be more naive and idealistic--if not irresponsible--to continue doing what we are doing if we claim that our current actions will significantly decrease global earthquake risk.

Health effects of volcanic ash

- Outside of the immediate vicinity of the eruption, the volcanic ash generated during the Eyjafjallajökull eruption does not appear to have posed a significant threat to public health. Locally, some people exposed to the ash reported some respiratory symptoms such as wheezing, as well as eye/skin irritation

The tectonic setting of Kefalonia

- The island of Kefalonia lies along a zone of collision between the African and Eurasian Plates. This zone is called the Hellenic (or Aegean) Subduction Zone, where the African Plate is subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate (remember from Lecture 13, that this subduction is responsible for the Santorini caldera and the associated volcanic eruption of 1630BC, which is linked to the demise of the Minoan civilisation). This underwater zone of collision can be clearly seen from the bathymetric profile in Figure 3. Kefalonia lies at the NW limit of the Hellenic Subduction Zone. - The important thing to take away from this is that while the African Plate is subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate there is also a component of lateral movement (where the plates slide past one another) in the region of Kefalonia. Close to Kefalonia, the African Plate is moving to the NE, sliding past the Eurasian plate, which is moving towards the SW. This movement has created the Kefalonia Transform Fault (Fig. 3). - As a result of its position along the Hellenic Subduction zone, Kefalonia is experiencing uplift as the African Plate subducts beneath it. Kefalonia is one of the most seismically active areas in Greece and earthquakes, which are common in the region, are slowly thrusting Kefalonia upwards. Magnitude 7 or greater earthquakes occur on average every 50 years. According to the United States Geological Survey, Kefalonia has the highest seismic hazard in Greece

boat hypothesis

- The post-glacial flora and fauna of Ireland is relatively impoverished compared to Britain. Ireland lacks around 30% of the flora and fauna present in Britain (Devoy, 1995, Geological Society Special Publication No. 96, 181-208). If a land bridge connection were in operation, similar diversity of life might be expected. In any case, given that sea level would have been lower and shorelines of Ireland and Britain closer (Fig. 5), the plants and animals that did migrate to Ireland may not have required a land bridge. - In the case of human migration, it is entirely possible that the earliest humans to reach Ireland made the journey by boat. Mesolithic boats (dugout canoes) are known from Denmark and the Netherlands (Fig. 6), while a possible paddle is known from the c. 9500 BP Star Carr Mesolithic site in N. Yorkshire. - Other evidence for Mesolithic seafaring includes the colonisation of islands (e.g. Outer Hebrides in Scotland) that require long and/or difficult sea journeys

Gavà Neolithic Mining Complex

- The village of Gavà, Spain is host to the Gavà Neolithic Mining Complex (GNMC), a variscite mine that was in operation c. 6000 years ago (Fig. 8). Variscite is a relatively rare hydrated (meaning it contains water) phosphatic (contains phosphorus and oxygen) mineral (AlPO4.2H2O; Fig. 9). It has a distinctive green colour and was mined for use as jewellery during the Neolithic. Chert and haematite deposits are also found at Gavà, but these resources were ignored by the early miners. - The variscite-bearing deposits at Gavà are found in shales that were deposited during the Silurian and deformed during a mountain building event at the end of the Carboniferous. The ore deposits formed at various stages before, during and after this deformation. Some are stratabound deposits (i.e., occur as layers within the sedimentary rock). Others are vein deposits where ore minerals have been precipitated along fractures. A cover of Quaternary deposits unconformably overlies the sequence at Gavà - The interesting conclusion drawn from the Camprubi et al. (2003) paper is that the early miners at Gavà were conscious of geology and geological structures. They had a grasp of mineral associations, i.e. they knew what rock types and minerals were likely to indicate the presence of variscite. They were also aware of structures that would allow them to best exploit the ore (e.g. they mined along existing faults and fractures making the job of extracting ore that bit easier). They also seem to have had an understanding of the three dimensional nature of geological structures (e.g. they realised that the ore deposits extended beneath the Quaternary cover and could be reached by digging directly into the cover). Camprubi et al. (2003) found no evidence to suggest that these early miners dug indiscriminately into the rock at Gavà. - demonstrated that turquoise-coloured beads found in burial chambers at Carnac, Brittany (Fig. 10) likely originated in Spain.

The geology of the Thinia Valley

- The western part of the valley comprises Cretaceous and Palaeogene limestones, which are unconformably overlain by Miocene marls (= a calcareous mudstone) and conglomerate. These rocks are tilted, or dip, gently towards the east and are occasionally disrupted by thrust faults (Fig. 6). A fault is a planar surface along which rocks on one side of the surface move relative to rocks on the other side. A thrust fault is a type of fault that forms as a result of compression, where the rocks on the upper surface of the fault move up and over the rocks on the lower surface of the fault. Earthquakes are caused by energy release during rapid movement along a fault (this is fully explained in next week's lectures). - In the eastern part of the valley Cretaceous and Palaeogene limestones dip steeply towards the west (Fig. 6). Given the sheer-sided nature of the cliffs on the eastern side of the Thinia Valley, do you think this could be a problem in terms of landslides? - In the southern part of the Thinia Valley, in a region called Katochori, horizontally layered, fine-grained sediments of a long-since drained lake are preserved (Fig. 6). These deposits, the Katochori Lake deposits, rest unconformably on the Palaeogene and Miocene rocks as well as on some of the rock debris (this means that the lake is younger than some of the rock fall deposits). These deposits are significant as radiocarbon dating of organic matter in some of the sediments could place some constraints on timing of rock fall. A date younger than c. 2000 BP would support the existence of Strabo's channel. An older date would mean reconsidering the hypothesis. This is something that the Odysseus Unbound project hopes to investigate further

The worlds oldest mine

- The world's oldest mine, the Lion Cave (or Lion Cavern) mine, is situated in the Ngwenya Mountains, Swaziland (S Africa) and was first discovered in the 1960s during open cast mining in the area. Radiocarbon dating suggests that the Lion Cave mine was in operation c. 43,000 years ago. Unusually for this time, the sought after raw material was not flint but iron ore; haematite (Fe2O3, a major iron ore mineral) and more specifically specularite, a platy, metallic variety of haematite - The Ngwenya Mountains have been mined for iron ore a number of times over the last 43,000 years. Modern mining operations ceased in the Ngwenya Mountains in 1980. The iron ores at Ngwenya are found among the oldest sedimentary rocks found on Earth. However, it is not clear when these iron ore deposits formed. Some argue that they are as old as, and form part of, the surrounding Archaean sedimentary rocks. Others say they formed much more recently during the Quaternary. This debate is beyond the scope of this course. - It is estimated that at least 50 tons of specularite-rich haematite was mined at Lion Cave while it was in operation. Despite the massive amounts of iron ore mined in this region there is no evidence for smelting. Instead it is thought that these minerals were mined for use as pigment (i.e. ground down to produce the pigment red ochre) for cosmetics, art and/or ritual

disaster response vs destruction

- This continued emphasis on disaster response over reduction would be unimagin- able in other theaters of social work. Imagine if our sustained response to the AIDS epidemic were to invest primarily in hospital beds, rather than in education and cures. Imagine if our long-term response to an increase in auto accidents were to hire more paramedics, rather than to strengthen enforcement of seat belt laws. - When the IDNDR ended, at the end of the 1990's, it was replaced in the UN with the more modestly funded International Strategies of Disaster Reduction (ISDR). Through no fault of the staff of the ISDR, some of the momentum of the IDNDR has been lost. The IDNDR's National Committees have been dismantled, which was a blow to the morale of the national organizations and resulted in a setback in their national initiatives. The Science and Technology Committee no longer exists. There has been nei- ther formal evaluation of the achievements of national gov- ernments nor any systematic monitoring of the National Action Plans. Understandably, the investments by national develop- ment agencies reflect the priorities of the donor nations. Thus, resources of these agencies are directed where there is an overlap between the need of the vulnerable locals and the interests of the foreign donors. This means that some highly vulnerable countries are ignored, while others become the favorites of the development world and are provided with perhaps more aid than they can efficiently absorb. - There are yet other reasons for concluding that what is being done is not enough. The most sophisticated techniques of risk management have been developed for the insurance of capital, which is primarily in developed countries. Too often, pilot projects~which are exciting to conceive of and launch, but difficult to continue~are not improved and then repli- cated on a large scale. Too many of today's workshops, confer- ences, seminars, symposia, and training courses "preach to the choir" and to the same choir. (This paper addresses that same choir.) We have manuals and guidelines, usually in English, to teach earthquake-resistant construction, but how many hands-on training courses are there for masons in developing countries? How many programs are aimed at increasing the demand in poor countries for earthquake-resis- tant construction? Perhaps the most visible evidence of our lack of progress is the annual occurrence of newspaper stories describing the unexpected collapse of schools, often recently constructed schools, due to earthquakes.

Three possible scenarios for the geological events on 12 January

- Three possible scenarios for the geological events on 12 January are proposed in this issue, involving movement on either one, two or three faults - At present, it is not clear which of the models is correct The question of which faults were involved is not just an academic one, it determines Haiti's seismic future. - Crustal strain builds up continuously in the region, as the Caribbean plate drifts relative to the North American plate. - The most recent historical earthquakes in the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone near Port-au-Prince probably occurred in 1751 and 1770, and at least one of them ruptured the surface (page 789). - Since then, the strain has been accumulating. Only if we know exactly what happened in the Earth's crust on 12 January 2010 can we estimate how much of this strain has been released — and how much plate movement is waiting to be accommodated in a future earthquake. - In any case, that the surface did not rupture this time implies some scope for shaking in the not-too-distant future.

Palaeogeographic reconstructions

- To investigate the possible land-bridge connection between Britain and Ireland, Edwards & Brooks (2008) combined the RSL data with topographic and bathymetric data (which describe the shape of the Earth's surface) to produce palaeogeographic reconstructions for the last 20,000 years. - It must be noted that these reconstructions are based upon modern topographic and bathymetric data and therefore assume minimal change in morphology over time. These models, therefore, do not take into account changes in bathymetry or topography that may result from erosion and/or deposition (e.g. if a sandbar existed between northern Ireland and Scotland that may have acted as a stepping stone for early humans, this would not be considered in the model below). - These reconstructions suggest that bridges between Ireland and Britain may have been in existence prior to c. 16,000 yrs ago (via ice and via low-lying land-bridges, e.g. between SE Ireland and SW Britain) but not after that. Because much of Ireland was still covered by ice at this time (Fig. 2), any migration that would have taken place would have been limited to cold-tolerant flora and fauna. - The results also show some lateral migration of the coastline around Ireland. Could this have implications for the preservation of evidence of early humans? This will be discussed in more detail later. - The above study is by no means definitive and there has been debate as to the validity of the model used. However, this debate tends to focus more on the glacial/late glacial phase rather than the Holocene phase, the more likely time of plant and animal migration. It seems probable, therefore, that the earliest humans did not reach Ireland by foot.

earthquakes usually

- Usually, the poorest suffer the most in disasters that hit developing countries, but this may not have been so in Haiti. - The lowest quality housing experienced less damage than many higher quality structures. Specifically, shanty housing made of mixed wood and corrugated metal fared well, as did concrete masonry unit structures made of concrete blocks and corrugated metal roofs. - These inexpensive shacks probably had a very low incidence of failure because they are such light structures. At the other extreme, the most expensive seismically designed structures also seem to have performed well, but for quite different reasons. Although they were heavier, they had designs that avoided well-known problems, and the materials used in building were of adequate quality and quantity. It seems to have been the moderately expensive structures, built with concrete columns and slabs, that were reinforced, but concrete block walls that were not. - Such structures frequently experienced severe damage or collapse because their builders cut costs with inadequate designs, materials and construction methods. - The relationship between building cost and seismic safety thus seems to be not just non-linear, but non-monotonic. That is, people can spend their way into hazard vulnerability, not just out of it. To avoid this problem, three main requirements must be met. - First, earthquake risk maps are needed to identify the areas where seismic-resistant construction is required - Second, building codes must then be adopted, implemented and enforced. Finally, insurance is required to fund rebuilding after an earthquake in which building codes have saved lives but not buildings. - Unfortunately, hazard maps are simply unavailable in many parts of the world. In other parts, they are available but inaccessible to prospective house buyers, or even intentionally hidden at the time of sale11. - With respect to building hazard- resistant structures or retrofitting existing ones, it can be quite profitable for ignorant or unscrupulous builders to cut corners in the construction process by using inferior materials and methods. Prospective buyers are rarely able to detect building defects, so building codes that require seismic- resistant designs, materials and methods are only effective in combination with building inspection programmes that ensure code compliance. This, in turn, requires well-trained and highly motivated building inspectors who are given enough time to conduct thorough inspections. - The funding for such building inspections is often in danger as soon as local governments face funding crises.

The History of Copper video

- blast mines in rock then crush the rock - seperate out the copper in flotation cell = copper concentrate (20% pure) - filtering plant to get more pure - use electrode to make ever more pure

Why is Mountsandel so important?

- earliest site in Ireland (8000 BC)

Eyjafjallajökull

- elongated, cone-shaped volcano measuring approximately 1600 m in height - It sits below a 200 m thick ice cap of the same name that covers the summit of the volcano. - Prior to 2010, Eyjafjallajökull last erupted in 1821, an eruption that lasted intermittently until 1823. Before that the only known eruption in recent history was in 1612. - The type of lava produced during the 1821 eruption was intermediate to acidic in composition (i.e, it crystallised from a magma with a chemical composition intermediate between that of a basaltic magma and that of a granitic magma but closer to granitic than basaltic).

Mountsandle YouTube video

- excavated 1970s by Woodman, found hut structures - microliths = tiny flint stones - artifacts found in rivers

Making History - Malachite & Copper video

- green malachite exposed in riverbed in Jordan (source of copper) - easy to melt and fashion - pretty color, used for jewelry especially - Bersheva Valley had a monopoly due to the mines - by superheating it smelts -

Peter Woodman Interview Part 1

- how did you get nitrates in Mount Sandle? - distinctive flint axes in Ulster museum - lots from Mount Sandel, earlier than expected, didn't fit with what they knew from mainland europe - stuff started popping up all over the place in mount sandle - needed to know the age

How volcanic ash affects aircraft

- melts in engines and clogs them, no cooling air can get in - measures speed relative to air around it, collects air outside, dust clogs this, aircraft can't tell how fast it is flying 2009 Redoubt, Alaska eruption: Between March 22 and April 5 the eruption resulted in approximately 60 re-routes, 20 diversions, and 10 turn backs with many night operations into Anchorage cancelled. Anchorage International was closed for 1 day and express parcel air carriers had to move operations for several weeks. 2009 Sarychev Peak, Kuriles, Russia eruption: Between June 12 and 15 the eruption resulted in 65 re-routes, 6 diversions, 2 turnbacks, and 12 unscheduled fuel stops.

Glaciers / ice caps

- presence of glaciers above many of the volcanoes. Melting of these glaciers during eruptions causes two problems. - Firstly, bursts of melt water ('jökulhlaups') from these glaciers can lead to severe flooding. - Secondly, the interaction of melt water and magma can lead to an explosive type of eruption called phreatomagmatic eruptions, which produce very fine-grained particles of glassy ash (or tephra, although technically speaking the term tephra also includes much larger particle sizes). - You might remember from Assignment 1 that extrusive igneous rocks are much more fine-grained than intrusive igneous rocks. This is because they cool so quickly that large crystals do not have time to grow. Volcanic glass forms when cooling takes place so rapidly that no crystals have time to grow

present codes haiti

- present codes are intended to ensure that occupants survive, not that stricken buildings can resume their functions immediately after an earthquake. In fact, some code-compliant buildings might be damaged so severely that they require demolition and replacement. - Building codes and inspection programmes therefore need to be supplemented by well- designed hazard-insurance programmes that provide building owners with the funds they will need to repair or rebuild. - In hazard-insurance programmes, those at risk pay the expected costs of reconstruction through insurance premiums that are proportional to the probability and magnitude of their expected financial losses. This makes hazard insurance an inherently fairer system than post-disaster relief, which forces taxpayers in low-risk areas to subsidize those in high-risk areas. - As attractive as hazard-insurance programmes are in principle, they meet with many practical obstacles. On the insurers' side, these include uncertainty about the appropriate premiums for events of low probability but high consequences, limitations on insurers' reserves and problematic relationships with reinsurers — problems that arise in connection with flood and hurricane catastrophes as well as earthquakes12. - But the fundamental impediment to insurance- based risk-management strategies is that many people, and not just the poorest of the poor, respond to the prospect of a low-probability, high-consequence event by ignoring the threat. That is, people are myopic decision-makers who are poorly prepared for environmental disasters - Unfortunately, the argument "it's a question of when, not if " the next earthquake strikes is persuasive only from a long- range societal perspective, and not to individuals who may move from the area or to politicians whose term of office may end before the next event. - Incentives for planning ahead could be set through links between hazard insurance and hazard mitigation, by offering reduced insurance rates in communities that have adopted and enforced effective building codes. Nonetheless, hazard insurance is perceived to have significant disadvantages compared with other household mitigation and preparation measures14.

Why did Mesolithic people choose to live at Mountsandel?

- salmon in summer, eels in autumn, hazelnuts in autumn, boar in spring (breeding season),

Eyjafjallajökull eruption 2010

- started to show signs that something was stirring in 2009. Increased seismicity (i.e. increased occurrence of earthquakes in the region) and ground deformation, alerted scientists that magma was moving towards the surface. - The first stage began on the 20th March 2010 and lasted until 12th April 2010. It occurred in a region between Eyjafjallajökull and Katla not covered by ice and so there was no explosive interaction between magma and meltwater. - This part of the eruption was characterised by fire fountain eruptions from vents that opened up along a 500 m long fissure. This phase of the eruption generated a c. 10-20 m thick layer of basaltic lava, covering an area of c. 1.3 km2. Small amounts of volcanic ash generated during this phase of the eruption fell in the vicinity of the eruption. - The second phase of the eruption, which began on the 14th of April, occurred at the summit of Eyjafjallajökull beneath the Eyjafjallajökull ice cap. Because of the interaction with meltwater this phase of the eruption was far more explosive (phreatomagmatic eruption) than the first phase spewing particles of fine-grained, glassy volcanic ash more than 8 km into the atmosphere. - on its way to the summit of Eyjafjallajökull the basaltic magma interacted with a pre-existing body of magma similar in composition to the 1821 Eyjafjallajökull eruption (alkaline trachyitic magma) located at a depth of c. 1 km. Mixing of the two magma types produced a more viscous magma than that erupted at Fimmvörðuháls. Basaltic magmas are the least viscous (i.e. are quite runny). Because of this trapped gasses can escape relatively easily and so basaltic eruptions are not generally explosive. The more viscous the magma, the more difficult it is for gases to escape and thus the pressure of trapped gases can build up leading to explosive eruptions.

What did the excavation at Mountsandel reveal?

- tiny implements, often broken - had to sieve very tiny holes - one patch appeared very different, black soil, undisturbed - had round black marks, fragments of burnt bone (acidic soil, bad preservation) - radiocarbon dated some stuff, 7500 BC (much older than expected) -

Eyjafjallajökull and Katla

- volcanoes are located in South Iceland. In southern Iceland divergence is complicated and occurs in two parallel rift zones the Western Volcanic Zone (WVZ) and the Eastern Volcanic Zone (EVZ). - These zones are separated by a transform boundarycalled the South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ). The Hreppar microplate is located between the parallel spreading zones. - Eyjafjallajökull and Katla are located outside the main zones of divergent plate motion (Fig. 5).

Relative sea level and glacial rebound models

-Could glacial rebound have created land bridges between Britain and Ireland, following the last Ice Age? Recent studies have attempted to model the effect of retreating ice on relative sea level (RSL; the level of the sea relative to the land surface). - One such study, entitled 'The Island of Ireland: Drowning the Myth of an Irish Land-bridge?' (a possible clue as to the conclusions reached in this paper!) by Edwards and Brooks (2008), is discussed below.RSL reconstruction is a complex process involving many variables, not least, sea level change as a result of melting ice and the vertical adjustment of the Earth's surface in response to unloading of formerly glaciated areas. - The computer model used in the Edwards & Brooks (2008) study is called a glacial rebound model, which incorporates three mains strands, an ice-loading model (that defines the distribution of the glacial ice), an Earth model (that simulates the response of the Earth's crust to loading) and an algorithm to compute the corresponding changes in sea level. - The RSL curve for the Dublin region (Fig. 4) shows a drop in sea level after c. 20,000 BP. This fall is attributed to crustal rebound as a result of unloading of glacial ice. Between c. 15,000 - 14,000 BP there is an increase in sea level attributed to the rapid addition of meltwater from waning ice-sheets. This is followed by a few thousand years of relative stability where rising sea level is matched by crustal rebound. - By c. 10,000 BP, the rise in sea level outpaced the land surface response resulting in an increase in RSL. This model suggests that RSL has remained fairly constant in Dublin over the last c. 6,000 years.Similar patterns are seen for southern Ireland, the Shannon and western Ireland (areas 3, 5 and 6 in Fig. 4). The main difference is that these areas have experienced rising RSL over the last 6,000 years due to their distance from the centres of ice loading. RSL curves from the NW and NE (areas 1 and 2 in Fig. 4), suggest that these areas are more greatly influenced by crustal rebound, a result of their proximity to the main centres of ice loading (see Fig. 2). These curves show higher than present RSL immediately after c. 20,000 BP, corresponding to a greater amount of crustal depression in these areas at that time

Dart and Beaumont, 1969

1) The type of stone tools used by these early miners and the source of these tools. = stone mining tools, also quartz and shale from a quarter mile away 2) The likely cause for the termination of mining at Lion Cave. = fall of hermatinite boulder 3) The evidence to suggest that specularite, rather than ordinary haematite, was the sought after mineral = other places had the haematite in more accessable locations - mine dates to at least c. 43,000 BP

According to Brian Tucker, by how much is global population set to increase by 2024? Question

2 billion

Rudna Glava Serbia mining method

A heating and cooling technique was likely used to break up the malachite ore at Rudna Glava; fires were lit along the quarry wall, then cold water was thrown over the hot rock causing it to crack, making it easier to chip apart. These early miners then used stone hammers made of hard igneous rock and deer antler picks to extract the copper ore (see Fig. 6). Some of the stone hammers found show evidence for a central groove where it is thought that rope or a leather band may have been attached to make either a pendulum or to attach the stone to a handle of some sort.

Mantle plume

A mantle plume, or a 'hot spot', is a column of very hot rock that rises up through the mantle and is fixed relative to the moving plate above. Hot spot volcanoes produce much more lava than normal mid-ocean ridge volcanoes and it is for this reason that the island of Iceland lies above sea level.

geoscience summary

An essential difference between adaptation to earthquake risk and adaptation to climate change is that climate variability is usually emergent, whereas earthquakes are sudden and unexpected events. - But this is where geological inevitability comes into play: any large infrastructure project built in an active seismic region — a dam, a transportation network, a new urban-development zone — will almost certainly be exposed to damaging ground shaking during its service life. - In some sense, episodic events such as earthquakes are 'training days' for societies trying to develop adaptive institutions to ward off future loss. Incorporating preparedness for episodic disasters into longer-term disaster risk management should be part of any sustainable development roadmap. - This means that much should be done now. We know enough to encourage the building of improved infrastructure, and to build competent civil defense agencies. That this is not done consistently is a failure of present policy and development financing. Moving disaster risk management up the priority list will require national desire, combined with international pressure. Hopefully, it won't take another disaster. - Local knowledge, data acquisition and informed analysis can improve a nation's ability to adapt to earthquake hazards. - Before the quake, Haiti did not have a functioning earthquake-monitoring system and only one seismologist. It is likely that a new monitoring network will be deployed as a result of the flow of recovery funds. - This initial provision must be matched by a commitment to pay for continued operations and maintenance, and the development of seismological expertise, even though this may compete with other recovery needs. - Building geoscience knowledge locally and combining it with improved access to international geophysical-monitoring systems should form the basis of Haiti's transit from recovery to sustainable economic growth. - The ball is in the court of the international development agencies. The international geoscience community is ready to assist

Which of the following most closely approximates the death toll of the 2010 earthquake in Haiti?

Approximately230, 000 deaths

How much Holocene uplift has taken place in Kefalonia?

Around 6 m.

haiti before 2010

Before the 2010 earthquake, Haiti had one seismologist but no functioning earthquake-monitoring system

2010 Chile Earthquake

By comparison, the substantially stronger 2010 Chile earthquake led to $US15 to 30 billion in damage — approximately 9-18% of the country's GDP5 — but only about 500 deaths. Some of the difference in death rates might be attributable to variations in seismic and site characteristics, such as shallow rupture depth or soft sediments. However, building location, design and construction clearly made a substantial difference in the number of casualties.

land bridge hypothesis

During the last Ice Age, Ireland was covered by ice (Fig. 2). This would have resulted in dramatic changes in sea level (during glacial periods water is trapped in ice and so sea-level drops) resulting in the emergence of vast areas of land now submerged beneath the oceans. - Certainly this could have created land bridges for the migration of humans but would the Ireland of the last Ice Age have been a hospitable environment? There is no evidence for the presence of humans in Ireland before c. 10,000 years ago (although absence of evidence is not evidence of absence!). By this time the ice from the last Ice Age would have melted and the water, originally trapped in the ice sheets, returned to the oceans

Shaken island

Geophysical analyses of the 2010 Haiti earthquake suggest that there is still potential for seismic activity in the region. Building a more resilient country is the only option.

Beyond bricks and mortar

Geoscience has played a key role in the recovery of Haiti since the earthquake, but warnings were not heeded in the political sphere. along with better houses, an adaptive disaster-management infrastructure that incorporates science needs to be built.

Homer

Homer was an epic poet of Ancient Greece whose poems the Iliad and the Odyssey are among the world's oldest texts. The Iliad describes events towards the end of the Trojan War, while the Odyssey tells the tale of the hero Odysseus' journey to his homeland of Ithaca after the Trojan War. - In the first part of this assignment you will be introduced to crux of the problem, that the modern day Greek island of Ithaki does not fit the description of Homer's Ithaca. You will then be taken through the rationale for proposing that the Paliki peninsula on the neighbouring island of Kefalonia is a more likely candidate. You will also examine the geoscience techniques applied to investigate the proposed relocation of Homer's Ithaca

another definition

I propose yet another definition: We are doing "enough" if by 2025 the world's most vulnerable countries can expect to develop their economies, societies, governments, and cultures free from the threat of periodic reversals by natural disasters. - Using this definition, I conclude that, at present, we are not doing enough. - If my definition seems too demanding, we should realize that developed earthquake-threatened countries (e.g., the U.S., Japan, and Italy) certainly would not tolerate periodic reversals of their development due to earthquakes or other natural disasters. - The cost of the 1994 Northridge earthquake was about 1% of the regional (not national) gross domestic product (GDP), and the cost of the 1989 Loma Prieta earth- quake was only about .2 % of the regional GDP. - By contrast, the cost of the 1972 Nicaragua earthquake was 40% of that country's entire GDP, and the cost of the 1986 El Salvador earthquake was 30% of that country's GDP. Munich RE data indicate that in the period from 1985 to 1999, the world's richest countries' losses to natural disasters averaged about 2% of their GDP's, while the poorest countries' losses aver- aged about 13% of their GDP's. - Having observed this problem for more than a decade, I believe that in the case of global urban earthquake risk reduction the world is spending too little, often in the wrong places and often with unknown effectiveness. - The amount of resources directed toward poor countries in developing regions from most donor countries is too low according to the UN. Total international assistance amounted to about $57 billion in 2002, which represents about 0.2% of the global GDP. - The UN has recommended that 0.7% of the GDP of each donor country should be given to development assistance. The U.S. has consistently not met this target. For example, in 2000, it gavejust 0.1%. - Only five countries meet or exceed this target: Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Luxembourg. - Only a small fraction of total international assistance goes to natural disaster reduction. A recent study by Tearfund (a U.K.-based charity) reports that usually less than 10% of the humanitarian assistance budgets of multinational and bilateral donor organizations is devoted to natural disaster risk reduction (e.g., preparedness, prevention, and mitiga- tion). - A much greater amount (unfortunately, not known precisely) is routinely directed to postdisaster response(e.g., recovery, reconstruction, and relief). - What is most troubling to me is that this bias for disaster response over reduction has continued despite the 1994 call of the UN's IDNDR for a shift from response to reduction. Tearfund cites an example of current priorities. In 2000, after learning of the forecast for a heavy rainy season, Mozambique appealed to the international donor community for $2.7 million to prepare for the expected floods. - Half this amount was provided. Once the devastating floods arrived, the interna- tional donor community awarded $100 mil- lion for emergency assistance and, later, pledged an additional $450 million for reha- bilitation and reconstruction.

How can the international Earthscience and earthquake engineering communities help?

I will propose four modest activities and one ambitious one. (Some organizations, such as SSA and EERI, have recently embarked on activities similar to the modest ones proposed here.) - First, these communities could urge the World Bank, the United Nations, and national development organizations to increase, relatively, the amount of investment in disaster mit- igation compared to that in disaster response. Increasing this proportion has been suggested by many people, and large international development banks even recognize the logic of doing this, but for the last decade the balance has been heavily in favor of response. To help people when they are in greatest need, by providing search and rescue, recovery, and reconstruction, attracts the attention of the news media and is therefore politically attractive. But these efforts should not displace resources that could be used to prevent death and losses. The international earthquake professional societies could use their credibility to argue that an adjustment of pri- orities is called for and to recognize governments and organi- zations that make that adjustment. - Second, these communities could lobby their own gov- ernments to fund earthquake professionals to improve earth- quake risk management in foreign communities. In the U.S., this would mean that SSA and EERI would urge U.S. govern- ment organizations such as NSF, USGS, and FEMA to fund activities, including research, connected with international earthquake risk. Imagine if the U.S. and Japan designed pro- grams to use their new, large shake-table facilities to tdesigns, construction methods, and retrofit techniques of indigenous, nonengineered housing. Imagine if the interna- tional construction industry worked on methods to build earthquake-resistant earthen structures and other types of construction practiced in rural parts of the developing world. - Third, members of international earthquake communi- ties could work with large international construction compa- nies, the UN, and international development banks to develop better methods of reconstructing communities that have been destroyed by earthquakes. In some recent earth~ quakes, the understandable pressure to provide housing quickly in order to get survivors out of temporary tents and into more permanent structures has led to the construction of settlements that the local people do not like (and sometimes soon abandon) and that are not always earthquake-resistant. Furthermore, the construction is often done by nonlocal workers, so the opportunity to train locals in earthquake- resistant construction methods is lost. It must be that the organizations (such as the World Bank, the Asian Develop- ment Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, and the UN) funding such reconstruction would desire settlements that are earthquake-resistant and acceptable to the locals, but the pressure to build something quickly may lead to compro- mises. The capacity to rebuild a community quickly is not possessed by many companies, and many of those that do possess this capacity come from industrialized countries and therefore are most familiar with nonlocal construction meth- ods and materials. The international Earth science and earth- quake engineering communities could urge the international development banks and large construction companies to develop construction methods and procedures, in advance of the next disastrous earthquake, that would use material and skills found in developing countries. - Finally, the international Earth science and earthquake engineering communities could create a "window of knowl- edge" for earthquake professionals in developing countries by setting up an Internet consultancy opportunity with inter- ested members. We could create a "tree" of consultants around the world who are willing to answer questions by e- mail about topics in their specialties. The purpose is to develop leadership in developing countries. At GeoHazards International, we often receive questions from people around the world who want to know more about earthquake risk and how to reduce it. We do not have the staff to respond. Fur- ther, we also receive frequent offers by earthquake profession- als and advanced graduate students to become involved and to help. Resources are needed to direct the information requests to the volunteers.

And what of the missing island Doulichion?

If Paliki was really Homer's Ithaca, what then was the ancient name of the island that is now called Ithaki? Interestingly, it appears that today's Ithaki has indeed been given the name of Doulichion in the historical record, from Virgil through to the Venetians. Its main town, now called Vathy, was called Dolicha as recently as 1675, when it was visited by Jacob Spon and Sir George Wheler. So if Strabo's Channel is confirmed as a late Holocene geological feature, then not only will we have found Homer's "rocky isle" but the 'lost' island of Doulichion will reappear on our maps too. And once again, we shall be able to credit Homer with remarkable geographical precision.' - This hypothesis has been strengthened in 2019 with newer findings from the first modern map of Greece, published in Greek by a Greek map-maker Rigas Velestinlis (1757 - 1798) in the late 18th century. The modern island of Ithaki is clearly labelled as 'Δολιχειον' ('Dolicheion')!

Earthquake preparedness in developed countries

It is clear from the previous sections that there is a gap in seismic risk between developed and developing countries. - As well as strict building practices, earthquake-prone regions in developed countries have more resources to raise awareness about earthquake preparedness. - An example of this is the approach taken in California, an area where earthquake hazard is high. The Great California Shakeout is a statewide initiative that aims to raise awareness about earthquakes and what to do during and after an earthquake scenario. - In 2008 a Shakeout earthquake drill took place in Southern California with 5.3 million participants. The drill is now an annual event, incorporating the entire state of California. Up to 8 million people participate, annually

Greek Landslides

It is clear from the unstable, steep-sided cliffs on the eastern side of the Thinia Valley, as well as the presence of rock fall debris coating the valley below, that this region is prone to landslides - Evidence for catastrophic landslides is common in the Thinia Valley. Figure 8a shows how a recent coastline landslide narrowly avoided destroying the road above. The debris from this event was subsequently washed out to sea. Deposits of scree often include large blocks of Palaeogene limestone like those shown in Fig. 8b. On the eastern cliff of Myrtos Bay (Fig. 7b), an unstable, detached block looms precariously (Fig. 8c). In some instances landslides have blocked roads (Fig. 8d). Landslides are more common on the eastern part of the Thinia Valley, where cliff faces are steep, however, a major, westerly-derived landslide deposit is also recorded beneath the village of Zola - Most of the landslides in the Thinia Valley are triggered by earthquakes (see Fig. 9a). However, aseismic landslides have also occurred in the region. In November 2007, wet weather conditions led to a major landslide above the village of Nifi, damaging houses in the area -It is clear from the above evidence that landslides and rock falls are common in the Thinia Valley. The question is could the rock debris have filled any former marine channel between the Paliki peninsula and eastern Kefalonia to, in some places, heights of 180 m above sea level? In order to test this hypothesis, borehole drilling and geophysical techniques were employed. These are discussed in the following section.

Which of the following suggests that the modern day island of Ithaki was not the homeland of Odysseus?

It is not west-facing. It is not the farthest island out to sea. It is mountainous rather than low-lying.

Which building types experienced the most damage during the 2010 earthquake in Haiti

Moderately expensive structures with reinforced concrete columns and slabs but concrete block walls that were not reinforced

Which of the following statements is false (select all that apply)?

More people died in the 2010 earthquake in Haiti than the substantially stronger 2010 earthquake in Chile. (true) false - The 2010 earthquake in Chile was stronger than the 2010 earthquake in Haiti and resulted in more deaths. The 2010 earthquake in Chile was not as strong as the 2010 earthquake in Haiti thus explaining the lower death toll in the Chilean earthquake. The 2010 earthquake in Haiti was of similar strength to the 2010 earthquake in Chile and resulted in a similar death toll

nongovernmental organizations and earthquakes

Never have more nongovernmental organizations, both local and international, been working on natural disaster risk. - These organizations include the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Savethe Children, CARE, the Aga Khan Development Network (including FOCUS Humanitarian Assistance), Tearfund, and the orga- nization for which I work, GeoHazards International. - Even more nonprofit organizations in developing countries them- selves have emerged, including, for example, the National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal, the Sustainable Environment and Ecological Development Society in India, and LA RED in Latin America. - Some universities are now offering degree programs in natural disaster management. A new industry has been created over the last ten years focusing on natural risk management. Never have there been more conferences, symposia, seminars, workshops, and training sessions on natural disaster management than in recent years.

Las Médulas Mine, Leon, Spain

Northwest Spain has been known for its gold for millennia and so it is no surprise that the Romans set their sights on this region (Fig. 13). The mine at Las Médulas was the largest opencast mine of the Roman Empire (an estimated 90 million cubic meters of material was removed at Las Médulas - The gold at Las Médulas is found in sediments that were deposited by rivers during the Miocene. This type of deposit is known as a placer deposit (= a deposit of sand or gravel containing eroded particles of valuable minerals). Following deposition, tectonic processes resulted in uplift in the region allowing easy access for hydraulic mining. - The figure below (Fig. 14) shows the stratigraphic sequence at Las Médulas. The main gold-bearing deposit is the Santalla Formation (middle)

2010 Haiti Earthquake

The 2010 Haiti earthquake caused approximately 230,000 deaths, the fourth largest death toll of any earthquake since 19002. Moreover, this event produced between $US7.5 and 14 billion in damage3 — the lower bound is approximately 120% of the country's (GDP). Part of the reason the relative impact is so large is that Haiti's GDP is so low. But in comparison with 35 Latin American disasters in the period from 1982 to 19964, Haiti's 120% of GDP still vastly exceeds the economic impact of other disasters in the region, which ranged from 1.0 to 85.4%.

Extent of volcanic ash distribution

The 2010 eruption at Eyjafjallajökull was by no means the biggest eruption that Iceland has ever experienced. - In fact, in terms of ash production, the 2010 eruption was quite small. Ash-producing volcanoes in Iceland are divided into two categories; those that produce more than c. 1 km3 of ash and those with ash volumes of c. 0.01 - 1 km3 - The 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption falls in the latter category. The reason the eruption caused so much disruption to European airspace was a combination of Eyjafjallajökull's position upwind of mainland Europe and the prevailing weather patterns at the time of the eruption, i.e. stable high pressure and westerly winds (Davies et al., 2010). - The plume of ash emitted from Eyjafjallajökull was carried towards mainland Europe by northwesterly and westerly winds and eventually spread over parts of the North Atlantic Ocean towards Canada (Fig. 9).

NATO

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) also considers that helping developing countries manage their earthquake risk is in its self-interest. For example, NATO is organizing a workshop to address the problem of seismic risk of public buildings in the Maghreb Region (Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria) because (1) NATO is in the business of stability, (2) mass migrations are destabilizing, and (3) nat- ural disasters (such as earthquakes) cause mass migrations. NATO's previous "Science for Peace" program is now known as the "Security through Science" program.

Aenos Thrust Fault

The boundary along which the east-dipping rocks meet the west-dipping rocks is called the Aenos Thrust Fault, a major thrust fault that has emplaced the west-dipping rocks on top of the east-dipping rocks (Fig. 6). This boundary is largely obscured by rockfall debris (Fig. 6), the origin of which is discussed in the next section.

future of earthquakes

The future does not look better. - In the next 20 years, the world's population will increase by 2 billion. Of that 2 billion, only 50 million will be added to industrialized countries, the rest to developing countries. - Because of internal migraruin, from the countryside to cities, the urban population of developing countries will increase by itself by 2 billion people over this period. - Imagine that in the next 20 years the combined population of today's India and China will be added to such cities as Algiers, Cairo, Istanbul, Ankara, Aleppo, Teheran, Tabriz, Mashed, Kabul, Quetta, Rawalapindi, Delhi, Calcutta, Dhaka, Yangon, Manila, Jakarta, Mexico City, Guatemala City, Bogot~i, Quito, and Lima. - Recall that the 8th World Confer- ence on Earthquake Engineering occurred only 20 years ago. In that same amount of time, 2 billion people will appear in some of the world's poorest cities and will need places to live, learn, and work. Given the lack of resources and the urgency to build, the quality of construction will, unless something changes quickly, continue to decline

Conclusion

The large and rapidly growing global urban earthquake risk, particularly in developing countries, is a problem that needs to be solved, quickly, for the sake of rich and poor countries alike. More is being done today to solve this problem than at any time in human history. But what is being done is still not enough, if by "enough" we mean that sometime in the near future all countries can avoid periodic, devastating setbacks in their development by earthquakes. Tackling this problem requires more than a modification and augmentation of what we have been doing. We need a radical new approach, such as the creation of an international earthquake safety advocacy federation. The international Earth science and earthquake engineering communities (in the U.S., SSA and EERI) can play a critical role in making these changes. The prospects of tackling this program are invigorating. There are new research opportunities. There is the chance to apply our science and engineering to public policy interna- tionally. We can create a model that can be applied to solve other urgent and complex global problems, and thereby improve the human condition on a global scale.

Could seismically induced uplift be responsible for the current height of the Thinia Valley above sea level?

The presence of wave-cut platforms and raised beaches on Kefalonia suggests some degree of uplift from previous earthquake events (Fig. 5). In addition, c. 60 cm of uplift was recorded in Kefalonia following a magnitude 7.2 earthquake in 1953. While seismically induced uplift is clearly affecting Kefalonia, the evidence suggests that during the Holocene, Kefalonia has only experienced a few metres of uplift at most. It is clear, therefore, that if Strabo's channel really did exist along the present day Thinia Valley then some other process must be responsible for parts of the valley reaching heights of 180 m. In the next section you will examine the geology of Thinia Valley to see if that can cast any light on this problem.

How did these early hunter-gatherers reach Ireland

There are two possibilities:1) A land bridge2) By boat

seismic gap

There is a new "seismic gap" that we~members of the inter- national Earth science and earthquake engineering communities, including members of the Seismological Society of America (SSA) and the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI)~need to know about: the large and growing gap between the seismic risk of rich countries and that of poor countries. We need to know about it because it threatens rich and poor countries alike, because what is being done about it is not enough, and because we are in a unique position to narrow

why those 4 ideas

These four ideas propose to use existing organizations (modified and properly funded) to address global earthquake risk. These ideas would contribute to achieving global earth- quake safety, but probably not "enough", according to the definition that I have proposed above. - Jean-Francois Rischard argues that no existing organization is capable, by itself, of successfully tackling any of today's global problems. In addition to natural disasters, the twenty global problems he considers include greenhouse gas emissions, fisheries depletion, water shortages, global warming, and global infectious diseases. Each problem extends across national boundaries. - Their solutions require more time than the average politician's term of office. Their solutions are needed quickly. Their solutions are complex, cutting across many social boundaries. Global earthquake risk has these characteristics. - One can interpret Rischard's views in Darwinian terms: The world's current global problem-solving mechanisms are organisms that are not adapting fast enough to the changes in their environment - The situation confronting us can be described in another way. If the organization Mothers Against Drunk Driving operated as the international earthquake professional communities do, it might focus on holding conferences to discuss, for example, advances in techniques to measure the alcohol content of blood, and the link between drunk-driving deaths and the time of day. - If the organization's Handgun Control and the National Rifle Association behaved as we earthquake risk professionals do, they might concentrate their energies on improving the quality of their journals and conferences. If the leaders of these organizations and those of Amnesty International, Greenpeace, and Sierra Club behaved as we do, we would not know of them and, more to the point, they would not have advanced their causes to the extent they have. - This paper is not a criticism of what the international earthquake professional associations have done or a call to reduce what they are doing. It is because of this excellence that we have the authority and opportunity to apply what we know to solve urgent social problems. It is because of what we know about the problem of global earthquake risk that we have the obligation to do more. - We need a new mechanism to tackle global earthquake risk. This is the final and most radical suggestion for the international Earth science and earthquake engineering associations.

Are current efforts to reduce urban global earthquake risk "enough"?

To answer this question, one must first define what is meant by "enough." - One could say that we are doing enough if, for example, by 2025 all people in earthquake-prone areas of the world would have an equal risk of dying due to earthquakes. This might, however, be considered too high a standard because we do not demand equality elsewhere (for example, in the risk of dying due to diarrhea or malnutrition). - Perhaps one could say that we are doing enough if by 2025 people in developing countries are only 10 times more likely to die due to earthquakes than people in developed countries, and the risk in developing countries is not increasing. - Or one might focus only on children, and say that we are doing enough if by 2025 all children are equally safe from earthquakes. (If we accepted this standard, we have our work cut out for us: Geo- Hazards International estimates that today a child in a school in Kathmandu is 400 times more likely to die from earth- quakes than a child in a school in Tokyo.) - Another definition could be that we are doing enough if, by 2025, populations in earthquake vulnerable communities know their risk and accept

earthquake mitigation today

Today, mitigation of earthquake hazards is not held back primarily by a lack of engineering solutions: architects had access to manuals for seismic-resistant design for nearly 20 years at the time of the Haiti earthquake. - But substantial further research is needed to examine how people can be convinced to make use of existing options for achieving physical and financial safety — especially in areas, such as the Central United States New Madrid seismic zone, that have earthquake recurrence intervals of hundreds of years. Implementing risk-management strategies for coping with such low-probability, high-consequence events will require innovative public/private partnerships. - Ultimately, even the poorest countries must regard building codes as necessities, not luxuries. Moreover, even relatively wealthy countries need to develop more effective strategies for managing seismic risks. This will require collaboration among earth scientists, social scientists, earthquake engineers and urban planner

According to Brian Tucker, which of the following is true (select all that apply)?

Urban earthquake risk in poor countries is large and rapidly growing. The average number of deaths resulting from fatal earthquakes in rich countries decreased by about a factor of 10 between the first and second half of the 20th century.

Laursen 2010 and Gudmundsson and Pedersen 2010

Vogfjörd believes such local gas monitor-ing is needed if Iceland is to better predict itsexplosive future. While the world's eyes arenow on Eyjafjallajökull, and its even moredangerous neighbor Katla, she's makingplans to install gas monitoring equipment onHekla, which erupted in 1970, 1980, 1991,and most recently in 2000. "Multidisci-plinary monitoring is the way to go becauseno one thing is going to show you what youneed to know," she says.

Should we care

Why should the citizens of industrialized countries, distant from most earthquake- threatened developing countries, care that there is a growing gap between the seismic risk of developing and industrialized coun- tries and that not enough is being done? There are four reasons. - One is humanitarian. Knowing that we might make a difference, how can we not care that a child in Kathmandu is hundreds of times more likely to die from an earthquake than a child in an earthquake-prone industrialized country? Seeing the effectiveness of the Field Act in strengthening Cal- ifornian schools against earthquakes, how can we not be motivated to make known its features to others? Observing the drop in the lethality of earthquakes in our countries since good building and land-use codes were developed and enforced, how can we not want to share our experience? - We should also care out of self-interest. We in industrial- ized countries understand that the growing gaps between rich and poor in our own countries led to social tensions. We can therefore realize that the widening of the gap between the industrialized and developing worlds is threatening. We will be more secure if all countries can develop without being periodically set back by natural disasters. It is in our economic self-interest, particularly, that developing countries become earthquake-resistant because they are increasingly important economic partners of the U.S., Japan, and the EU. Often the infrastructure, residences, and factories of developing econo- mies represent investments made by the industrialized world. - A third reason we should care is for reasons of timing. As noted by Roger Bilham [see article in this issue, page 706], the growth of human population in the next 20 years will cre- ate history's greatest construction boom. Homes, schools, and workplaces must be built for those 2 billion people who will be added to the cities of developing countries over this period. If we can make this construction conform to good building practice and good land-use planning, we can avoid problems in the future. We can train masons in earthquakeresistant construction. We can help create a demand for the skills of these masons. Eventually, existing vulnerable build- ings will be replaced or strengthened. - Finally, we should care because we can make a difference. SSA and EERI, in particular, can make a difference. The earthquake science and engineering of the U.S. are exem- plary, but, in my opinion, the characteristic of the U.S. earth- quake profession that most distinguishes it and is most responsible for its success in reducing U.S. earthquake risk is the ability and willingness of its members to apply their sci- ence and engineering to public policy. Members of SSA and EERI form the backbones of such organizations as the Cali- fornia Earthquake Prediction/Probability Council, the recently discontinued National Earthquake Prediction Coun- cil, the Central U.S. Earthquake Center, the California Seis- mic Safety Commission, the Bay Area Earthquake Preparedness Program, and the Southern California Earth- quake Preparedness Commission. I have had difficulty find- ing analogous organizations in developing countries. - The members of SSA and EERI could, therefore, help earthquake- threatened developing countries by sharing their experiences designing and implementing effective public policy. Further, SSA and EERI, as organizations respected for their technical expertise, have the credibility to act as advocates for interna- tional seismic safety.

Which of the following statements are correct? a) The borehole drilled in October 2006 did not encounter any solid Palaeogene limestone. b) The borehole drilled in October 2006 encountered solid Palaeogene limestone at a depth of 40 m. c) The borehole drilled in October 2006 encountered solid Palaeogene limestone at a depth of 100 m. d) The borehole drilled in October 2006 encountered Miocene Marl at a depth of 20 m.

a

Quest for Ithica

article missing, add later

The Thinia Valley

narrow strip of land that connects the Paliki peninsula (West Kefalonia) to the rest of Kefalonia. The Thinia Valley is a NE-SW oriented, steep-sided valley, approximately 6 km long and 2 km wide (Fig. 2). This valley lies between the ancient towns of Paleis, which is situated on the Paliki peninsula, and Cranioi, which lies to the East of the Gulf of Livadi - The Thinia Valley fits the position of Strabo's isthmus which he described as 'so low-lying that it is often submerged from sea to sea'. If a marine channel existed here c. 2000 years ago during Strabo's time then it is not inconceivable that a marine channel was also in existence in the Thinia Valley c. 14, 000 years ago, the supposed time of the Trojan War. If this were the case then Paliki could in fact be the real homeland of Odysseus and Homer could once again be attributed with great geographical precision.This is an elegant theory. - However there is one crucial problem. The highest point of the Thinia Valley lies 180 m above sea level (Fig. 2b). If this area was 'often submerged' beneath the sea c. 2000 years ago, what mechanisms could have elevated the region by 180 m in the last c. 2000 years? This is where geoscience comes in to the equation.

Built-in resilience 2010 Haiti Earthquake

the 2010 Haiti earthquake showed that building codes must be adopted and strictly enforced. Furthermore, timely disaster recovery requires these codes to be supplemented by comprehensive hazard-insurance programmes

The subsurface search for Strabo's channel - Drilling

the hypothesis is correct, and the Paliki peninsula was once separated from the rest of Kefalonia by a marine channel (Fig. 10), landslide debris should extend below sea level. In order to test this hypothesis preliminary drilling was undertaken and geophysical methods employed to gain a 3-dimensional view of the subsurface along the proposed channel. The drilling part of the project is discussed in this section. Some of the geophysical techniques employed to date are discussed in the next section - A preliminary borehole was drilled in October 2006. This borehole was located on the southeastern side of the Thinia Valley at the southern end of the proposed channel (see Fig. 11). The borehole was drilled from an elevation of 107.5 m above sea level to a depth of 122 m, 13. 75 m below sea level. Loose, unconsolidated landslide debris was encountered in the first 40 m of the borehole. Miocene marl was encountered at a depth of 40 m. No solid Palaeogene limestone was encountered in the borehole. - Interestingly, tiny fossils of marine plankton called Emiliania huxleyi were found among the first 40 m of loose unconsolidated material (Fig. 12). This find was unexpected given that the area lies approximately 100 m above sea level. One possibility is that they were deposited by tsunamis, which would not be unusual for such a seismically active area. Alternatively the force with which previous landslides may have hit the sea below could have caused seawater to splash vertically upwards upon impact bringing with it the tiny marine fossils. Another possibility is that wind-blown algal bloom (coloured scum on the sea surface) may have been deposited onto pre-rockfall surfaces. - The borehole data certainly fits with a buried channel hypothesis but does not, on its own, prove it conclusively.

Economic Benefits of Volcanic activity on Iceland

tourism and renewable geothermal power (mantle plume heats up water under surface) - steam extracted to generate energy

where is Strabo's channel

wholly in Miocene Marl outcrop