PBL 1 Mid-Term Exam
Structure of the triple helix type 1 collagen protein. The two α1 chains are encoded by a gene on chromosome __, and the α2 chain is encoded by a gene on chromosome _
17, 7
What is deleted in Smith-Magnis syndrome?
17p
an intermediate in carbohydrate metabolism that is an important allosteric effector of Hb
2, 3 Bisphosphoglycerate
The mechanism of the left shift in HbF is based on the binding of ___-___. It does not bind as avidly to the _____ chains of hemoglobin F as it binds to the ____ chains of hemoglobin A.
2,3 DPG, gamma, beta
A total of __ _____-amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. The ____ ______ of these amino acids contribute charge, polarity and hydrophobicity to protein.
20 alpha, side chains
Proteins are macromolecules formed by polymerization of L-α-amino acids. There are __ different amino acids in proteins, linked by _______ bonds. The linear sequence of the amino acids is the _______ structure of the protein.
20, peptide, primary
A vaccine comprising antigens from __ different serotypes of S pneumoniae protects against most strains. The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine protects against __ strains of the bacterium.
23, 13
Cells that have a multiple of __ chromosomes are said to be euploid. Triploidy (__ chromosomes) and tetraploidy (__ chromosomes) are _________ conditions found in humans. Most polyploid conceptions are spontaneously aborted, and all are incompatible with long-term survival.
23, 69, 92, polyploid
p50 of oxygen at atmospheric pressure
25 mmHg
The recurrence risk for autosomal recessive diseases is usually __%. Quasidominant inheritance, with a recurrence risk of __%, is seen when an affected ___________ mates with a ____________.
25, 50, homozygote, heterozygote
The frequency of normal, involuntary breathing is controlled by _ groups of neurons or _____ ____ _______ Name them
3, brain stem centers Pneumotaxic center, Apneustic center, Medullary respiratory center
Key features of adenocarcinoma in situ: Diameter of _ mm or less Growth along ___________ structures ___________ of alveolar structure
3, preexisting, preservation
There are about ___ amino acids present in various animal, plant and microbial systems, but only __ amino acids are coded by DNA to appear in proteins.
300, 20
BTPS means body temperature (___ K), ambient pressure (___ mm Hg), and gas saturated with _____ ______.
310, 760, water vapor
Increased prevalence of trisomies occurs after mother hits what age?
35 years
Each hemoglobin molecule, therefore, has the capacity to bind _ molecules of O2.
4
Hb can bind up to _ molecules of O2 in a cooperative manner
4
How many heme irons in a hemoglobin molecule?
4
There are _ main disorders of acid-base balance
4
Calculate physiologic dead space given expired CO2 is 30 mL, arterial pCO2 is 40 mL, and tidal volume is 550 mL
412 is the answer!
Most females with Turner syndrome have a __,_ karyotype. Although this disorder is common at __________, it is relatively rare among live births, reflecting a very ____ rate of spontaneous abortion. Mosaicism including confined placental mosaicism, appears to ________ the probability of survival to term.
45, X, conception, high, increase
Males with Klinefelter syndrome (__,___) are _____ than average, might have _______ IQ, and are usually _______. Testosterone therapy and mastectomy for gynecomastia are sometimes recommended.
47, XXY, taller, lower, sterile
The solubility of CO2 is 0.07 mL CO2/100 mL blood/mm Hg; thus, the concentration of dissolved CO2 in arterial blood, as calculated by Henry's law, is 2.8 mL CO2/100 mL blood (40 mm Hg × 0.07 mL CO2/100 mL blood/mm Hg), which is approximately _% of the total CO2 content of blood
5
Antibody: How many types of heavy chains? Name them How many types of light chains? Name them
5. gamma, alpha, mu, epsilon, delta 2. Kappa, lambda
Albumin makes up approximately __% of the protein found in human plasma. Its normal concentration is __-__ g/L. With a molecular weight of about __ kDa, albumin has highly _____ nature and dissolves easily in _____. At pH 7.4, it is an _____ with __ ________ charges per molecule; this gives it a high capacity for non-selective binding of many ________. It also plays a critical role in maintaining _________ _______ pressure of the plasma.
50, 35, 45, 66, polar, water, anion, 20 negative, ligands, colloid osmotic
Approximately __% of the choline is returned to the presynaptic terminal by __+-_______ cotransport, to be used again in the synthesis of new ACh.
50, Na choline
The recurrence risk for an autosomal dominant disorder is __%. Because of ____________, this risk remains constant no matter how many affected or unaffected children are born.
50, independence
Calculate isolectric point for amino acid with pKa of 2.8 and pKa of 10.4
6.6
if alveolar PO2 is 60 mm Hg, then arterial blood will have a PO2 of __ mm Hg, in which case the _________ is severe enough to stimulate __________ ______________ in the _______ and ______ bodies.
60, hypoxemia, peripheral chemoreceptors, aortic, carotid
if arterial PO2 is less than __ mm Hg, the breathing rate _______ in a steep and linear fashion
60, increases
The time constant (τ) is the amount of time it takes following the injection of current for the potential to change to __% of its final value.
63
Typical values for equilibrium potential for common ions, calculated as previously described and assuming typical concentration gradients across cell membranes, are as follows: ENa+ =? ECa2+ =? EK+ =? ECl− =?
65 120 -85 -90
pH of blood
7.40
if, on average, each hemoglobin molecule has three molecules of O2 bound, then saturation is __%; if, on average, each hemoglobin has two molecules of O2 bound, then saturation is __%; and if only one molecule of O2 is bound, saturation is __%.
75, 50, 25
Trisomies of the 13th and 18th chromosomes are sometimes compatible with survival to term, although __% or more of affected fetuses are spontaneously aborted. These trisomies are much less common at birth than is trisomy __, and they produce more serious disease features, with 90% to 95% mortality during the first year of life. As in trisomy 21, there is a ________ age effect, and the _______ contributes the extra chromosome in more than 90% of cases.
95, 21, maternal, mother
Adult hemoglobin (hemoglobin _) is called ______-_____; two of the subunits have _____ chains and two have ____ chains.
A, alpha 2 beta 2, alpha, beta
expresses the difference in PO2 between alveolar gas ("A") and systemic arterial blood ("a").
A-a difference
the difference between the PO2 of alveolar gas and the PO2 of systemic arterial blood
A-a gradient
NT released from presynaptic neurons in the adrenal medulla
ACh
Only NT utilized at the NMJ
ACh
VIP is secreted with what NT in the Gi tract?
ACh
___ is the neurotransmitter released from all preganglionic and most postganglionic neurons in the parasympathetic nervous system and from all preganglionic neurons in the sympathetic nervous system.
ACh
acetylcholine AKA
ACh
the nicotinic receptor on the motor end plate is actually an ion channel that opens when ___ binds to it; when open, it is permeable to ___ and __ ions.
ACh, Na+, K+
Adenosine Diphosphate AKA
ADP
Which form of myosin binds actin, ADP or ATP?
ADP
Immunoglobulins AKA
ANtibodies
Classic acute restrictive lung disease
ARDS
The most characteristic finding is the presence of hyaline membranes, particularly lining the distended alveolar ducts What disease?
ARDS
histologic manifestation of ____ in the lungs is known as diffuse alveolar damage (DAD).
ARDS
Adenosine Triphosphate AKA
ATP
Most common heart problem in down syndrome? What is this? what happens with this? waht secondary condition does it cause?
AV canal Incomplete fusion of interatrial and interventricular septa Blood flows back from left heart to right heart Pulmonary hypertension
Ketoacids (2)
Acetoacetic acid Beta-hydroxybutaryic acid
Components of ACh. What enzyme makes this? What breaks it down? What does it get broken down into?
Acetyl-CoA + Choline Choline acetyltransferase Acetylcholinesterase Choline + Acetate
prevent degradation of ACh in the synaptic cleft, and they prolong and enhance the action of ACh at the motor end plate. What drug class? Example of this? What disease can this treat?
Acetylchloline Esterase INhibitor Neostigmine Myasthenia Gravis
________ is an excess of hydrogen ion in blood.
Acidemia
Low pH effect on blood K+? High pH effect?
Acidemia (low pH) = hyperkalemia Alkalemia (high pH) = hypokalemia
Process that leads to accumulation of H+ ions
Acidosis
Area distal to terminal bronchioles
Acinus
Rapid onset of fever, dypsnea, hypoxia, diffuse pulmonary infiltrates on radiograph What type of pulonary eosinophelia?
Acute Eosinophilic Pneumonia
syndrome predominately effecting young children who have an infection of the epiglottis caused by H. influenzae, in which pain and airway obstruction are major findings
Acute bacterial epiglottitis
(1) acute onset of dyspnea, (2) decreased arterial oxygen pressure (hypoxemia), and (3) development of bilateral pulmonary infiltrates on the chest radiograph, all in the absence of clinical evidence of primary left-sided heart failure. What condition?
Acute lung injury
Most common infection of humans, often called the common cold
Acute upper respiratory infection
Mucin present in what type of NSCLC
Adenocarcinoma
___________ neurons secrete norepinephrine because they contain dopamine β-hydroxylase, in addition to tyrosine hydroxylase and dopa decarboxylase, but not PNMT.
Adrenergic
Vertebrates are aerobic or anerobic organisms?
Aerobic
___-dependent penetrance is observed in many genetic diseases. It complicates the interpretation of inheritance patterns in families.
Age
Sub-basement membrane thickening and hypertrophy of smooth muscle and bronchial glands in asthma
Airway remodeling
Common plasma protein
Albumin
_______ is the primary plasma protein responsible for the transport of hydrophobic fatty acids, bilirubin, and drugs
Albumin
_________ such as formaldehyde or glutaraldehyde react rapidly with _____ groups in protein to form _____ base (_____) adducts and crosslinks during fixation of tissues.
Aldehydes, amino, Schiff, imino
Decrased concentration of H+ ion in the blood
Alkalemia
Process that decreases amount of H+ ion
Alkalosis
Antigen AKA
Allergen
anchors the thin filaments to the Z disk.
Alpha-actinin
___________ ________ may also yield a truncated protein, known as a dominant negative mutant protein, that can inhibit the function of the full-length protein.
Alternative splicing
___________ ________ yields many variants of a protein from a single pre-mRNA
Alternative splicing
Lung injury is usually caused by what part of the lung?
Alveolar capillary membrane
used to predict the alveolar PO2, based on the alveolar PCO2, and is illustrated by the O2-CO2 diagram What equation?
Alveolar gas equation
How is transmural pressure calculated?
Alveolar pressure - Intrapleural pressure
γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) Glutamate Glycine Waht type of NTs?
Amino acids
_______ generated by glutaminase reaction participates in the excretion of hydrogen ion
Ammonia
What do you use to salt out a protein?
Ammonium sulfate
Changes in Hg and Nm in flu virus and allow it to evade immune system results from what concept?
Antigenic drift
Changes in viral proteins that make humand and animals susceptible to a flu type and cause pandemics rather than epidemics What concept
Antigenic shift
Most common example of a drug causing asthma
Asprin
Stellate inclusions enclosed within giant cells in sarcodiosis
Asteroid bodies
Curschmann spirals Charcot Leyden crystals Eosinophils findings of what disease?
Asthma
Intermittent and reversible airway obsruction, chronic bronchial inflammation with eosinophils, bronchial smooth muscsle hypertrophy and hyperreactivity, and increased mucous secretion What disease?
Asthma
Obstructive lung disease
Astma
Pigment accumulates in lung without perceptible celleular reaction to mineral dusts
Asymptomatic anthracosis
Without surfactant, small alveoli have increased surface tension and increased pressures and will collapse What is this condition called?
Atelactasis
___________, also known as collapse, is loss of lung volume caused by inadequate expansion of air spaces.
Atelactasis
Asthma that is IgE mediated type I hypersensitivity reactin
Atopic asthma
Closure of duodenum, esophagus, or anus Seen in what disease?
Atresia Down syndrome
Less exterme type of pneumonia: typical or atypical?
Atypical
Postaxial polydactyly inheritance pattern
Autosomal dominant
__________ translocations are caused by two breaks on different chromosomes, with a subsequent exchange of material. Although carriers of balanced reciprocal translocations usually have ______ phenotypes, their offspring might have a partial _______ or a partial ________ and an abnormal phenotype.
Balanced, normal, trisomy, monosomy
Drug classes that target GABAA receptors in the CNS (2)
Barbituates Benzodiazapenes
The O2 affinity of Hb is exquisitely sensitive to pH, a phenomenon known as the ____ ______. The Bohr effect is most readily described as a _____ shift in the O2 saturation curve with __________ __. Thus, an increased concentration of __ (_________ pH) favors an __________ P50 (_____ affinity) for O2 binding to Hb, equivalent to an H+-dependent shift of Hb from the _ to the _ state.
Bohr effect, right, decreased pH, H+, decreased, increased, lower, R, T
blocks the release of ACh from presynaptic terminals, causing total blockade of neuromuscular transmission, paralysis of skeletal muscle, and, eventually, death from respiratory failure.
Botulinus toxin
Permanent dilation of bronchioles and bronchi caused by destruction of the muscle and supporting elastic tissue, resulting from or associated by chronic necrotizing infections
Bronchiectasis
Large airway inflammation
Bronchitis
Strep pneumoniae: The _ ______________ of the bacterium is a techoic acid that is exposed on the surface, even protruding through the capsule. It interacts with a serum protein called _-_________ _______, which is elevated under acute inflammatory conditions and can be used to monitor inflammation The _-_______ is a lipoteichoic acid anchored in the bacterial membrane. Phosphocholine is a component of these teichoic acids and is necessary for the action of the bacterial _________ that hydrolyzes the cell wall during cell division.
C polysaccharide, C reactive protein, F antigen, ausolysin
Aromatic functional group AKA
C rings
The _ polysaccharide of strep pneumonae can be detected in the urine of patients with bacteremia or in the cerebrospinal fluid in patients with meningitis using an immunoassay. In the ____ __________ test, colonies of S pneumoniae disintegrate after exposure to bile. The microorganism can also be identified by its sensitivity to the chemical ________ while growing on blood agar plates.
C, bile solubility, optochin
_-________ ________ (CRP) is a major component of the acute phase response and a marker of bacterial infection
C-reactive protein
the cyclization reaction creates a new asymmetric center at __, which is known as the anomeric carbon
C1
Concentration gradient formula
CA - CB
Repeat of nucleotides associated with huntington disease
CAG
sarcoplasmic and endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase AKA
CERCA
The first FDA-approved drug for CF treatment, ivacaftor, increases ______ channel activity in response to ___
CFTR, ATP
Reaction catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase in most cells
CO2 + H2O <--> H2CO3<-->H+ + HCO3-
Using the rearranged form of the equation, alveolar PCO2 can be predicted if two variables are known: (1) the rate of ____ ___________ from aerobic metabolism of the tissues and (2) ________ ___________, which excretes this CO2 in expired air.
CO2 production, alveolar ventilation
Like H+, ___ is is increased in venous capillaries and is a ________ allosteric effector of the O2 affinity of Hb
CO2, negative
The degradation of dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine to inactive substances occurs via two enzymes Name them
COMT, MAO
____, a methylating enzyme, is not found in nerve terminals, but it is distributed widely in other tissues including the liver. ___ is located in presynaptic nerve terminals and catalyzes oxidative deamination. If a neurotransmitter is to be degraded by MAO, there must be reuptake of the neurotransmitter from the synapse.
COMT, MAO
Very small increases in ___ concentration seem to reflect a state of chronic low-grade inflammation associated, for instance, with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease
CRP
How is Ca2+ accumulated in the sarcoplasmic reticulum?
Ca2+ ATPase (SERCA) in the sarcoplasmic reticulum membrane
Ca2+ ATPase AKA
Ca2+ pump
Most cell membranes contain a Ca2+ ATPase, or plasma-membrane Ca2+ ATPase, whose function is to extrude ____ from the cell against an electrochemical gradient; one ____ ion is extruded for each ___ hydrolyzed.
Ca2+, Ca2+, ATP
When the intracellular ____ concentration increases, Ca2+ binds to __________ _, producing a conformational change in the troponin complex. This conformational change moves ___________ out of the way, permitting the binding of _____ to the ______ heads.
Ca2+, Troponin C, tropomyosin, actin, myosin
In smooth muscle, however, there is no troponin. Rather, the interaction of actin and myosin is controlled by the binding of ____ to another protein, __________. In turn, Ca2+-calmodulin regulates ______-_____-_____ ______, which regulates cross-bridge cycling.
Ca2+, calmodulin, myosin light chain kinase
Excitation-contraction coupling in muscle cells depends on the differences in ____ concentration across the cell membrane and the membrane of the ____________ _________
Ca2+, sarcoplasmic reticulum
Solution A is 2 mmol/L urea, and Solution B is 1 mmol/L NaCl. Assume that gNaCl = 1.85. Are the two solutions isosmotic?
Calculate the osmolarities of both solutions to compare them. Solution A contains urea, which does not dissociate in solution. Solution B contains NaCl, which dissociates partially in solution but not completely (i.e., g < 2.0). Thus, OsmolarityA=1 Osm / mol×2mmol / L=2mOsm / L OsmolarityB=1.85Osm / mol×1mmol / L=1.85 mOsm / L The two solutions do not have the same calculated osmolarity; therefore, they are not isosmotic. Solution A has a higher osmolarity than Solution B and is hyperosmotic; Solution B is hyposmotic.
Most common disease causing fungus
Candida albicans
Common infectoin in peopel with AIDs and those with hematolymphoid malignancies
Candida esophagitis
____________ and ______ are major sources of energy and are stored in the body as glycogen and triglycerides
Carbohydrates, lipids
________ _________ converts the dissolved CO2 into carbonic acid
Carbonic anhydrase
The respiratory alkalosis that occurs as a result of ascent to high altitude can be treated with what type of drugs?
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors
________ _________ is found in high concentration in ___ ____- cells. It catalyzes the hydration of CO2 to form H2CO3.
Carbonic anhydrase, red blood
Acetazolamide drug type
Carbonic anyhydrase inhibitor
Malignant tumors composed of cells that contain densecore neurosecretory granules in their cytoplasm and may secrete hormonally active polypeptides
Carcinoid tumors
a class of drugs that inhibits Na+-K+ ATPase.
Cardiac glycosides
Positive charges AKA
Cations
major types of emphysema (4)
Central acinar Panacinar Distal acinar irregular
____________ is the major transport protein for copper
Ceruplasmin
Several autosomal recessive disease conditions exhibit an increased incidence of chromosome breaks under specific laboratory conditions What type of diseae?
Chromosome Instability Syndrome
_________ abnormalities are responsible for a significant fraction of genetic diseases, occurring in approximately 1 of every ___ live births.
Chromosome, 150
Pneumoconesies, restritive lung disease of unknown etiology, infiltrative conditions Acute or chronic restrictive lung disease?
Chronic
Diseases that make up COPD (2)
Chronic Bronchitis Emphysema
Persistend productive cough for at least 3 months in 2 consecutive years
Chronic bronchitis
What causes bronchietsis (2)
Chronic infection Obstruction
Localized lesion in immunocompetent person, with or wihtout regional lymph node involvement What type of pneumnia
Chronic pneumonia
syndrome seen with deletion of long arm of chromosome 5
Chru du cat syndrome
Pleural collection of a milky lymphatic fluid containing microglobules of lipid
Chylothroax
What abnormal AA is a product of L-arginine in NO synthase?
Citrulline
Chloride AKA
Cl-
The potential difference that exactly balances the tendency of Cl− to diffuse down its concentration gradient is the ___ _________ _________
Cl- equilibrium potential
Cl−-HCO3− exchange, or the ___ _____, is accomplished by an _____ exchange protein called ____ _____ _______ (so called because of its prominence in an electrophoretic profile of blood).
Cl- shift, anion, band three protein
CRP activates complement via which pathway?
Classical
Fibrinogen Prothrombin Both waht type of proein?
Coagulation protein
Pseudomonas bacteria causes what type of necrosis in bloodstream?
Coagulative
atelectasis
Collapsing of the alveolus due to high surface tension
Transmural pressure is positive effect on lungs? What if its negative?
Collapsing pressure Expanding pressure
the first milk from the mother's breasts after the birth of a child
Colostrum
Compensatory dilatino of alveoli in response to loss of substance elsewhere
Compensatory emphysema THIS IS NOT TRUE EMPHYSEMA!
Although the binding sites for transported solutes are quite specific, they may recognize, bind, and even transport chemically related solutes. What concept?
Competition
Describes the despinsibility of the lungs or cardiovascular system
Compliance
Fibrosis is extensive and lung function is compromised, reaction to mineral dusts (2 names)
Complicated CWP Progressive Massive Fibrosis
___________ atelectasis (sometimes called passive or relaxation atelectasis) is usually associated with accumulation of fluid, blood, or air within the pleural cavity, which mechanically collapses the adjacent lung
Compression
Type of atleactasis commonly caused by pleural effusion? What causes pleural effusion commonly?
Compression atelactasis CHF
Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration
Concentration of hemoglobin in a given volume of packed red blood cells
Osmotic pressure depends on what 2 factors?
Concentration of osmotically active particles Whether or not the solute can cross the membrane
Mosaicism of the placenta alone
Confined placental mosaicism
Phases of pneumococcal pneumonia (4)
Congestion Red Hepatiziation Gray Hepatiziation Resolution
___________ _________ are nucleotide sequences that contain unique core elements that identify the function and specificity of the sequence, for example the TATA box
Consensus sequences
___________ (or cicatrization) atelectasis occurs when either local or generalized fibrotic changes in the lung or pleura hamper expansion and increase elastic recoil during expiration.
Contraction
Area of nucleotide that is typically methylated
CpG island
Many genes in humans (about 50%) have what are called ___ _______ (___) in the region of their promoters. Generally, these CPI have been found to be ____________ except in certain pathologic states and cancer. It has become clear that methylation is generally associated with regions of DNA that are ____ actively transcribing RNA.
CpG islands, CPI, unmethylated, less
caused by C. neoformans, rarely occurs in healthy persons
Cryptococcosis
Bronchiolitis Obliterans Organizing Pneumonia AKA
Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia
▪ Other binding proteins bind specific ligands, e.g. ceruloplasmin binds ____ and thyroxine-binding globulin (___) binds _______ hormones.
Cu2+, TBG, thyroid
Group _ streptococci include Enterococcus faecium.
D
Ig_ accounts for less than 0.5% of circulating plasma immunoglobulin mass. Its role remains elusive although, as a surface component of the mature B cells, it probably has some role in the response to antigens.
D
Ig_ differs from the standard immunoglobulin structure chiefly by its high carbohydrate content of numerous oligosaccharide units, resulting in an increased molecular mass of 190 kDa
D
Ig_ is the surface receptor for antigen in B lymphocytes
D
Acidic AA's
D (aspartic acid) E (glutamic acid)
Amino acid configurations (2)
D (dextro or right) L (levo or left)
Streptococcus _____ degrades DNA present in pus, thereby reducing its _________ and facilitating the spread of the microorganism. ______________, also called spreading factor, degrades hyaluronic acid, which is part of ________ tissue in the host.
DNAse, viscosity, hyalurinidase, connective
mean values for arterial PO2 and PCO2 do or do not change during exercise?
DO NOT!
Most important component of surfactant
DPPC
Information about arterial PO2, PCO2, and pH is relayed to the ___ via CN __ and CN _, which orchestrates an appropriate change in breathing rate.
DRG, IX, X
Ventailation of lung regions that arent perfused
Dead space
____ _____ is illustrated by pulmonary embolism, in which blood flow to a portion of the lung (or even the entire lung) is occluded.
Dead space
_____ _____ is the volume of the airways and lungs that does not participate in gas exchange. _________ dead space is the volume of conducting airways. ___________ dead space includes the anatomic dead space plus those regions of the ___________ zone that do not participate in gas exchange.
Dead space, physiologic, respiratory
FRC is increased or decreased in fibrosis?
Decreased
Decreased alveolar vnetilation effect on blood O2 levels
Decreases
related examples of smoking associated interstitial lung disease (2)
Desquamative Interstitial Pneumonia Respiratory Bronchiolitis
To remove an integral protein from the cell membrane, its attachments to the lipid bilayer must be disrupted What can do this?
Detergents
characterized by structural or functional defects of the thymus, conotruncal heart defects, hypoparathyroidism (reduced parathyroid function), and secondary hypocalcemia (decreased serum calcium). This pattern of malformations is caused by an alteration of the embryonic migration of neural crest cells to the developing structures of the neck.
DiGeorge syndrome
How are alpha subunits oriented in hemoglobin?
Diagnoal to each other
Most important muscle for inspiration
Diaphragm
Hemoptysis Anemia Diffuse pulmonary infiltrates Triad of what type of diseases?
Diffuse alveolar hemmorrage syndromes
The transport cycle begins with the enzyme in the __ state, bound to ___
E1, ATP
The Na+-K+ ATPase switches between two major conformational states, __ and __. In the __ state, the binding sites for Na+ and K+ face the intracellular fluid and the enzyme has a high affinity for Na+. In the __ state, the binding sites for Na+ and K+ face the extracellular fluid and the enzyme has a high affinity for K+.
E1, E2, E1, E2
Cardiac glycosides inhibit the Na+-K+ ATPase by binding to the ____ form near the __-binding site on the extracellular side, thereby preventing the conversion of E2~P back to __.
E2~P, K+, E1
Ca2+ Higher concentration in ICF or ECF?
ECF
Cl- Higher concentration in ICF or ECF?
ECF
Extracellular fluid AKA
ECF
HCO3- Higher concentration in ICF or ECF?
ECF
Na+ Higher concentration in ICF or ECF?
ECF
The major cation in ___ is sodium (Na+), and the balancing anions are chloride (Cl−) and bicarbonate (HCO3−).
ECF
NO: This highly reactive molecule, also known as endothelium-derived relaxing factor (____), is synthesized in __________ cells and participates in normal vascular physiology, including ____________ (smooth muscle), __________ (platelet), and ________ molecule expression (endothelial cell)
EDRF, endothelial, vasodilation, clotting, adhesion
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid AKA What is it
EDTA anticoagulant
Functional Residual Capacity Formula
ERV + RV
Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate AKA What does it mean?
ESR the rate at which red blood cells sediment in a period of one hour. It is a common hematology test, and is a non-specific measure of inflammation.
Equilibrium potential AKA
EX
Congenital heart defects, particularly VSDs, are the most common and occur in 90% of children. Other medically significant congenital malformations include omphalocele (protrusion of the bowel into the umbilical cord), radial aplasia (missing radius bone), diaphragmatic hernia, and, occasionally, spina bifida. What disease?
Edwards syndrome
Net driving force formula
Em - EX Driving force = Driving force (mV) Em = Actual membrane potential (mV) EX = Equilibrium potential for X (mV)
Disease of insuffecient wound healing in lung
Emphysema
a component of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), is associated with loss of elastic fibers in the lungs
Emphysema
Nitric oxide AKA
Endothelium Derived Relaxing Factor (EDRF)
_________ modulate the strength of gene expression in a cell
Enhancers
GABA can be degraded at the postysynaptic membrane. What happens to it next?
Enters TCA Cycle
Variable expression of a genetic disease may be caused by what things (3)
Environmental factors modifier genes allelic heterogenecity
Destroy parasites and participate in allergic reactions Which granulocytes?
Eosinophils
Caseous necrosis is surrounded by what in latent Tb infection?
Epitheloid granuloma
Antigenic strucutre recognized by a specific immunoglobulin
Epitope
Myleoid progeintor to erythroid progeintor in bone marrow What initiates this transition? where is this molecule made?
Erythropoietin Kidney
ACh, norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, glutamate, and serotonin. Excitatory or inhibitory?
Excitatory
Alveolar pressure becomes positive (higher than atmospheric pressure) because the elastic forces of the lungs compress the greater volume of air in the alveoli. What phase of breathing?
Expiration
Variable regions are in which portion of the antibody?
External most
The volume of air that can be forcibly expired in the first second
FEV1
the cumulative volume expired in 2 seconds is called ____, and the cumulative volume expired in 3 seconds is called ____
FEV2, FEV3
a labeled single-stranded DNA segment (probe) is exposed to denatured metaphase, prophase, or interphase chromosomes from a patient. The probe undergoes complementary base pairing (hybridization) only with the complementary DNA sequence at a specific location on one of the denatured chromosomes. Because the probe is labeled with a fluorescent dye, the location at which it hybridizes with the patient's chromosomes can be visualized under a fluorescence microscope. What technqiue?
FISH
____ is a technique in which a labeled probe is hybridized to metaphase prophase, or interphase chromosomes. It can be used to test for missing or additional chromosomal material as well as chromosome rearrangements. The technique can be extended with multiple ______ to detect several possible alterations of chromosome number simultaneously. Multiple ______ can be used to paint each chromosome with a unique color, facilitating the detection of structural rearrangements.
FISH, colors, probes
Functional or equlibirium volume of lungs What value?
FRC
The volume present in the lungs at rest is the equilibrium volume or ___, which, by definition, is the volume remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration.
FRC
___ is the volume remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal volume is expired and can be thought of as the equilibrium volume of the lungs.
FRC
the volume remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration
FRC
The resting volume of the lungs and chest cavity together
FRC (functional residual capacity)
Ferrous AKA
Fe2+
In contrast to Mb and Hb, Ngb and Cygb contain hexacoordinate hemes for both the ____ and ____ valency states Do they have high or low affinities for oxygen?
Fe2+, Fe3+ HIGH
Ferric ion
Fe3+
Important D ketohexose in the body
Fructose
the only ketohexose present at significant concentration in our diet or in the body.
Fructose
Histoplasma capsulum Cocciodes immitus Blastomyces dermatiditis What kind of infectious agent? What effect to they have on immunocompetent people? Immunocompromised?
Fungi Localized lung infection Disseminated disease
Aliphatic Amino Acids
G (glycine) A (alanine) V (valine) I (isoleucine) L (leucine)
Most common type of chromosome banding
G banding
The GABAB receptor is coupled via a _ ________ to a __ channel and thus is metabotropic.
G protein, K+
GTP binding protein AKA
G protine
inhibitory neurotransmitter that is distributed widely in the central nervous system in neurons.
GABA
Inhibitory NTs. Name them (2)
GABA Glycine
amino acid NTs (3) Which is NOT integrated into proteins?
GABA, Glycine, Glutatmate GABA
Another commonly noted promoter element is the __ ___, a GC-rich sequence; multiple copies may be found in a single promoter region.
GC box
Various hormones and neurotransmitters interact with specific receptors in the sarcolemmal membrane, which are coupled via a ___-binding protein (_ protein) to the Ca2+ channels.
GTP, G
Components of lactose Bond type?
Galactose + glucose beta 1, 4
_______ ______________ _______ are needed for the successful use of every promoter; they vary somewhat with the class of gene, being generally different for RNA polymerase I, II, and III.
General transcription factors
The small concentration difference for permeant ions is expressed in the _____-______ _____, which gives the plasma concentration relative to the interstitial fluid concentration for anions and interstitial fluid relative to plasma for cations.
Gibbs Donnan ratio
The plasma proteins are __________ charged, and this charge causes a redistribution of small, permeant cations and anions across the capillary wall, called a _____-______ ___________.
Gibbs Donnean equilibrium
_______ increase the aqueous solubility of the otherwise poorly soluble, hydrophobic ____ prosthetic group. Once sequestered inside a ___________ pocket created by the folded globin polypeptide, heme is in a protective environment that minimizes the spontaneous _________ of ____ (ferrous) to ____
Globins, heme, hydrophobic, oxidation, Fe2+, Fe3+
Mutation of AAs in Sickle cell
Glu-->Val
_______ is the only monosaccharides that exists in the body in free form.
Glucose
________ is the only sugar found to a significant extent as a free sugar (blood sugar) in the body. ile.
Glucose
3 important D aldohexoses in the body
Glucose Mannose Galactose
Components of sucrose Bond type?
Glucose + Fructose alpha 1, 2 alpha
Components of isomaltose Bond type?
Glucose + Glucose alpha 1, 6
Cellulose components? Bond type?
Glucose + glucose Beta 1,4
Components of maltose Bond type?
Glucose + glucose alpha 1, 4
GABA is synthesized from what AA?
Glutamic acid
How does glutaminase help prevent reabsorption of H+ ions in the lumen of the renal tubule?
Glutaminase catalyzes the lysis of glutamine to glutamate inside the distal tubule cells. This makes an NH3 group that diffuses into the lumen of the tubule. NH3 combines with H+ ions to form NH4+ which is impermeable to the membrane and is excreted
plays a major role in the maintenance of cysteine residues in proteins in their reduced (sulfhydryl) forms and in antioxidant defenses
Glutathione
Alanine, valine, leucine, and isoleucine, referred to as aliphatic amino acids, have saturated hydrocarbons as side chains. _______, which has only a hydrogen side chain, is also included in this group.
Glycine
Most abundant AA in the urine
Glycine
_______, an amino acid, is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that is found in the spinal cord and brain stem.
Glycine
_______ has a relatively simple structure, a side chain methyl group, while _______ and __________ have sec- and iso-butyl groups. All of these amino acids are hydrophobic in nature.
Glycine, leucine, isoleucine
the _______ equation, considers the contribution of each ion by its relative permeability rather than by its conductance.
Goldman
Proliferative, usually rapidly progressive, glomerulonephritis and hemmorrgahic interstitial pneumonitis caused by antibodies targeted against noncollagenous domain of the alpha 3 chain of collagen IV What idseae?
Goodpasture Syndrome
S pyogenes AKA
Group A Strep
Strep throat, caused by _____ _ _____________, characterized by inflammation of the oropharynx and small red spots (_________) on the soft palate. The bacteria are spread via direct contact with mucus from the nose or throat of infected individuals or by contact with infected skin wounds
Group A Streptococcus, petechiae
S agalactiae AKA
Group B Strep
Capnophillic meaning
Grows under CO2
basic amino acids
H (Histidine) K (Lysine) R (arginine)
Hydrogen AKA
H+
In the red blood cells, H2CO3 dissociates into what? What happens to each component?
H+ and HCO3- H+ is buffered by deoxyhemoglobin HCO3- is transported into blood in exchange for Cl-
H+/K+ ATPase AKA
H+/K+ Pump
Most common bacterial cause of acute exacerbation of COPD
H. influenzae
In the pulmonary capillaries, erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase converts _____ to ___ and ___, which are expired into the atmosphere
H2CO3, CO2, H2O
Almost all of the CO2 carried in blood is in a chemically modified form, _____, which accounts for more than __% of the total CO2.
HCO3-, 90
In the lungs, higher pO2 facilitates dissociation of CO2 from hemoglobin. This is known as the _______ ______
Haldane effect
Mb binds O2 that has been released from __ in tissue ____________ and subsequently diffused into _______
Hb, capillaries, tissues
__ is the principal O2-transporting protein in human blood; it is localized exclusively in ____________
Hb, erythrocytes
In dilute solution, HbS has interactions with O2 (P50 value, Hill coefficient) that are similar to those for ___. However, the ____ ______ on concentrated HbS is more pronounced, leading to _______ release of O2 in the capillaries and increased propensity for sickling.
HbA, Bohr effect, greater
blocks choline reuptake into presynaptic terminals, thus depleting choline stores from the motoneuron terminal and decreasing the synthesis of ACh.
Hemicholinum
contributes to buffering of hydrogen ion generated from the carbonic anhydrase reaction What buffer?
Hemoglobin
Collection of whole blood in the pleural cavity Complication of what usually? Is it fatal?
Hemothorax Ruptured thoracic aortic anyeurism YES
The key equation describing the behavior of the bicarbonate buffer
Henderson-Hasselbach equation
When stimulated by distention of the lungs and airways, mechanoreceptors initiate a reflex decrease in breathing rate called the ______-_____ ______
Hering Breuer reflex
parent has contributed one copy of each homolog,
Heterodisomy
in neurons of the hypothalamus, as well as in nonneural tissue such as mast cells of the gastrointestinal tract. What NT?
Histamine
_________ (pKa ≈ 6) has an imidazole ring as the side chain and functions as a general acid-base catalyst in many enzymes.
Histidine
What is normally bound to zinc in a zinc finger? (2)
Histidine Cystine
Autosomal recessive: __________ transmission more common Males vs females effected? What fraction of people will be effected from heterozygous parents?
Horizontal Equality! 1/4
Steroid response element AKA
Hormone response element
associated with GABA deficiency. The disease is characterized by hyperkinetic choreiform movements related to a deficiency of GABA in the projections from the striatum to the globus pallidus. The characteristic uncontrolled movements are, in part, attributed to lack of GABA-dependent inhibition of neural pathways. What disease?
Huntington disease
Alpihatic functional group AKA
Hydrocarbon
Water soluble AKa
Hydrophillic
Water repelling AKA
Hydrophobic
Condition when pleural fluid is a transudate
Hydrothorax
Immunologically mediated inflammatory lung disease that primarily affects the alveoli and therefore often called allergic alveolitis
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis
Intracellular fluid AKA
ICF
K+ Higher concentration in ICF or ECF?
ICF
The major cations in ___ are potassium (K+) and magnesium (Mg2+), and the balancing anions are proteins and organic phosphates.
ICF
Which is more acidic: ICF or ECF?
ICF
pH Lower in ICF or ECF?
ICF
The ___ is contained within the cells and is ___ of total body water; the ___ is outside the cells and is ___ of total body water.
ICF, 2/3, ECF, 1/3
Typically, ___ has a very low concentration of ionized Ca2+ (≈10−7 mol/L), whereas the Ca2+ concentration in ___ is higher by approximately four orders of magnitude.
ICF, ECF
___ is used in conjunction with SDS-PAGE for two-dimensional gel electrophoresis
IEF
RNAPol __ uses one strand of the DNA template to create a new, complementary RNA start point (often called the _______ __________ or ___-____), which is then modified in various ways, (commonly including the addition of a 7-methylguanosine cap (m7Gppp) cap at the _′ end and the polyA tail at the _′ end, and the removal of _______ to form a mature mRNA
II, primary transcript, pre mRNA, 5, 3, introns
TH2 cell produces what cytokine to induce antibody release from B cells
IL-4
What causes absolute refractory period
INactivation gates on voltage gated Na+ channels are closed and no AP can be generated while this is happening.
present in the sarcoplasmic reticulum membrane. The process begins at the cell membrane, but the source of the Ca2+ is the sarcoplasmic reticulum rather than the ECF.
IP3-gated Ca2+ channels
Aggregates of lymphocytes and eosinophils within septal walls and the alveolar spaces, typically in the pierphery of the lung fields, and accompanied by high fever, night sweats, and dypsnea What type of eosinophila?
Idiopathic Chronic Eosinophilic Pneumonia
Rare disease that has pulmonary manifestations and histologic features similar to those of Goodpasture syndrome, but there is no renal diseae or circulating anti-basement membrane antibody
Idiopathic Pulmaonary Hemosiderosis
AKA cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis, refers to pulmonary disorder of unknown etiology
Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
Histologic pattern of Usual Interstitial Pneumonia What disease?
Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
Patchy interstitial fibrosis, fibroblast foci, adn honeycomb lung What diseae?
Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
the parent has contributed two copies of one homolog
Idiosomy
The virulence factors of S pneumoniae are secretory ___ ________, pneumolysis phosphocholine, and the capsule.
IgA protease
S. pneumonaie: The bacteria produce secretory ___ ________ that interferes with entrapment in mucin that is normally mediated by secretory ___. They also secrete ___________ that creates pores in ciliary epithelial cells and phagocytes. One of the pathogenic mechanisms of S pneumoniae is to elicit a strong inflammatory response via the activation of the _____________ complement pathway by _________ ____ and fragments of _____________. The _________ complement pathway is activated by pneumolysin, and this results in the production of _______________ cytokines such as interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), which in turn cause _________ migration, ______ destruction, and fever.
IgA protease, IgA, pneumolycin, alternative, techoic acid, peptidoglycan, alternative, proinflammatory, leukocyte, tissue
In allergic persons, cells involved in the immune response become coated ___ molecules that are specific for a particular antigen or allergen, such as pollen or insect venom.
IgE
From weeks 18-20 of pregnancy, ___ is actively transported across the placenta and provides humoral immunity for the fetus and neonate before maturation of the immune system.
IgG
IgG is the most common immunoglobulin that protects tissue spaces and freely crosses the placenta
IgG
Ig_ circulates in high concentrations in the plasma, accounting for 75% of immunoglobulin present in adults, and has a half-life of 22 days.
IgG
Which IG is involved in complement formation?
IgG
Immunoglobulin types (5)
IgG IgA IgM IgE IgD
Pentameric immunoglobulin
IgM
The first antibody to be synthesized after an antigenic challenge.
IgM
Serum antibodies (2)
IgM IgG
In ARDS, acute lung injury is caused by what?
Imbalance of pro and anti inflammatory mediators
_______________ are proteins produced in response to foreign substances
Immunoglobulins
_______________ participate in the defense against antigens that may enter or attempt to enter the body. They have a common structure: _ classes of immunoglobulin exist and perform different protective functions.
Immunoglobulins, 5
What effect does hyperkalemia have on muscle contraction? Why? What concept does this demonstrate?
Inhibits it. Too much K+ in the blood leads to decreased K+ diffusion out of the cell at rest (because membrane is permeable to K+ at rest and it wants to flow down its concentration gradient). Increased membrane potential keeps the inactivation gates on the voltage gated Na+ channels closed, so no AP can be generated even when the activation gates are open ACCOMODATION
__________ ________ proteins are embedded in, and anchored to, the cell membrane by hydrophobic interactions.
Integral membrane
Pluripotent stem cell to mixed myleoid progeintor in bone marrow transition. Initiated by what molecule?
Interleukin-3
Respiratory and metabolic components of the acid-base balance are interlinked or separate?
Interlinked!
Results when two breaks occur and the material between the breaks is lost.
Interstitial deltion
____________ _____ is the fluid that actually bathes the cells and is the ______ of the two subcompartments.
Interstitial fluid, larger
formed between two polypeptide chains, forming covalent protein dimers at cysteine residues
Intrachain disulfide bonds
Blood bourne dissemination of organisms to various tissues or organs
Invasive candidiasis
the result of two breaks on a chromosome followed by the reinsertion of the intervening fragment at its original site but in inverted order.
Inversion
Charged solute AKA
Ion
occurs when there is movement of an ion across the cell membrane. (2)
Ionic current current flow
Charged AKA
Ionized
The binding of a specific binding protein to the ____ _______ _______ (___) of the mRNA of iron-responsive genes can alter the translation of the mRNA into functioning proteins in different ways. When iron is deficient, the iron response element binding protein (IRE-BP) is _________ and can bind to the _′ end of the mRNA for the ___________ ________. This prevents the degradation of the mRNA, and thus __________ the amount of transferrin receptor that can be made and thus __________ the amount of iron that the receptor can deliver to the cell. However, the IRE-BP also binds to the _′ end of the ________ mRNA and prevents its translation. Ferritin is a protein that sequesters and stores iron in the _________, and ____ is needed in times of iron deficiency.
Iron Response Element, IRE, activated, 3, transferrin receptor, increases, 5, ferretin, cytoplasm, less
Is the osmolarity higher for ICF or ECF?
Its the same!!!!!
Ionic current symbol AKA
Ix
net diffusion formula
J = PA (CA - CB) J = rate of diffusion P = permeability A = surface area for diffusion CA = Concentration of solution A CB = Concentration of solution B
receptors are located in the alveolar walls and, therefore, are near the capillaries. What receptor type?
J receptors
in left-sided heart failure, blood "backs up" in the pulmonary circulation and _ _________ mediate a change in breathing pattern, including rapid shallow breathing and _______ (difficulty in breathing).
J receptors, dypsnea
Solution A and Solution B are separated by a membrane whose permeability to urea is 2 × 10−5 cm/sec and whose surface area is 1 cm2. The concentration of urea in A is 10 mg/mL, and the concentration of urea in B is 1 mg/mL. The partition coefficient for urea is 10−3, as measured in an oil-water mixture. What are the initial rate and direction of net diffusion of urea?
J=PA(CA−CB) where J=2×10−5cm / sec×1cm2×(10mg / mL−1mg / mL) J=2×10−5cm / sec×1cm2×(10mg / cm3−1mg / cm3)=1.8×10−4mg / sec
severe mucocutaneous candidaisis AKA Caused by what?
Job syndrome Th17 defect
Mechanoreceptors located in the joints and muscles detect the movement of limbs and instruct the inspiratory center to increase the breathing rate What type of receptors?
Joint and muscle receptors
At rest, the membranes of excitable cells are far more permeable to __ and ___ than to ___ and ____. These differences in ______________ account for the resting membrane potential.
K+, Cl-, Na+, Ca2+, permeability
The major cations in ICF are __ and _____, and the balancing anions are _________ and _______ ___________.
K+, Mg2+, proteins, organic phosphates
Genetic disease associated with bronchiectasis and sterility in males
Kartanger syndrome
Thick and gelatinous sputum in acute community acquired pneumonia What organism?
Klebsiella pneumonae
Proteins are macromolecules formed by polymerization of _-_____-_____ _____ by _______ bonds. The linear sequence of the amino acids constitutes the ________ structure of the protein.
L alpha amino acids, peptide, primary
In contrast to the _-amino acids, nearly all sugars found in the body have the _ configuration.
L, D
All amino acids in proteins are of the _-configuration, because proteins are biosynthesized by enzymes that insert only _-amino acids into the peptide chains.
L, L
The ____________, another product of arachidonic acid metabolism (via the ______________ pathway), cause airway constriction.
Leukotrienes, lipoxygenase
have gates that are controlled by hormones and neurotransmitters.
Ligand gated channels
FRC is higher or lower in fibrosis?
Lower
Pressure vs. volume plot: Fibrosis has higher or lower slope than regular breathing?
Lower
In an amino acid solution: When is buffering capacity lowest? Highest?
Lowest when close to PI Highest when close to pKa of carboxyl or amino groups
Localized area of supparative necrosis within the pulmonary paranchyma resulting in the formation of one o more large cavities
Lung abcess
Mechanoreceptors are present in the smooth muscle of the airways What type fo receptor?
Lung stretch receptor
_____, _______, and _____________ contribute to the maintenance of the acid-base balance. The ____ control the gas exchange with the atmospheric air. Carbon dioxide generated in tissues is transported in plasma as ___________; the erythrocyte hemoglobin contributes to ___ transport. Hemoglobin also buffers the ________ ion derived from _________ acid. The kidneys reabsorb filtered ___________ in the ________ tubules and generate new bicarbonate in the ______ tubules, where there is a net _________ of hydrogen ion
Lungs, erythrocytes, kidneys, lungs, bicarbonate, CO2, hydrogen, carbonic, bicarbonate, proximal, distal, secretion
Basic amino acids (3)
Lys His Arg
IgE is similar to Ig_ in its unit structure.
M
Ig_ is confined to the intravascular space and helps eliminate circulating antigens and microorganisms
M
Ig_ normally circulates as a pentamer, with a molecular mass of 971 kDa, linked by disulfide bonds and the J chain
M
S. pyogenes: _-____ ________ on S pyogenes bind the Fc portion of immunoglobulin ___ and ___, thereby preventing the recognition of antibody-bound bacteria by __ receptors on phagocytes. The F protein binds ____________, which is part of the extracellular matrix and in turn binds cell surface ________; this interaction mediates bacterial attachment to epithelial cells of the pharynx and the skin.
M like protein, IgM, IgG, Fc, fibronectin, integrin
Destroy invading organisms Which monocytes?
Macrophages
Sites of highest airway resistance
Medium-sized bronchi
__________ is caused by S pneumoniae that has spread into the central nervous system following bacteremia or ear and sinus infections.
Meningitis
_____ is formed when the ferrous iron of heme is oxidized to ferric iron; it is produced spontaneously at a low rate and more rapidly in the presence of certain drugs, nitrites, and aniline dyes.
MetHb
Comparison of different studies
Meta-analysis
Decreased HCO3- disorder? Increased HCO3-? Decreased pCO2? Incrased pCO2?
Metabolic acidosis Metabolic alkalosis Respiratory Alkalosis Respiratory Acidosis
_____________ is the study of all metabolites generated in the organism, including the metabolites of drugs, food-derived compounds and substances generated by the microbial flora
Metabolomics
___________ is one of several epigenetic modifications of DNA; patterns of DNA ___________ at birth affect risk for a number of age-related diseases
Methylatoin, methylation
What type of syndrome is Prader-Willi syndrome?
Microdeletion syndrome
Most Prader Willi cases are caused by what? Most other cases involve what?
Microdeletions Uniparental disomy
______________ are a subtype of chromosome deletion that can be observed only in banded chromosomes or, in some cases, using molecular genetic approaches. Syndromes caused by the deletion of a series of adjacent genes are sometimes called __________ ____ syndromes.
Microdeletions, contiguous gene
Heart problem most often seen in Marfan sydnrome
Mitral valve prolapse
__________ _______________ are associated with malignant pathologies such as myeloma and Waldenström's macroglobulinemia, and also with more benign transformations that are known as monoclonal gammopathies of uncertain significance (MGUS)
Monoclonal immunoglobulins
Widespread pulmonary disease
Multilobar pneumonia
The presence of excess light chains may cause renal failure as a result of the deposition of Bence-Jones proteins in the renal tubules, or amyloidosis. Other common findings include anemia and hypercalcemia. What disease?
Multiple myleoma
Muscarine Carbachol Drug type? Effects on bronchial smooth muscle
Muscarinic agonists constricts
Atropine drug type Effect on smooth muscle of bronchi?
Muscarinic antagonist Resists constriction
a disease characterized by skeletal muscle weakness and fatigability, in which ACh receptors are blocked by antibodies
Myasthenia Gravis
Most common cause of atypical pneumonia
Mycoplasma pneumonae
The _-terminal domains of both _ and _ chains contain a region of variable amino acid sequence (the _ region); together, these regions determine antigenic _____________
N, H, L, V, specificity
What pattern describes the atoms in a chain of a polypeptides?
NCCNCCNCC
ATP is synthesized in the sympathetic neurons that innervate vascular smooth muscle. It is costored and cosecreted with the "regular" neurotransmitter of these neurons, __
NE
If dopamine β-hydroxylase is present in small dense-core vesicles of the nerve terminal, dopamine is converted to __
NE
Tyrosine, Dopa, and Beta enzyme. What NT from tyrosine
NE
__, _, and __ are members of the same family of biogenic amines: They share a common precursor, tyrosine, and a common biosynthetic pathway
NE, E, DA
ammonium ion AKA
NH4+
also functions in signal transduction of guanylyl cyclase in a variety of tissues including vascular smooth muscle What NT?
NO
short-acting inhibitory neurotransmitter in the gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system.
NO
Is osmosis of water diffusion of water?
NO!
Absorption of essential nutrients depends on the transmembrane ___ concentration gradient (e.g., glucose absorption in the small intestine or glucose reabsorption in the renal proximal tubule).
Na+
Sodium AKa
Na+
The upstroke of the action potential of these same excitable cells depends on the differences in ___ concentration across the cell membrane
Na+
Another example of cotransport in the kidney: ___-__-____ cotransport, which is present in the _______ membrane of __________ cells of the ____ _________ ____.
Na+ K+ 2Cl-, luminal, epithelial, thick ascending limb
The potential difference that exactly balances the tendency of Na+ to diffuse down its concentration gradient is the ___ ___________ _________.
Na+ equilibrium potential
The resting membrane potential is far from the equilibrium potentials for ___ and ____ because the permeability to these ions at rest is ___.
Na+, Ca2+, low
The major cation in ECF is ___, and the balancing anions are ___ and ______
Na+, Cl-, HCO3-
The Na+-K+ ATPase is responsible for creating the large concentration gradients for Na+ and K+ that exist across cell membranes (i.e., the low intracellular ___ concentration and the high intracellular ___ concentration).
Na+, K+
The enzyme's ion-transporting function (i.e., pumping ___ out of the cell and __ into the cell) is based on cycling between the E1 and E2 states and is powered by ___ hydrolysis.
Na+, K+, ATP
rare neoplsam with strong link to EBV and effects the Chinese, which raises possibility of viral oncogenesis on a background of genetic susceptibility
Nasophraryngeal carcinoma
associated with thin filaments. A single nebulin molecule extends from one end of the thin filament to the other. Nebulin serves as a "molecular ruler," setting the length of thin filaments during their assembly.
Nebulin
Multiple small cavitiations formed similar to lung abcess, and often turns into lung abcess What type of pneumonia?
Necrotizing pneumonia
Em is more negative than equilibrium poteitnal Driving force is negative or positive?
Negative
___________ and __________: minor mammalian hemoglobins
Neuroglobin, cytoglobin
substances that act on the presynaptic cell to alter the amount of neurotransmitter released in response to stimulation.
Neuromodulators
Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) Cholecystokinin Dynorphin Endorphins Enkephalins Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP) Glucagon Neurotensin Oxytocin Secretin Substance P Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) Vasopressin Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) What type of NTs?
Neuropeptides
Destroy small organisms Which granulocytes?
Neutrophils
____________ are thought to have an important role in the pathogenesis of ARDS
Neutrophils
Granulocyte subtypes (3)
Neutrophils Basophils Eosinophils
___ _________ are a common cause of the appearance of a genetic disease in a person with no previous family history of the disorder. The recurrence risk for the person's siblings is very ___, but the recurrence risk for the person's offspring may be substantially _________.
New mutations, low, increased
___ appears to be comparable to Mb, mediating the delivery of O2 to retina mitochondria. ___ is thought to function as an enzyme cofactor, supplying O2 for the hydroxylation of Pro and Lys side chains in some proteins.
Ngb, Cygb
Cation channel that is less selective and permits the passage of several ions
Nicotinic receptor on motor end plate
This highly reactive molecule, also known as endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), is synthesized in endothelial cells and participates in normal vascular physiology, including vasodilation (smooth muscle), hemostasis (platelet), and adhesion molecule expression (endothelial cell)
Nitric Oxide
There is also evidence of a relationship between hypoxic vasoconstriction and ______ _____ (__) synthesis in the endothelial cells of the pulmonary vasculature.
Nitric oxide, NO
Is V/Q constant throughout the lung?
No
Asthma type without allergen sensitization
Non atopic asthma
What features is usually seen in sarcodiosis, but is not necessarily diagnostic
Noncaesating granulomas
chronic bilateral interstitial lung disease of unknown etiology that has distinct clinical, radiological, and histologic feature
Nonspecific Iterstitial Pneumonia
Mycobacteria that cause chronic but cliically localized pulmonary disease in immunocompetent patients
Nontuberculous mycobacteria
does IgG dimerize? If so, how?
Nope
Somatostatin, enkephalin, and neurotensin are secreted with what NT?
Norepinepherine
Pulmonary infections acquried during hospital stay
Nosocomial pneumonia
the maximum amount of O2 that can be bound to hemoglobin per volume of blood, assuming that hemoglobin is 100% saturated (i.e., all four heme groups on each molecule of hemoglobin are bound to O2).
O2 binding capacity
Patient with parents who have Rb and kids have Rb but they dont show the signs. What are they? What does this illustrate?
Obligate carriers Incomplete penetrance
Asthma stimulated by fumes, organic and chemical dusts, gases, and other chemicals
Occupational asthma
18 : 1; ω-9, Δ9 Which FA?
Oleic
__________, an inhibitor of gastric H+-K+ ATPase, can be used therapeutically to reduce the secretion of H+ in the treatment of some types of peptic ulcer disease.
Omeprazole
the concentration of osmotically active particles, expressed as osmoles (or milliosmoles) per kg of water.
Osmolality
__________ is the concentration of particles in solution expressed as osmoles per liter.
Osmolarity
total solute concentration
Osmolarity
Osmolarity formula
Osmolarity = Gc Osmolarity = concentration of particles G = number of particles per mole in solution C = concentration
Because 1 kg of water is approximately equivalent to 1 L of water, __________ and __________ will have essentially the same numerical value.
Osmolarity, osmolality
Permeability AKA
P
Imino acid AA
P (proline)
Permeability formula
P = KD / DeltaX
Boyle's Law
P x V = Constant (under constant temperature)
Opprotunistic infectious agent formerly considered a protazoan (P. carnii), now called a fungus
P. jiroveci
Partial pressure of O2 at which Hb is 50% saturated
P50
Pressures driving blood flow in Zone 1 of lung
PA >/ Pa > Pv
These complex lipids contribute charge to the membrane: __ and __ are zwitterionic at physiologic pH and have no net charge, while __ and __ are anionic
PC, PE, PI, PS
How to calculate isoelectric point
PI = ((pKa1) + (pKa2)) / (2)
Percent saturation of hemoglobin is a function of the ___ of blood, as described by the __-__________ __________ curve
PO2, O2 hemoglobin dissociation
Exposure of __ in the outer leaflet of the erythrocyte plasma membrane increases the cell's adherence to the vascular wall and is a signal for macrophage recognition and phagocytosis.
PS
Some lipids are distributed asymmetrically in the membrane, e.g. __ and __ are enriched on the inside, and __ and _____________ on the outside, of the red blood cell membrane.
PS, PE, PC, sphingomylein
Pressures driving blood flow in Zone 2 of lung
Pa > PA>Pv
Pressures driving blood flow in Zone 3 of lung
Pa > Pv > PA
▪ The alveolar ventilation equation expresses the inverse relationship between _____ and alveolar ___________. The alveolar gas equation extends this relation ship to find ____
PaCO2, ventilation, PaO2
he alveolar gas equation predicts the change in ____ that will occur for a given change in _____
PaO2, PaCO2
Of the sensory information arriving at the brain stem, the most important is that concerning PaO2 , PaCO2 , and ________ __.
PaO2, PaCO2, arterial pH
DNA sequences that read the same (5′ to 3′) on the antiparallel strands, e.g. 5′-GGATCC-3′, which reads the same 5′ to 3′ sequence on the complementary strand. Write it out!
Palindromes Do it!
16 : 1; ω-7, Δ9 Which FA?
Palmitoic
Acini are uniformly enlarged, from the level of repiratory bronchiole to terminal blind alveoli What type of emphysema?
Panacinar
Driving force for diffusion of a gas across the membrane
Partial pressure difference across a membrane
the tension developed by simply stretching a muscle to different lengths
Passive tension
Simple diffusion: Passive or active? Carrier mediated? Uses metabolic energy? Dependent on Na+ gradient?
Passive, downhill No No No
Facilitated diffusion: Passive or active? Carrier mediated? Uses metabolic energy? Dependent on Na+ gradient?
Passive, downhill Yes No No
Strep is very sensitive to what antibiotic? What should you use with someone with a drug allergy? What if that hurts the persons stomach?
Penicilin Erythromycin Azithromycin
Bacteria to treat strep viridans Which has become somewhat resistnat?
Penicillin Mitis
Drug of choice for S. pneumonae What is used in severe infections?
Penicillin Vancomycin with ceftriaxone or a flouroquinolone
Although the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of __________ _ for S agalactiae is about 10 times greater than it is with S pyogenes, it is the preferred drug
Penicillin G
_________-limited gas exchange is illustrated by N2O , but also by O2 (under normal conditions) and CO2.
Perfusion
____________ ________ proteins are not embedded in the membrane and are not covalently bound to cell membrane components.
Peripheral membrane
____________ includes the partition coefficient, the diffusion coefficient, and the membrane thickness.
Permeability
____________ caused by S pyogenes can be recognized by the erythematous appearance of the pharynx, together with an exudate.
Pharyngitis
what is actually observed physically or clinically.
Phenotype
Aromatic side chain AA's Which are nonpolar? Which is slightly polar?
Phenylalanine Tyrosine Tryptophan
Compound that blocks GLUT4 proteins but does not flow through the carrier
Phlorizin
catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-diphosphate (PIP2) to IP3 and diacylglycerol (DAG). IP3 then diffuses to the sarcoplasmic reticulum, where it opens Ca2+ release channels (similar to the mechanism of the ryanodine receptor in skeletal muscle). What enzyme?
Phospholipase C
_____________ are the major lipids in biological membranes
Phospholipids
Inorganic phosphate AKA
Pi
the supernatant obtained after centrifugation of blood collected into a test tube containing anticoagulant to prevent clotting.
Plasma
Na+ higher in interstitial fluid or plasma? Cl-?
Plasma Interstitial fluid
Cell membrane AKA
Plasma membrane
______ is the natural environment of blood cells, but many chemical measurements are done with _____
Plasma, serum
______ is the fluid circulating in the blood vessels and is the _______ of the two ECF subcompartments.
Plasma, smaller
Genes with more than one discernable effect
Pleiotropic genes
Genes that exert effects on multiple aspects of physiology or anatomy are ____________. ____________ is a common feature of human genes.
Pleiotropic, plieotropy
Condition in which pleural fluid is an exudate
Pleuritis
Non-neoplastic lung reaction to inhaling mineral dusts Most common things that cause this (3)
Pneumoconiosis Coal dust, silica, asbestos
High RBC count
Polycythemia
the presence of a complete set of extra chromosomes in a cell, is seen commonly in plants and often improves their agricultural value
Polyploidy
Vocal cord nodules AKA
Polyps
prion diseases are characterized by the accumulation of an abnormal isoform of a host-encoded protein, prion protein-cellular form (____), in affected brains.
PrPC
Mutation in prion disease (genes)
PrPC --> PrPSc
Prions appear to be composed only of _____ (scrapie form) molecules, which are abnormal conformers of the normal, host-encoded protein.
PrPSc
Transthyretin AKA
Prealbumin
Form of Tb disease that develops in perviously unexposed and unsensitized patient
Primary Tb
________ ______ transport requires a direct input of metabolic energy; _________ ______ transport utilizes an indirect input of metabolic energy.
Primary active, secondary active
_______ is different from other amino acids in that its side chain pyrrolidine ring includes both the α-amino group and the α-carbon.
Proline
Hematocrit
Proportion of the blood that is made up of red blood cells
also a product of arachidonic acid metabolism via the cyclooxygenase pathway, is a potent local vasodilator.
Prostacyclin
Prostacyclin AKa
Prostaglanind I2
________ tubules reabsorb bicarbonate in the process aided by _________ _________
Proximal, carbonic anhydrase
Chronic obstructive or interstitial lung disease Recurrent pulmonary embolism Antecedent heart disease What does these all cause?
Pulmonary hypertension
a noninvasive method of estimating the oxygen saturation of arterial Hb.
Pulse ox
the first staining method used to produce specific banding patterns.
Q banding
Banding that requires heat treatment and reverses the usual white and black pattern that is seen in G-bands and Q-bands.
R banding
What is the chloride shift?
RBC membrane: Bicarbonate out, Cl- in
Shunting of blood from the _____ heart to the ____ heart can occur if there is a defect in the wall between the right and left __________
RIGHT, left, ventricles
___ _______ of the APOB gene in man gives rise to tissue-specific transcripts. In the small intestine, nucleotide 6666 of apoB mRNA is converted from a cytosine to uracil by the action of the enzyme ________ _________. This change converts a glutamine codon in _______ mRNA to a premature ____ codon and, when the mRNA is translated, the truncated product _______ is produced
RNA editing, cytidine deaminase, ApoB100, stop, ApoB48
Alkalosis is rarer than acidosis or more common?
Rarer
__________ translocations happen when breaks occur in two different chromosomes and the material is mutually exchanged. The resulting chromosomes are called __________ ___________
Reciprocal, derivative chromosomes
In restrictive lung disorderes: FCV results? FEV1? Ratio of FCV to FEV1?
Reduced Normal or reduced proportionately Normal ratio!
a dimensionless number ranging between 0 and 1 that describes the ease with which a solute crosses a membrane.
Reflection coeffecient
Cells that contain carbonic anhydrase (2)
Renal tubular cells, RBCs
__________ atelectasis occurs when an obstruction prevents air from reaching distal airways.
Resorption
Main disorders of acid-base balance (4)
Respiratory acidosis Respiratory alkalosis Metabolic acidosis Metabolic alkalosis
______ ________ are binding sites for transcription factors and coordinately regulate expression of multiple genes, e.g. in response to hormonal or environmental stimuli
Response elements
Alveolar pressure equals atmospheric pressure, and because lung pressures are always referred to atmospheric pressure, alveolar pressure is said to be zero What phase of breathing?
Rest
Phases of breathing cycle (3)
Rest Inspiration Expiration
Erythrocyte loses nucleus to become what?
Reticulocyte
Erythrocyte precursor cells (2)
Reticulocytes, erythroblasts
In ______________ translocations, the short arms of two nonhomologous chromosomes are lost and the long arms fuse at the centromere to form a single chromosome
Robertsonian
_____________ translocations occur when the long arms of two acrocentric chromosomes fuse at the centromere. The carrier of a Robertsonian translocation can produce conceptions with _________ or _______ of the ____ arms of ___________ chromosomes.
Robertsonian, trisomy, monosomy, long, acrocentric
Basic types of translocations (2)
Robonsonian Reciprocal
SR Ca2+ release channels AKA
Ryanodine receptors
Hemoglobin _ is an abnormal variant of hemoglobin that causes sickle cell disease.
S
Neutral AA's
S (Serine) T (threonine) N (asparigine) Q (glutamine)
_ ________ can cause pneumonia, following aspiration of an endogenous oral organism that infects the lower lobes of the lungs, as well as meningitis and septicemia.
S pneumonae
_ __________ can cause pneumonia as a result of the aspiration of an endogenous oral organism that then infects the lower lobes of the lungs, hence the name lobar pneumonia.
S pneumonia
_ ________ infections can cause pharyngitis, scarlet fever, erysipelas, and pyoderma and impetigo
S pyogenes
The virulence factors of _ ________ include the capsule, M protein, F protein, pyrogenic exotoxins, streptolysin S, streptolysin O, streptokinase, DNase, and hyaluronidase.
S pyogens
Late-onset neonatal disease is caused by infection from an exogenous source and is characterized by bacteremia and meningitis. What type of strep?
S. agalactiae
_ ___________ is part of the normal flora of the female genital tract and can cause septicemia, pneumonia, and meningitis in newborns.
S. agilactae
Bacteria that commonly cause infection in CF lungs (2)
S. areus P. aeroguinosa
common cause of community acqquired acute pneumonia
S. pneumonae
Diagnosis can be done by Gram staining of sputum, which reveals lancet-shaped diplococci. The Quellung (swelling) reaction, in which antibodies to the bacteria are added and cause an increase in the refractiveness next to the bacteria, can be used to confirm the staining test What bacteria?
S. pneumoniae
The two very severe diseases caused by _. ________ are invasive fasciitis (commonly known as flesh-eating disease), and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome caused by pyrogenic exotoxins of the bacterium.
S. pyogenes
Osmolarity Higher in ICF or ECF?
SAME!!!!!
Sickle Cell Disease AKA
SCD
___ is caused by an inherited, single point mutation in the gene encoding β-globin, leading to the expression of the Hb variant HbS
SCD
ACTH, ADH, GRP, calcitonin present What type of lung cancer?
SCLC
Neuroendocrine markers are present in what type of lung cancer
SCLC
Epithelial markers are present in what types of lung cancer
SCLC NSCLC
IEF is used in conjunction with ___-____ for two-dimensional gel electrophoresis
SDS PAGE
Na+-glucose cotransport AKA
SGLT
Na+-glucose cotransporter AKA (2) WHere is this commonly seen?
SGLT1, Sodium-Glucose Transport Protein 1 Intestinal epithelial cells
Multisystem disease of unknown etiology characterized by noncaesating granulomas in many tissues and organs
Sarcodiosis
Noncaseating epithelioid granuloma What disease?
Sarcodiosis
Schaumann bodies, asteroid bodies Seen in what disease?
Sarcodiosis
____________ is based on the concept that carrier proteins have a limited number of binding sites for the solute.
Saturability
Laminated concentrations composed of calcium and proteins seen in sarcodiosis
Schaumann bodies
gates that are controlled by changes in levels of intracellular signaling molecules such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP) or inositol 1,4, 5-triphosphate (IP3).
Second messenger gated channels
Channel that responds to signaling molcules
Second-messenger gated channels
The pattern of Tb disease that arises in a previeously sensitized host
Secondary Tuberculosis
Countertransport Passive or active? Carrier mediated? Uses metabolic energy? Dependent on Na+ gradient?
Secondary active Yes Yes, indirect Yes (solutes move in opposite direction as Na+ across cell membrane)
Cotransport Passive or active? Carrier mediated? Uses metabolic energy? Dependent on Na+ gradient?
Secondary active Yes Yes, indirect Yes (solutes move in same direction as Na+ across cell membrane)
Eosinophilai in association with asthma, drugs, and certain forms of vasculitis
Secondary eosinophilia
states that sexually reproducing organisms possess genes that occur in pairs and that only one member of this pair is transmitted to the offspring
Segregation
__________ (bacteremia) is observed in about a quarter of patients with pneumonia and in about 80% of patients with meningitis.
Septicemia
Substance P is secreted with what NT?
Serotonin
_________ serves as the precursor to melatonin in the pineal gland.
Serotonin
_________, another biogenic amine, is produced from tryptophan in serotonergic neurons in the brain and in the gastrointestinal tract
Serotonin
the supernatant obtained after a blood sample has been allowed to clot spontaneously (this usually requires 30-45 minutes).
Serum
Solutes where theta = 1.0 (2)
Serum albumin Intracellular proteins
_____ and _____ protein electrophoresis is an important way of identifying the presence of monoclonal immunoglobulins.
Serum, urine
Perfusion of areas that are not ventilated
Shunt
_____ is illustrated by airway obstruction and right-to-left cardiac shunts.
Shunt
In ______ ____ Disease, distortion of erythrocyte structure limits capillary blood flow
Sickle Cell
Most prevalent chronic occuptional disease in the world
Silicosis
______ diffusion will proceed as long as there is a concentration gradient for the solute
Simple
Accumulations of macrophages occur with little to no pulmonary dysfunction, reaction to mineral dusts
Simple Coal Worker's Pneumocononisis
Transient pulmonary lesions, eosinophlila in the blood, benigh clinical course What type of pulmonary eosinophilia?
Simple Pulmonary Eosinophilia
Which muscle type only gets increased Ca2+ in the cell from the SR, not from the ECF through the sarcolemma membrane as well?
Skeletal
Gel fractionation: Small molecules travel faster or slower thorugh the column? Why? Large molecules travel faster or slower through the column?
Slower. They interact more readily with the polymer beads. Faster. Minimal/no bead interaction
A solution of 1 mol/L NaCl is separated from a solution of 2 mol/L urea by a semipermeable membrane. Assume that NaCl is completely dissociated, that σNaCl = 0.3, and σurea = 0.05. Are the two solutions isosmotic and/or isotonic? Is there net water flow, and what is its direction?
Solution. Step 1. To determine whether the solutions are isosmotic, simply calculate the osmolarity of each solution (g × C) and compare the two values. It was stated that NaCl is completely dissociated (i.e., separated into two particles); thus, for NaCl, g = 2.0. Urea does not dissociate in solution; thus, for urea, g = 1.0. NaCl :Osmolarity=g C=2.0×1mol / L=2Osm / L Urea :Osmolarity=g C=1.0×2 mol / L=2Osm / L Each solution has an osmolarity of 2 Osm/L—they are indeed isosmotic. Step 2. To determine whether the solutions are isotonic, the effective osmotic pressure of each solution must be determined. Assume that at 37°C (310 K), RT = 25.45 L-atm/mol. Thus, NaCl :π=g C σ RT=2×1mol / L×0.3×RT=0.6RT=15.3atm Urea :π=g C σ RT=1×2mol / L×0.05×RT=0.1RT=2.5atm Although the two solutions have the same calculated osmolarities and are isosmotic (Step 1), they have different effective osmotic pressures and they are not isotonic (Step 2). This difference occurs because the reflection coefficient for NaCl is much higher than the reflection coefficient for urea and, thus, NaCl creates the greater effective osmotic pressure. Water will flow from the urea solution into the NaCl solution, from the hypotonic solution to the hypertonic solution.
Lung cancers most strongly associated with smoking (2)
Squamous cell carcinoma Small cell carcinoma
Most common bacteria causing IE (2) Specificially, which one?
Staph Strep VIRIDANS STREP!
The binding sites for solute on the transport proteins are stereospecific. Wht concept?
Stereospecificity
_______ receptors possess many characteristics of transcription factors and provide a model for the role of ____ ______ proteins in DNA binding
Steroid, zinc fingers
It can cause early-onset neonatal disease during the first 7 days of life, with bacteremia, pneumonia, and meningitis What type of strep?
Strep agalactiae
most common cause of pneumonia
Strep pneumonae
The suppurative diseases include pharyngitis (generally known as strep throat); scarlet fever, which is a complication of streptococcal pharyngitis; erysipelas, an acute infection of the skin; and other skin infections called pyoderma or impetigo. What bacteria?
Strep pyogenes
Causative agent of most lobar pneumonias
Streptococcus pneumonia
Streptococcal toxin that degrades fibrin blood clots by stopping the conversino of plasminogen to plasmin
Streptokinase
Strep pyogens: ____________ _ is a nonimmunogenic, cell-bound hemolysin that can lyse erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets and can facilitate the autolysis of phagocytes. ___________ _ is immunogenic and can kill leukocytes by autolysis
Streptolysin S, Streptolysin O
It is estimated that at least 5% of unexplained cases of intellectual disability are caused by ____________ ______________
Subtelomeric rearrangements
Onset of a new infection while treating a different one
Superinfection
a mixture of phospholipids that line the alveoli and reduce their surface tension
Surfactant
Cotransprot AKA
Symport
Type of Tb that happens when organisms disseminate through the systemic arterial system to almost every organ in the body
Systemic Miliary Tb
Upon diffusing into blood, CO2 can react with oxygenated Hb, shift the equilibrium toward the _ state, and thereby promote the dissociation of bound O2
T
Troponin _ attaches the troponin complex to tropomyosin. Troponin _, along with tropomyosin, inhibits the interaction of actin and myosin by covering the myosin-binding site on actin. Troponin _ is a Ca2+-binding protein that plays a central role in the initiation of contraction.
T, I, C
In the Hb _ state, interactions between the heterodimers are stronger; in the _ state, these noncovalent bonds are, in summation, weaker. O2 affinity is _____ in the T state and ______ in the R state
T, R, lower, higher
The protein known as TATA-binding protein (TBP) binds to the region of the ____ ___
TATA box
In addition to Inr, most promoters possess a sequence known as the ____ ___ approximately __bp upstream from the start of transcription.
TATA box, 25
What binds to the TATA box? What binds to the CAAT box? What binds to the GC box? What are these?
TBP NFI/CTF SP-1 Transcription factor binding sites
A single break leading to a loss that includes the chromosome's tip
TERMINAL DELETION
Key mediator of endothelial and smooth muscle dysfunction in pulmonary hypertension
TGF-beta pathway
What type of T cells re important to fighting Tb infection?
TH1
Cells very important to development of asthma
TH2 cells
Asthma: ___ cells stimulate production of __-_ this stimulates production of ___
TH2, IL 4 IgE
Inspiratory Capacity Formula
TV + IRV
Compound that blocks voltage-gated K+ channels and prevents repolarization of nerves
Tetraethylammonium
Compoudnds that block voltage gated Na+ channels and prevent propogation of action potential (2)
Tetrodotoxin Lidocaine
a product of arachidonic acid metabolism (via the cyclooxygenase pathway) in macrophages, leukocytes, and endothelial cells, is produced in response to certain types of lung injury.
Thromboxane A2
Superficial infection of the oral cavity Caused by what infection?
Thrush candidiasis
this type of mosaicism is confined only to certain tissues
Tissue specific mosaicism
a large molecular weight protein that extends from the M lines to the Z disks. Part of the molecule passes through the thick filament; the rest of the molecule, which is elastic or springlike, is anchored to the Z disk.
Titin
includes all of the lung volumes: It is the vital capacity plus the residual volume, or 5900 mL (4700 mL + 1200 mL). What value?
Total Lung Capacity
Tidal volume + Inspiratrory Reserve Volume =
Total inspiratory capacity
the tension developed when a muscle is stimulated to contract at different preloads.
Total tension
How to determine active tension?
Total tension - passive tensio
_____-fatty acids affect plasma lipids in the same fashion as saturated fatty acids, suggesting that there are comparable risks associated with the consumption of butter or margarine.
Trans
______________ _______ are DNA binding proteins that regulate gene expression.
Transcription factors
The pressure across a structure
Transmural pressure
Saturation of transport AKA
Transport maximum
▪ ________________ (triacylglycerols) are the storage form of lipids in _______ tissue.
Triacylglycerols, adipose
______________ are the storage form of lipids in adipose tissue
Triglycerides
_______ __ (47,XY,+13), also termed Patau syndrome, is seen in about 1 of every 10,000 births
Trisomy 13
______ __, which causes Down syndrome, is the most common autosomal ____________ seen among live births. The most significant features include intellectual disability, gastrointestinal tract ___________, congenital _____ defects, and ___________ infections. The extra ____ chromosome is contributed by the ______ in approximately 90% of cases. _________ is seen in 2% to 4% of Down syndrome cases, and it often accompanies a milder phenotype. Specific genes contributing to the Down syndrome phenotype are being identified.
Trisomy 21, aneuploidy, obstruction, heart, respiratory, 21st, mother, mosaicism
Infection with microflarieae ro helminthic parasites What disease of pulmonary eosinophilia?
Tropical eosinophilia
Troponin components (3)
Troponin I Troponin C Troponin T
Communicable chronic granulomatous disease caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Most common cause of death due to single infectious agent
Tuberculosis
Most important bacteria associated with chronic pneumonia
Tuberculosis
Silicosis increases susceptibility to what?
Tuberculosis
RB1 gene type
Tumor suppressor
Monosomy of X chromosome
Turner syndrome
Pneumocytes that secrete surfactant
Type II
In the organizing stage of ARDS, vigorous proliferation of what cells occurs in an attempt to regenerate the alveolar lining?
Type II Pneumocytes
Cells that produce surfactant
Type II alveolar cells
Surfactant, a mixture of phospholipids produced by ____ __ ________ cells, reduces _______ _______ so that the alveoli can remain inflated despite their _____ radii. Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome occurs when surfactant is absent.
Type II alveolar, srface tension, small
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis caused by what types of hypersensitivity (2)
Type III Type IV
a condition in which one parent has contributed two copies of a chromosome and the other parent has contributed no copies
Uniparental disomy
_______ smooth muscle is present in the gastrointestinal tract, bladder, uterus, and ureter.
Unitary
In other words, solute is moved from an area of low concentration (or low electrochemical potential) to an area of high concentration (or high electrochemical potential). Uphill or downhill?
Uphill
Moving up electrochemical gradient
Uphill
Moving up electrochemical potential gradient AKA
Uphill
______ transport occurs by active transport, which may be primary or secondary.
Uphill
an example of a solute where σ = 0 (or nearly 0).
Urea
A mismatch of ventilation and perfusion, called ___ __________, or ___ ______, results in abnormal gas exchange
V/Q mismatch, V/Q defect
___________ and ____ __________ together determine gas exchange
Ventilation, lung perfusion
________ streptococci include the oral microorganisms Streptococcus inutans and Streptococcus miti.
Viridans
Most ________ streptococci are commensals in the oropharynx and in the gastrointestinal and genital tracts. They are divided into four groups: __________, _____, ________, and ______.
Viridans, salivarius, mitis, angiosus, mutans
Expiratory Reserve Volume + Tidal Volume + Inspiratory Reserve Volume =
Vital Capacity
the volume that can be expired after maximal inspiration
Vital capacity
The Tm is analogous to the ____ of enzyme kinetics.
Vmax
Smooht, hemispherical protrusions locatd most often on the true vocal cords
Vocal cord nodules
sarcolemmal Ca2+ channels that open when the cell membrane potential depolarizes
Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels
have gates that are controlled by changes in membrane potential.
Voltage-gated channels
Minute ventilation formula
Vt * Breaths/min
Autosomal dominant inheritance: Vertical transmisssion? Do they skip generations? Do they effect males and females equally or not? Father to son transmission?
Yes No Yes Yes
Decreased V/Q ratio is highest in which zone of lung? Lowest in which zone of the lung? Average value?
Zone 1 Zone 3 0.8
What form of ion predominates at the PI of amino acid?
Zwitterion
What happens to the charge if you put glycine at neutral pH? In acidic solution? In basic solution?
Zwitterion (neutral) COOH protonated, + charge NH3+ deprotonated, makes it NH2 and negative charge
The muscles of expiration include the _________ muscles, which compress the abdominal cavity and push the diaphragm up, and the ________ ___________ muscles, which pull the ribs downward and inward
abdominal, internal intercostal
An ____, according to the Brønsted-Lowry definition, is 'a molecular species that has a tendency to lose a hydrogen ion, forming a conjugate base'.
acid
Because of their side chain functional groups, all proteins become more positively charged at ______ pH and more negatively charged at _____ pH
acidic, basic
A primary increase in pCO2, or a decrease in plasma bicarbonate concentration, lead to ________. A decrease in pCO2, or an increase in plasma bicarbonate, lead to _________. If the primary change is in pCO2, the disorder is called ___________, and if the primary change is in plasma bicarbonate, it is called ________.
acidosis, alkalosis, metabolic, respiratory
Acid-base disorders are ________ and _________ and each of them can be either _________ or ___________.
acidosis, alkalosis, respiratory, metabolic
A primary increase in pCO2, or a decrease in plasma bicarbonate concentration, lead to ________. A decrease in pCO2, or an increase in plasma bicarbonate, lead to _________. If the primary change is in pCO2, the disorder is called ___________, and if the primary change is in plasma bicarbonate, it is called ________.
acidosis, alkalosis, respiratoryy, metabolic
Robertsonian translocation is confined to the ___________ chromosomes (__, __, __, __, and __) and has no effect on a carrier because the short arms of these chromosomes are very small and contain no essential genetic material.
acrocentric, 13, 14, 15, 21, 22
In the _____ phase of ARDS, the lungs are dark red, firm, airless, and heavy
acute
Can result form inhalation of irritants or caused by allergic reaction
acute laryngitis
C-reactive protein (CRP) is a major component of the _____ ____ response and a marker of ____________ __________
acute phase respnse, bacterial infection
Changes in the concentration of plasma proteins give important clinical information. A characteristic pattern with decreased albumin, transthyretin and transferrin and increased α1-antitrypsin, fibrinogen and C-reactive protein indicates the _____ _____ ________
acute phase response
The _____ _____ ________ is a nonspecific response to tissue injury or infection; it affects several organs and tissues
acute phase response
Acute lung injury can progress to the more severe _____ ___________ ________ ________
acute respiratory distress syndrome
The first nucleotide in the mRNA transcript tends to be _________, usually followed by a ___________-rich sequence, termed the __________ (___)
adenosine, pyrimidine, initiatior, INR
If one of the ________ segregation patterns occurs in a patient with Robertsonian translocation, then the gametes are unbalanced and the offspring may have trisomy 14, monosomy 14, monosomy 21, or trisomy 21
adjacent
The _______ _______ contains the complete enzymatic pathway; therefore, it secretes primarily epinephrine.
adrenal medulla
The shape of the steepest portion of the curve is the result of a change in ________ of the heme groups for __ as each successive O2 molecule binds: Binding of the first molecule of O2 to a heme group increases the affinity for the second O2 molecule, binding of the second O2 molecule increases the affinity for the third O2 molecule, and so forth. What is this phenomena called?
affinity, O2 Positive cooperativity
The O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve can shift to the right or shift to the left, as illustrated in Figure 5-22. Such shifts reflect changes in the ________ of hemoglobin for O2 and produce changes in ___.
affinity, P50
A delay in the age of onset of a diseae
age dependent penetrance
________ serves as an osmotic regulator and is a major transport protein
albumin
Plasma contains many proteins broadly classified into _______ and _________ (predominantly _______________). Albumin functions as a determinant of the _______ pressure and a major transport protein for trace ______, hormones, bilirubin, and free _____ _____.
albumin, globulins, immunoglobulins, osmotic, metals, fatty acids
Alanine, valine, leucine, and isoleucine, referred to as __________ amino acids, have _________ ____________ as side chains.
aliphatic, saturated hydrocarbons
Finally, variable expression can result from different types of mutations (i.e., different alleles) at the same disease locus. This is termed _______ ______________
allelic heterogenecity
Hb is an __________ protein; its affinity for O2 is regulated by small molecules
allosteric
Hb is one of the best studied examples of an __________ protein, The small bind to proteins at sites that are spatially distinct from the ligand-binding sites, thus their designation as ________ (______ site) __________.
allosteric, allosteric, other, effectors
2,3-BPG, an important __________ effector of Hb, __________ the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin; this is an important adaptation to ____ altitude and in _________ disease. _______, through the Bohr effect, and ___ also promote the release of oxygen from hemoglobin in peripheral tissue. Conformational changes in both the ________ and ___________ structures characterize the transition between deoxygenated and oxygenated states
allosteric, decreases, high, pulmonary, protons, CO2, tertiary, quarternary
The _____ subunit of Na+/K+ ATPase contains the ATPase activity, as well as the binding sites for the transported ions, Na+ and K+.
alpha
D-Tubocurarine, a form of curare, is used therapeutically to cause relaxation of skeletal muscle during anesthesia. A related substance, _____-______________, binds irreversibly to ACh receptors.
alpha bungarotoxin
Rank in these side chains in order of ASCENDING pKa: alpha carboxyl gamma carboxyl sulfhydrl beta carboxyl imidazole alpha amino epsilon amino guanidino phenolic hydroxyl NEUTRAL
alpha carboxyl beta carboxyl gamma carboxyl imidazole NEUTRAL alpha amino sulfhydryl phenolic hydroxyl epsilon amino guanidino
Most of the transmembrane segments of integral membrane proteins form _____-_______. They are composed primarily of amino acid residues with non-polar side chains - about __ amino acid residues forming _ to _ α-helical turns are enough to traverse a membrane of 5 nm (50 Å) thickness.
alpha helices, 20, 6, 7
The secondary structure of mammalian globins is dominated by a high proportion of _____-______, with over 75% of the amino acids associated with eight helical segments
alpha helix
rod-like structure with the peptide chain tightly coiled and the side chains of amino acid residues extending outward from the axis of the spiral. What secondary structure?
alpha helix
all key elements of the globin fold are: the three-over-three _____-_____ sandwich; the proximal and distal ___residues; and a hydro______, ______-containing pocket.
alpha helix, His, phobic, heme
PrPC has a high _____-_____ content and is devoid of ____-______, whereas PrPSc has a high ____-______ content.
alpha helix, beta sheet, beta sheet
The Na+-K+ ATPase consists of _____ and ____ subunits.
alpha, beta
In fetal hemoglobin, the two ____ chains are replaced by _____ chains, giving it the designation of _____ _ ____ _.
alpha, gamma, alpha 2 gamma 2
Most of the heavy-chain myosin has an _-_______ structure, in which the two chains coil around each other to form the "____" of the myosin molecule. The four light chains and the _ terminus of each heavy chain form two globular "_____" on the myosin molecule. These globular heads have an _____-binding site, which is necessary for cross-bridge formation, and a site that binds and hydrolyzes ___
alpha-helical, tail, heads, actin, ATP
If __________ segregation occurs in a patient with Robertsonian translocation, then the offspring are either chromosomally normal or have a balanced translocation with a normal phenotype.
alternate
The mechanism of hypoxic vasoconstriction involves a direct action of _________ ___ on the vascular smooth muscle of pulmonary ___________.
alveolar PO2, arterioles
A critical point to be understood from the alveolar ventilation equation is that if CO2 production is constant, then PACO2 is determined by ________ ___________.
alveolar ventilation
As a result of the gravitational effect, arterial pressure (Pa) at the apex of the lung may be _____ than alveolar pressure (PA), which is approximately equal to ____________ pressure.
alveolar, atmospheric
Although compression of the capillaries does not present a problem in zone 2, blood flow is driven by the difference between arterial and ________ pressure, not by the difference between arterial and ______ pressure (as it is in systemic vascular beds).
alveolar, venous
The Edman degradation method sequentially removes one residue at a time from the _____ end of a peptide.
amino
phospholipid molecules have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties and are called ___________
amphipathic
The mechanism by which DPPC reduces surface tension is based on the ___________ nature of the phospholipid molecules (i.e., ___________ on one end and ____________ on the other).
amphipathic, hydrophobic, hydrophillic
Phospholipids are ___________ lipids found in biological membranes; they contain a ______________ at C-_ of ________, linking a ____________ to an _____ compound, most frequently ______, ______________ or ______.
amphipathic, phosphodiester, 3, glycerol, diglyceride, amino, serine, ethanolamine, choline
_______, a component of starch, is an α-1→4-linked linear glucan, while _________ is a β-1→4-linked linear glucan.
amylose, cellulose
The ________ dead space is the volume of the conducting airways including the nose (and/or mouth), trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles.
anatomic
Physiologic dead space includes the ________ dead space of the conducting airways plus a __________ dead space in the alveoli.
anatomic, functional
In _______, DL decreases because the amount of hemoglobin in red blood cells is reduced (recall that DL includes the protein-binding component of O2 exchange)
anemia
Cells that contain missing or additional individual chromosomes are termed _________ (not a multiple of 23 chromosomes).
aneuploid
Strep viridans: The __________ group is associated with head and neck, brain, lung, and abdominal infections as well as abscess formation, and these streptococci have β-hemolytic activity The __________ group can cause bacteremia and endocarditis. The _____ group is associated with subacute endocarditis, pneumonia, and meningitis, and the ______ group initiates dental caries and can cause bacteremia.
angiosus Salivarius Mitis Mutans
Lateral diffusion of erythrocyte integral membrane proteins, band 3 (an _____ transporter) and glycophorin, is limited by indirect interaction with ________, a cytoskeletal protein, through ______ and band ___ protein, respectively.
anion, spectrin, ankryn, 4.1
One example of a peripheral membrane protein is _______, which "anchors" the cytoskeleton of ___ _____ _____ to an integral membrane transport protein, the ___−_____− exchanger
ankryin, red blood cell, Cl-, HCO3-
When a current is applied to molecules in dilute buffers, those with a net negative charge at the selected pH migrate toward the _____ and those with a net positive charge toward the _______.
anode, cathode
the cyclization reaction creates a new asymmetric center at C-1, which is known as the ________ ______
anomeric carbon
Plasma is the supernatant obtained after centrifugation of blood collected into a test tube containing _____________ to prevent clotting.
anticogulant
Where does active Tb lesion ususally happen? Most frequent form of extrapulmonary Tb? Where does this happen? What is this AKA?
apex of lung Lymphadenitis Cervical region Scrofula
Stimulation of the ___________ center in the _____ ____ produces this breathing pattern in experimental subjects.
apneuestic, lower pons
20 : 4; ω-6, Δ5,8,11,14 Which FA?
arachadonic
the enzyme NO synthase converts ________ to __________ and NO.
arginine, citrulline
The __________ amino acids are responsible for the ultraviolet absorption of most proteins, which have absorption maxima ~___ nm.
aromatic, 280
If there is decreased O2 content of ________ _____, then the kidney is alerted to a need for more erythrocytes.
arterial blood
Blood flow in zone 3 is driven by the difference between ________ pressure and ______ pressure, as it is in other vascular beds.
arterial, venous
Because of their ___________ _______, sugars are optically active compounds. The rotation of plane polarized light may be ____________ (+) or __________ (−).
asymmetric centers, dextrorotary, levorotary
Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia is an _________ ________ disorder characterized by abnormal vascular development; nosebleeds and telangiectasia at multiple sites (lips, oral cavity, nose); and a family history of arteriovenous malformations of the lungs, liver, brain, spine, and gastrointestinal tract
autosomal dominant
Aneuploidies of the _________ are among the most clinically important of the chromosome abnormalities. They consist primarily of ________ (the presence of only one copy of a chromosome in an otherwise diploid cell) and _______ (three copies of a chromosome).
autosomes, monosomies, trisomies
Chromosome ________ helps greatly in the detection of deletions, duplications, and other structural abnormalities, and it facilitates the correct identification of individual chromosomes.
banding
Chromosome _____ help to identify individual chromosomes and structural abnormalities in chromosomes. Banding techniques include quinacrine, Giemsa, reverse, C, and NOR banding. High-resolution banding, using ________ or ____________ chromosomes, increases the number of observable bands.
banding, prophase, prometaphase
blood pH is determined by the ratio between the concentration of plasma bicarbonate (the '____' component of the buffer) and the concentration of dissolved CO2 (the '____' component).
base, acid
Gravitational effects increase pulmonary arterial hydrostatic pressure more at the ____ of the lung than at the ____
base, apex
Proteins rich in lysine and arginine are _____ in solution and have a ________ charge at neutral pH, while proteins rich in aspartate and glutamate, are ________ and have a _________ charge.
basic, positive, acidic, negative
Streptococcus Groups A and B cause a particular type of hemolysis called ____-hemolysis when grown on sheep blood agar plates.
beta
Sympathetic receptors on smooth muscle of respiratory Dilate or constrict?
beta 2 adrenergic dilate
The ____-anomer is the most stable form of glucose because all of the __________ groups, which are bulkier than hydrogen, are oriented _____________, in the plane of the ring.
beta, hydroxyl, equatorially
Human genes are ________, but sometimes only ___ allele of the gene is expressed
biallelic, one
Blood pH is proportional to the ratio of plasma ___________ to the partial pressure of ______ _______ (____). The components of the ___________ buffer are thus the carbon dioxide and the bicarbonate. The pCO2 is the ___________ component of acid-base balance, and bicarbonate is the _________ component.
bicarbonate, carbon dioxide, CO2, bicarbonate, respiatory, metabolic
Erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase converts approximately 70% of the CO2 produced in tissues into ___________ for transport to the lungs: approximately 20% of the total amount is transported bound to ___________, as __________ (-NHCOO−) and the rest as _________ ___ in plasma.
bicarbonate, hemoglobin, carbamates, dissolved gas
Metabolic component of the acid base balance AKA
bicarrbonate
A __________ is an indicator of biological state, or a characteristic that is measured as an indicator or normal or pathologic process
biomarker
Perfusion-limited gas exchange means that the total amount of gas transported across the alveolar/capillary barrier is limited by _____ ____ (i.e., perfusion) through the pulmonary capillaries.
blood flow
Most leukocytes are produced in the ____ ______, some are produced in the ______, and others mature within several tissues
bone marrow, thymus
The central chemoreceptors, located in the _____ ____, are the most important for the minute-to-minute control of breathing. These chemoreceptors are located on the _______ surface of the _______, near the point of exit of the _________________ (CN __) and _____ (CN _) nerves and only a short distance from the ___ in the medulla.
brain stem, ventral, medulla, glossopharyngeal, IX, Vagus, X, DRG
The chromosome instability syndromes all involve increased frequencies of chromosome ________ and an increased risk of __________. All are associated with defects in ___ replication or repair.
breakage, malignancy, DNA
Several other indices are also computed in blood gas test: they include the total amount of buffers in the blood (the ______ ____) and the difference between the desired (normal) amount of buffers in the blood and the actual amount (____ ______)
buffer base, base excess
In the tissues, CO2 generated from aerobic metabolism is added to systemic _________ blood, converted to _____ by the reactions described previously, and transported to the _____
capillary, HCO3-, lungs
When CO2 is bound to hemoglobin, it is called _____________________, which accounts for about _% of the total CO2.
carbaminohemoglobin
IgD differs from the standard immunoglobulin structure chiefly by its high ______________ content of numerous oligosaccharide units, resulting in an increased molecular mass of 190 kDa.
carbohydrate
The Signify Strep A Dipstick kit detects ____________ antigens of Group A streptococci collected on a throat swab.
carbohydrate
The classic definition of a ____________ is a polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone
carbohydrate
The vast majority of peripheral tissue CO2, however, is hydrated by erythrocyte ________ _________ to ________ ____ (H2CO3), a weak acid that dissociates partially to __ and _____
carbonic anhydrase, carbonic acid, H+, CO3-
Alpha hellix: Each amide ________ group is ________-bonded to the amide ________ of a peptide bond that is _ residues away along the same chain. There are on average ___ amino acid residues per turn of the helix, and the helix winds in a _____-handed (_________) manner in almost all natural proteins
carbonyl, hydrogen, hydrogen, 4, 3.6, right, clockwise
CO binds to hemoglobin with an affinity that is 250 times that of O2 to form _________________
carboxyhemoglobin
____________ is a significant component of the mitochondrial inner membrane, while sphingomyelin, phosphatidylserine and cholesterol are enriched in the ______ membrane
cardiolipin, plasma
High sensitivity CRP assay is used in the assessment of ______________ risk
cardiovascular
Facilitated diffusion, primary active transport, and secondary active transport all involve integral membrane proteins and are called _______-________ transport.
carrier mediated
Two cross sections of the brain of an adult with Huntington disease, which illustrate severe _______ atrophy and enlarged ________ __________.
caudate, lateral ventricles
Most ____ ________ contain a Ca2+ ATPase, or plasma-membrane Ca2+ ATPase (PMCA), whose function is to extrude Ca2+ from the cell against an electrochemical gradient; one Ca2+ ion is extruded for each ATP hydrolyzed.
cell membranes
Neuroglobin (Ngb) is expressed primarily in the _______ _______ system and some _________ tissues; cytoglobin (Cygb) is ubiquitously expressed, primarily in cells of _________ origin.
central nervous, endocrine, fibroblast
Increased concentrations of ___________ occur in active liver disease and in tissue damage.
ceruplasmin
Oxidation of Fe2+ by ____________ permits the binding and transport of iron by plasma ____________. The cuprous ion (___)) bound to ceruloplasmin is regenerated by reaction with _______ or with _________ _____ groups.
ceruplasmin, transferrin, Cu2+, oxygen, oxidized thiol
Numerous proteins assist other proteins in the folding process. These proteins, termed __________, include '____ ____' proteins, such as HSP 60 and HSP 70, and protein disulfide isomerases.
chaperones, heat shock
Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in sodium dodecylsulfate can used to separate proteins, based on _______
charge
DRG receives sensory input from peripheral ______________ via the __________________ (CN __) and _____ (CN _) nerves and from _________________ in the lung via the _____ nerve
chemoreceptors, glossopharyngeal, IX, vagus, X, mechanoreceptors, vagus
Biological membranes also contain another important amphipathic lipid, ____________, a flat, rigid hydrophobic molecule with a polar hydroxyl group. Cholesterol is found in all biomembranes and acts as a modulator of membrane _________
cholesterol, fluidity
Butter is rich in both ____________ and triglycerides containing _________ fatty acids, which are dietary risk factors for _______________. Margarine contains no cholesterol and is richer in ___________ fatty acids
cholesterol, saturated, atherosclerosis, unsaturated
Bronchial smooth muscle is innervated by _______________ cholinergic nerve fibers and by sympathetic ___________ nerve fibers.
cholinergic, adrenergic
One way of evaluating the contribution each ion makes to the membrane potential is by using the _____ ___________ ________, which weights the equilibrium potential for each ion (calculated by the ______ equation) by its relative conductance.
chord conductance equation, Nernst
on the graph that at volumes greater than FRC, the __________ force on the lungs is greater than the __________ force on the chest wall and that airway pressure for the combined system is _________; thus, the overall system tends to ________, as air flows out of the lungs down the pressure gradient
collapsing, expanding, positive, collapse
Chromosome inversions are relatively ________ structural abnormalities and may be either pericentric (including the __________) or paracentric (not including the __________). Parents with inversions are usually ______ in phenotype but can produce offspring with _________ or _____________.
common, centromere, centromere, normal, deletions, duplications
Lung and the kidney work in a concerted way to minimize changes in plasma pH: this is known as the ____________ of acid-base disorders
compensation
The slope of each limb of the pressure-volume loop is the __________ of the isolated lung.
compliance
The ___________ of a channel depends on the probability that it is open.
conductance
C-banding stains the _____________ _______________, which usually lies near the __________, and NOR staining highlights the satellites and stalks of ___________ chromosomes
constituitive heterochromatin, centromere, acrocentric
Muscarinic ACh receptor effects on smooth muscle of respiratory system sympathetic or parasympathetic?
constrict parasympathetic
Parasympathetic stimulation produces ____________ of bronchial smooth muscle, _________ airway diameter and ____________ resistance to airflow
constriction, decreasing, increasing
Because the WAGR syndrome involves the deletion of a series of adjacent genes, it is sometimes referred to as an example of a __________ ____ syndrome (________ syndrome, discussed previously, is another example of a contiguous gene syndrome).
continguous gene, Williams
Most commonly effected area of brain in Huntington Disease
corpus striatum
If the uphill solute moves in the same direction as Na+, it is called ___________, or _______.
cotransport, symport
If the uphill solute moves in the opposite direction of Na+, it is called ________________, ________, or ________.
countertransport, antiport, exchange
Na+ moves into the cell on the carrier down its electrochemical gradient; the solutes that are __________________ or exchanged for Na+ move out of the cell.
countertransported
High altitude causes hypoxemia because barometric pressure (PB) is _________, which _________ the PO2 of inspired air and of alveolar air
decreased, decreases
Changes in the concentration of plasma proteins give important clinical information. A characteristic pattern with _________ albumin, transthyretin and transferrin and _________ α1-antitrypsin, fibrinogen and C-reactive protein indicates the acute phase response
decreased, increased
In Zone I, if arterial pressure is _________ (e.g., due to hemorrhage) or if alveolar pressure is __________ (e.g., by positive pressure breathing), then PA will be _______ than Pa and the blood vessels will be compressed and will _____
decreased, increased, greater, close
Hypoxemia, or _________ PaO2 , is caused by high altitude, hypoventilation, diffusion defects, V/Q defects, and _____-to-____ shunts. _______, or decreased O2 delivery to tissues, is caused by decreased cardiac output or decreased O2 content of blood.
decreased, right, left, hypoxia
Acidic pH (protons) _________ the O2 affinity of Hb
decreases
Physiologic dead space _________ during exercise
decreases
The synthesis of albumin, transthyretin (prealbumin), and transferrin _________ during the acute phase response, and they are thus termed the 'negative acute phase reactants'.
decreases
when the H+ concentration _________, the carbonic acid component of the buffer will dissociate to supply __ for a reaction that will yield _____ and ___________ ion (at this stage the increase in plasma bicarbonate is minimal)
decreases, H+, CO2, water, bicarbonate
The effect of CO is different: It __________ O2 bound to hemoglobin and also causes a ____ shift of the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve
decreases, left
Hypoventilation causes hypoxemia by __________ alveolar PO2
decreasing
A ________ is caused by a chromosome break and subsequent loss of genetic material.
deletion
Microscopically observable chromosome _________, which may be either terminal or interstitial, usually affect a fairly large number of genes and produce recognizable syndromes.
deletions
2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate binds preferentially to _____________ hemoglobin
deoxygenated
A critical consequence of the conformational differences between the T and R states is that ____________ Hb preferentially interacts with the negatively charged 2,3-BPG.
deoxygenated
Another remarkable process within the erythrocyte is the allosterically regulated conversion of nitrite (NO2−) to NO, a reaction performed by ____________ Hb.
deoxygenated
The net result of increased 2,3-BPG is a greater stabilization of the _____________, ___-affinity _ state and a further shift of the saturation curve to the ______, thereby facilitating release of ____ O2 to tissues. Under most circumstances, the rightward shift has an ______________ effect on the O2 saturation of Hb in the lungs.
deoxygenated, low, T, right, more, insignificant
It is ____ that gives globins, their characteristic purple-red color - purple in the ____________ state in ______ blood, red in the ___________ state in ________ blood.
deoxygenated, venous, oxygenated, arterial
Lungs: H+ is released from its buffering sites on __________________, _____ enters the red blood cells in exchange for Cl−, H+ and HCO3− combine to form _____, and H2CO3 dissociates into ___ and ___. The regenerated CO2 and H2O are expired by the lungs.
deoxyghemolgobin, HCO3-, H2CO3, CO2, H2o
the activation gate on the nerve Na+ channel is opened by ______________ of the nerve cell membrane; opening of this channel is responsible for the upstroke of the ______ _________.
depolarization, action potential
HPLC may also be used to measure HbA1c, a glycated protein that is measured clinically as an index of mean blood glucose concentration in _________ ________.
diabetes mellitus
changes in airway ________ provide the major mechanism for altering resistance and airflow
diameter
In quiet breathing, respiratory muscles (_________) are used only for ____________; __________ is passive.
diaphragm, inspiration, expriation
Diffusion-limited gas exchange means that the total amount of gas transported across the alveolar-capillary barrier is limited by the _________ process.
diffusion
In certain pathologic conditions (e.g., fibrosis) and during strenuous exercise, O2 transfer becomes _________ limited.
diffusion
Therefore, a diffusion potential is caused by _________ __ ____
diffusion of ions
when a charged solute diffuses down a concentration gradient, that diffusion can itself generate a potential difference across a membrane called a _________ _________.
diffusion potential
Depolarization of the T tubules causes a critical conformational change in their voltage-sensitive ______________ receptors. This conformational change opens ____-release channels (_________ receptors) on the nearby sarcoplasmic reticulum.
dihydropyridine, Ca2+, ryanodine
Steroids induce ____________ of receptor molecules that, in turn, bind to an ________, activating ______________ of the gene.
dimerization, enhancer, transcription
The _________ of ionic current is determined by the direction of the driving force
dirction
What role, if any, does the Na+-K+ATPase play in creating the resting membrane potential? The answer has two parts. First, there is a small ______ electrogenic contribution of the Na+-K+ ATPase, which is based on the stoichiometry of _ Na+ ions pumped out of the cell for every _ K+ ions pumped into the cell. Second, the more important __________ contribution is in maintaining the ______________ ________ for __ across the cell membrane, which then is responsible for the __ _________ potential that drives the ________ potential toward the __ ___________ potential. Thus, the Na+-K+ ATPase is necessary to create and maintain the __ ______________ gradient, which establishes the _______ ________ potential.
direct, 3, 2 indirect, concentration gradient, K+, K+ diffusion, K+ equilibrium, K+ concentration, resting membrane
The law of Laplace states that the pressure tending to collapse an alveolus is ________ proportional to the surface tension generated by the molecules of liquid lining the alveolus and _________ proportional to alveolar radius
directly, inveresely
For gases, the rate of transfer by diffusion is ________ proportional to the driving force, a diffusion coefficient, and the surface area available for diffusion; it is ________ proportional to the thickness of membrane barrier
directly, inversely
In words, airflow (Q) is _________ proportional to the pressure difference (ΔP) between the mouth or nose and the alveoli and it is _________ proportional to the resistance of the airways (R).
directly, inversely
All gases in solution are carried, to some extent, in the ___________ form. ________ law gives the relationship between the partial pressure of a gas and its concentration in solution: For a given partial pressure, the ______ the solubility of the gas, the higher the concentration of gas in solution.
dissolved, Henry's, higher
CO2 is transported in blood in ________ form, as ___________________, and as _____. HCO3− is produced in red blood cells from ___ and ___, catalyzed by _________ _________. HCO3− is transported in the plasma to the lungs where the reactions occur in reverse to regenerate ___, which then is expired.
dissolved, carbaminohemoglobin, HCO3-, CO2, H2O, carbonic anhydrase, CO2
O2 is transported in blood in _________ form and bound to __________. One molecule of hemoglobin can bind _ molecules of __. The _________ shape of the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve reflects _________ affinity for each successive molecule of O2 that is bound. Shifts to the right of the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve are associated with _________ affinity, _________ P50, and ___________ unloading of O2 in the tissues. Shifts to the left are associated with __________ affinity, ___________ P50, and __________ unloading of O2 in the tissues. CO _________ the O2-binding capacity of hemoglobin and causes a shift to the ____.
dissolved, hemoglobin, 4, O2, sigmoidal, increased, decreased, increased, increased, increased, decreased, decreased, decreases, left
Excretion of the hydrogen ion takes place in the ______ tubules. Hydrogen ion reacts with _______, forming the ammonium ion. Hydrogen ion is also buffered in the tubule lumen by _________. Approximately 50 mmol of hydrogen ion is excreted daily.
distal, ammonia, phosphate
Thus, ______________ neurons secrete dopamine because the presynaptic nerve terminal contains tyrosine hydroxylase and dopa decarboxylase, but not the other enzymes.
dopaminergic
The inspiratory center is located in the ______ respiratory group (___) of neurons and controls the basic rhythm for breathing by setting the frequency of ___________.
dorsal, DRG, inspiration
When CO2 production doubles from 200 mL/min to 400 mL/min, alveolar ventilation must ______ to maintain the and at 40 mm Hg.
double
Substances may be transported down an electrochemical gradient (_________) or against an electrochemical gradient (______).
downhill, uphill
The _______ _____ on a given ion is the difference between the actual, measured membrane potential (Em) and the ion's calculated equilibrium potential (EX)
driving force
____________ can arise from unequal crossover, or they can occur among the offspring of reciprocal translocation carriers. Duplications generally produce less-serious consequences than do __________ of the same region.
duplications, deletions
The extent to which intrapleural pressure changes during inspiration can be used to estimate the _______ ________ of the lung
dynamic compliance
Emphysema first sign? results of FEV1? results of FCV? ratio results? What develops gradually from there?
dypsnea reduced Normal Reduced Pulmonary hypertension
When the chemical and electrical driving forces on Cl− are equal and opposite, then Cl− is at _______________ ___________.
electrochemical equilibrium
When the chemical and electrical driving forces on Na+ are equal and opposite, Na+ is said to be at _______________ ___________.
electrochemical equilibrium
In _________, for example, DL decreases because destruction of alveoli results in a decreased surface area for gas exchange.
emphysema
In a person with _________, however, forced expiration may cause the airways to collapse.
emphysema
A protein may be cleaved first by digestion by specific _____________, such as trypsin V8 protease or lysyl endopeptidase, to obtain peptide fragments. Trypsin cleaves peptide bonds on the _-terminal side of ________ and ______ residues, provided the next residue is not _______. Lysyl endopeptidase is also frequently used to cleave at the _-terminal side of ______. Cleavage by chemical reagents such as cyanogen bromide is also useful. Cyanogen bromide cleaves on the _-terminal side of __________ residues. Before cleavage, proteins with ________ and _______ residues are reduced by 2-mercaptoethanol and then treated with iodoacetate to form carboxymethylcysteine residues. This avoids spontaneous formation of inter- or intramolecular _________ _____ during analyses.
endopeptidases, C, arginine, lysine, proline, C, lysine, C, methoinine, cysetine, cystine, disulfide bonds
NO is an ___________-derived relaxing factor that is synthesized from _-________ by the action of nitric oxide synthase. NO then activates ________ _________, leading to production of ____ and relaxation of vascular ______ ______
endothelial, L arginine, guanyl cyclase, cGMP, smooth muscle
Sequences further away from the transcription start site, some of which are known as _________, may also have a major impact on the transcription of a gene
enhancers
Methylation is one aspect of the study of ___________, a broad field that, in general, addresses heritable modifications of DNA and protein that do not alter the sequence of DNA, but affect gene expression. Epigenetic control mechanisms encompass DNA ___________, and histone ___________, ____________ or _______________.
epigenetics, methylation, acteylation, methylation, phosphorlyation
The adrenal medulla contains the complete enzymatic pathway; therefore, it secretes primarily ____________
epinepherine
Na+-glucose cotransport (SGLT) and Na+-amino acid cotransport are present in the luminal membranes of the __________ cells of both _____ _________ and _____ ________ ______
epitheilail, small intestine, renal proximal tubule
Arterial PCO2 is always ________ __ the alveolar PCO2
equal to
Each permeant ion attempts to drive the membrane potential toward its own ___________ _________.
equilibrium potential
An ___________ is used to describe the amount of charged solute and is the number of moles of the solute multiplied by its valence.
equivalent
The formed elements of blood are ____________, __________ and _________. They are suspended in an aqueous solution (______) and have several specialized functions such as transport of ______, destruction of external agents, and the ________ of blood. Plasma allowed to clot yields _____. Most biochemical tests are done on _____. To obtain plasma, blood must be taken into a test tube containing an ______________.
erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets, serum, oxygen, clotting, serum, serum, anticoagulant
Erythrocytes are the end-product of ________________ in the ____ ______, which is under the control of _______________ produced by the _________. Hemoglobin is synthesized in the erythrocyte precursor cells (_____________ and _____________) under a tight control dictated by the concentration of ____
erythropoiesis, bone marrow, erythropoietin, kidney, reticulocytes, erythroblasts, heme
A cell that contains a multiple of 23 chromosomes in its nucleus is said to be _______
euploid
Glutamate, an amino acid, is the major __________ neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.
excitatory
During _________, DL increases because additional capillaries are perfused with blood, which increases the surface area for gas exchange.
exercise
During ________ or in diseases in which airway resistance is increased (e.g., ______), the expiratory muscles may aid the expiratory process.
exercise, asthma
On the __________ limb, one begins at high lung volume, where intermolecular forces between liquid molecules are low; one does not need to break up intermolecular forces to deflate the lung.
expiration
Once the lungs are expanded maximally, the pressure outside the lungs is made gradually less negative, causing lung volume to decrease along the __________ limb of the pressure-volume loop.
expiration
Usually, compliance is measured on the ___________ limb of the pressure-volume loop because the ___________ limb is complicated by the decrease in compliance at maximal expanding pressures.
expiration, inspiration
When the volume in the system is less than FRC (i.e., the subject makes a forced ___________ into the spirometer), there is ____ volume in the lungs and the collapsing (elastic) force of the lungs is _______. The expanding force on the chest wall is _______, however, and the combined lung and chest-wall system "wants" to ______.
expiration, smaller, greater, expand
During exercise, when breathing frequency and tidal volume increase, the ________ ___________ muscles and _________ muscles may also be used for more vigorous inspiration along with the diaphragm
external intercostals, accessory
In the E2 state, teh binding sites for Na+ and K+ face the _____________ fluid and the enzyme has a high affinity for __
extracellular, K+
An excellent example of ___________ diffusion is the transport of D-glucose into skeletal muscle and adipose cells by the GLUT4 transporter.
facilitated
At low solute concentration, ___________ diffusion typically proceeds faster than ______ diffusion because of the function of the _______.
facilitated, simple, carrier
Distribution of the age of onset for Huntington disease. The age of onset tends to be somewhat earlier when the affected parent is the ______
father
Cholesterol At lower temperatures it interferes with _____ ____ chain associations and _________ fluidity, but at higher temperatures it tends to limit ________ and ________ fluidity.
fatty acid, incresases, disorder, increases
Surfactant is synthesized from _____ _____ by ____ __ _________ cells
fatty acids, Type II alveolar
▪ Lipids are hydrophobic compounds, commonly containing _____ _______ esterified to _________.
fatty acids, glycerol
This introduction will focus on the structure of _____ _____ (the simplest form of lipids, found primarily in plasma), _____________ (the storage form of lipids, found primarily in adipose tissue), and ______________ (the major class of membrane lipids in all cells).
fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids
measurement of plasma _________ is one of the best indicators of iron deficiency.
ferritin
For the subunits to bind O2, iron in the heme moieties must be in the _______ state (i.e., Fe__)
ferrous, 2+
MetHb is formed when the _______ iron of heme is oxidized to ______ iron; it is produced spontaneously at a low rate and more rapidly in the presence of certain drugs, nitrites, and aniline dyes.
ferrous, ferric
Another minor Hb is _____ Hb, ___; its subunits are α-globin and γ-globin.
fetal, HbF
During clotting, fibrinogen is converted to ______ as a result of proteolytic cleavage by ________, and so a major difference between plasma and serum is the absence of ___________ in serum.
fibrin, thrombin, fibrinogen
In ________ or _________ ______, DL decreases because the diffusion distance (membrane thickness or interstitial volume) increases.
fibrosis, pulmonary edema
Erythrocytes transport CO2 to the lungs in a '_____' form - as ___________
fixed, bicarbonate
The distribution of proteins in a phospholipid bilayer is illustrated in the ______ ______ model
fluid mosaic
Net diffusion of the solute is called ____, or ____ (_), and depends on the following variables: size of the concentration gradient, partition coefficient, diffusion coefficient, thickness of the membrane, and surface area available for diffusion
flux, flow, J
The total volume that is forcibly expired is called the ______ _____ ________ (___). The volume expired in the first second is called ____.
forced vital capacity, FVC, FEV1
When glucose cyclizes to a hemiacetal, it may form a _________ or _________ ring structure, named after the 5- and 6-carbon cyclic ethers, furan and pyran
furanose, pyranose
Enzyme involved in the metabolism of glutathione and is a plasma biomarker for some liver diseases, including hepatocellular carcinoma and alcoholic liver disease.
gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase
Unitary smooth muscle has ___ _________ between cells, which allow for the fast spread of electrical activity throughout the organ, followed by a coordinated contraction.
gap junctions
Ion channels are controlled by _____, and, depending on the position of them, the channels may be open or closed.
gates
Other factors that affect the conversion of gene to protein include access of the transcriptional apparatus to the ____, enzymatic modification of ________ and ___________ in the DNA, factors that effect alternative ______ splicing, post-transcriptional editing of ___-____, ___ interference, and restricted expression of _________ genes.
gene, histones, nucleotides, intron, pre mRNA, RNA, biallelic
Efforts are often made to establish ________-_________ correlations to better predict the severity of a genetic disease, given the patient's genotype.
genotype phenotype
The phenotype, which is physically observable, results from the interaction of ________ and ___________
genotype, environment
Occasionally, two or more offspring present with an autosomal dominant or X-linked disease when there is no family history of the disease. Because mutation is a rare event, it is unlikely that this would be due to multiple new mutations in the same family. The mechanism most likely to be responsible is termed ________ __________
germline mosaicism
Germline mosaicism occurs when all or part of a parent's ________ is affected by a disease-causing mutation but the _______ cells are not. It elevates the recurrence risk for offspring of the mosaic parent.
germline, somatic
Mutations to ______ genes lead to a spectrum of structural and functional variants, some of which are pathogenic, such as ___, which causes sickle cell disease.
globin, HbS
Hemoglobin is a ________ protein consisting of _ subunits
globular, 4
Actin is a ________ protein and, in this globular form, is called _-actin. In the thin filaments, G-actin is polymerized into _ strands that are twisted into an _____-_______ structure to form ___________ actin, called _-actin. Actin has ______-binding sites. When the muscle is at rest, the myosin-binding sites are covered by ___________ so that actin and myosin cannot interact.
globular, G, 2, alpha helical, filamentous, F, myosin, tropomyosin
Ammonia generated by ___________ reaction participates in the excretion of hydrogen ion
glutaminase
Except for _______, all amino acids contain at least one asymmetric carbon atom (the _____-carbon atom), giving _ isomers that are _________ active, i.e. they can ______ _____-_________ _____.
glycine, alpha, optically, rotate plane polarized light
The β-turn or β-bend refers to the segment in which the polypeptide abruptly reverses direction. _______ (___) and _______ (___) residues often occur in β-turns on the surface of globular proteins.
glycine, gly Proline, Pro
Carbohydrates and lipids are major sources of energy and are stored in the body as ________ and _____________
glycogen, triglycerides
Carbohydrates may be linked to proteins and lipids to form glycoconjugates, known as ___________ and _____________.
glycolipids, glycoproteins
Sugars are attached to each other in __________ linkages between hemiacetal carbon of one sugar and a hydroxyl group of another sugar.
glycosidic
Sugars are linked to one another by __________ bonds to form complex _______
glycosidic, glycans
The distribution of pulmonary blood flow within the lung is uneven and the distribution can be explained by the effects of _______
gravity
Because the normal value for the respiratory exchange ratio is ___, when alveolar ventilation is halved, the decrease in PaO2 will be slightly _______ than the increase in PaCO2
greater
The thicker the cell membrane, the _______ the distance the solute must diffuse and the ______ the rate of diffusion.
greater, lower
When erythrocytes are hemolyzed, hemoglobin is released into the plasma, where it dissociates into dimers that bind to ___________.
haptoglobin
When excessive hemolysis occurs, the plasma ___________ concentration can become very low - and as such it serves as a marker of hemolysis
haptoglobin
Most oxygen in the body is bound to a carrier protein containing ____
heme
Sugars are attached to each other in glycosidic linkages between __________ carbon of one sugar and a _________ group of another sugar.
hemiacetal, hydroxyl
Main buffers in blood are __________ and ___________, whereas in the cells they include ________ and _________. The ___________ buffer system communicates with atmospheric air.
hemoglobin, bicarbonate, protein, phosphate, hemoglobin
Sickle cell disease, a common ________________
hemoglobinopathy
Sickled erythrocytes exhibit less deformability. They no longer move freely through the microvasculature and often block blood flow, especially in the spleen and joints. Moreover, these cells lose water, become fragile, and have a considerably shorter life span, leading to _________ and _____
hemolysis, anemia
Clinically, an individual with SCD presents with intermittent episodes of _________ anemia, resulting from chronic lysis of ___ cells, and painful vaso-occlusive crises
hemolytic, red
When the allosteric effector is different from the ligand whose binding is altered, the process is termed ____________, e.g. the effect of __ (__) on the P50 for oxygen binding to Hb.
heterotrophic, H+, pH
The low value of P50 reflects a ____ affinity for O2 in Mb.
high
the time constant is greatest (i.e., takes longest) when Rm is _____________? and Cm is _________.
high high
living at ____ altitude causes hypoxemia, which stimulates the production of ___-___ in red blood cells. In turn, increased levels of 2,3-DPG facilitate the delivery of __ to the tissues as an adaptive mechanism.
high, 2,3 BPG, O2
at ____ altitude or in persons breathing a ___ O2 mixture, is reduced throughout the lungs, not just in one region.
high, low
The formation and breakdown of SNO-Hb are sensitive to pO; NO is released from Hb in response to _______ or on conversion to the _ state, e.g. in ______ capillaries
hypoxia, T, venous
The stimulus for polycythemia is _______, which increases the synthesis of ______________ (___) in the ______.
hypoxia, erythropoietin, EPO, kidney
A decrease in cardiac output and a decrease in regional (local) blood flow are self-evident causes of ________. _________ is a major cause of hypoxia
hypoxia, hypoxemia
When arterial pO2 decreases to less than 8 kPa (60 mmHg), this '_______ _____' becomes the main controller of the ventilation rate
hypoxic drive
An unusual feature of the pressure-volume loop for the air-filled lung is that the slopes of the relationships for inspiration and expiration are different, a phenomenon called __________
hysteresis
Despite _________ DNA is all cells, gene expressions varies significantly with sex, and in time and place in the body
identical
Histidine (pKa ≈ 6) has an _________ ring as the side chain and functions as a general acid-base catalyst in many enzymes.
imidazole
Not all foreign substances entering the body can elicit this response, however; those that do are called ____________, whereas any agent that can be bound by an antibody is termed an _______
immunogens, antigen
the reflection coefficient falls somewhere between 0 and 1. In such cases, the effective osmotic pressure lies between its maximal possible value (when the solute is completely _______________) and zero (when the solute is freely _________).
impermeable, permeable
another gate on the Na+ channel, an ____________ gate, is closed by ______________.
inactivation, depolarization
Decreased arterial PO2 leads to __________ breathing rate
incraesd
Decreases in arterial pH cause an ________ in ventilation, mediated by peripheral chemoreceptors for __
increase, H+
Shifts of the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve. Shifts to the right are associated with _________ P50 and __________ affinity. Shifts to the left are associated with __________ P50 and _________ affinity.
increased, decreased, decreased, increased
Persons with emphysema learn to expire slowly with pursed lips, which ______ airway pressure, prevents the reversal of the __________ pressure gradient across the large airways, and, thus, prevents their collapse.
increases, transmural
Diffusion defects (e.g., fibrosis, pulmonary edema) cause hypoxemia by __________ diffusion distance or __________ surface area for diffusion.
increasing, decreasing
Measurement of CRP concentration in plasma is an essential laboratory test in diagnosis and monitoring of _________ and ______
infection, sepsis
As the pressure outside the lung is made more negative with the vacuum pump, the lung ________ and its volume _________. This negative outside pressure that expands the lungs is, therefore, an _________ pressure. The lungs fill with air along the inspiration limb of the pressure-volume loop
inflates, increases, expanding
On the ___________ limb, one begins at low lung volume where the liquid molecules are closest together and intermolecular forces are __________; to inflate the lung, one must first break up these intermolecular forces.
inflation, highest
In this patient with type I diabetes mellitus, the hormone _______ is not produced in sufficient amounts by the __________ ____ cells.
insulin, pancreatic beta
A system of ___________ filaments holds the myofibrils together, side by side. The entire myofibrillar array is anchored to the cell membrane by an actin-binding protein called __________
intermediate, distrophyn
For Na+, the Gibbs-Donnan ratio is also 0.95, but Na+, being positively charged, is oriented the opposite way, and [Na+]____________ _____/[Na+]______ equals 0.95.
interstitial fluid, plasma
Na+ moves ____ the cell on the carrier ____ its electrochemical gradient; the solutes that are countertransported or exchanged for Na+ move ___ __ the cell.
into, down, out of
Na+ moves _____ the cell on the carrier down its electrochemical gradient; the solutes, cotransported with Na+, also move ____ the cell.
into, into
In the E1 state, the binding sites for Na+ and K+ face the _____________ fluid and the enzyme has a high affinity for ___
intracellular, Na+
The diffusion coefficient correlates _________ with the molecular radius of the solute and the viscosity of the medium.
inversely
pressure and volume are _________ related
inversely
Sometimes a chromosome divides along the axis perpendicular to its usual axis of division. The result is an ____________, a chromosome that has two copies of one arm and no copies of the other.
isochromosome
The pH at which a molecule has no net charge is known as its ___________ _____
isoelectric point
If two solutions have the same calculated osmolarity, they are called __________
isoosmotic
When two solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane have the same effective osmotic pressure, they are ________; that is, no water will flow between them because there is no effective osmotic pressure difference across the membrane.
isotonic
The syllable 'ul' indicates that a sugar is ______; the formal name for fructose would be 'gluculose'. As with fructose, the keto group is located at __ of the sugar, and the remaining carbons have the same geometry as the parent sugar.
ketose, C2
Common disaccharides in our diet: _______ (milk sugar), _______ (table sugar), _______ and __________, which are products of digestion of starch, __________, which is obtained on hydrolysis of cellulose, and _____________ acid.
lactose, glucose, maltose, isomaltose, cellobiose, hyaluronic
Therefore, the length constant will be greatest (i.e., current will travel the farthest) when the diameter of the nerve is _____, when membrane resistance is ___, and when internal resistance is ___.
large, high, low
Because of the relationship with radius, a _____ alveolus (one with a _____ radius) will have a low collapsing pressure and, therefore, will require only minimal pressure to keep it open.
large, large
Benign neoplasm of the larynx, usually on true vocal cords, forms soft raspberry like excresence rarely more than 1cm in diameter (2 names)
laryngeal papilloma squamous papilloma
The surface tension generates a pressure that tends to collapse the sphere. The pressure generated by such a sphere is given by the ___ __ _______
law of Laplace
Proteins are generally _____ soluble at their isoelectric point (pI)
least
Shifts of the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the ____ occur when there is increased affinity of hemoglobin for O2
left
Glycerol itself does not have a chiral carbon, but the numbering is standardized using the stereochemical numbering (sn) system, which places the hydroxyl group of C-2 on the ____; thus all glycerolipids are derived from _-glycerol
left, L
CO also causes a ____ shift of the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve: Those heme groups not bound to CO have an _________ affinity for O2.
left, increased
Among the causes of _____-to-_____ shunts are patent ductus arteriosus and traumatic injury.
left, right
_____-to-_____ shunts are more common and do not cause hypoxemia.
left, right
A karyotype, or karyogram, is a display of chromosomes ordered according to ______. Depending on the position of the __________, a chromosome may be acrocentric, submetacentric, or metacentric.
length, centromere
During the acute phase response, there is a characteristic marked increase in the synthesis of some proteins (predominantly in the _____), along with a decrease in the plasma concentration of some others
liver
Plasma proteins can be broadly classified into two groups: those, including albumin, that are synthesized by the _____, and the _______________, which are produced by ______ cells of the ____ ______, usually as part of the ______ response.
liver, immunoglobulins, plasma, bone marrow, immune
A disease that can be caused by mutations at different loci in different families is said to exhibit _____ ______________
locus heterogenicity
a single disease phenotype can be caused by mutations at different loci in different families, which is termed _____ ______________ (compare with allelic heterogeneity, in which different _________ are seen within the same disease _____)
locus heterogenicity, mutattions, locus
In a Robertsonian translocation, shown here, the ____ arms of two ___________ chromosomes (13 and 14) fuse, forming a single chromosome.
long, acrocentric
O2-hemoglobin sautration curve shifts to the right when: ___ CO2 ___ pH ___ temperature ___ 2,3 BPG
low high low low
Some of the microdeletion syndromes, such as the Prader-Willi and Williams syndromes, manifest deletions of a critical region of consistent size (e.g., 4 Mb for Prader-Willi syndrome). Recent studies show that this is caused by the presence of multiple repeated sequences, termed ___-____ _______, at the deletion boundaries.
low copy repeats
During its return to the lungs, blood transports two forms of CO2: carbamino-Hb and the H2CO3/HCO3− acid-conjugate base pair. Blood and Hb are now exposed to a ___ pCO2, and through mass action the carbamino adduct formation is reversed and binding of __ is again favored.
low, O2
total body water is a higher percentage of body weight when body fat is ___ and a lower percentage when body fat is ____.
low, high
Hb has a considerably _____ affinity for O2, reflected in a P50 of 27 ± 2 mmHg, compared to myoglobin (P50 = 4 mmHg).
lower
When compared with the systemic circulation, however, the pulmonary circulation is characterized by much _____ pressures and resistances, although blood flow is the same.
lower
There is a small discrepancy between alveolar air and systemic arterial blood: Systemic arterial blood has a slightly _____ PO2 than alveolar air. This discrepancy is the result of a ____________ _____, which describes the small fraction of pulmonary blood flow that bypasses the alveoli and, therefore, is not arterialized.
lower, physiologic shunt
Prominent cough that yields copious amounts of foul smelling, purulent or sangenious sputum and occasionally blood What disease?
lung abcess
Several of the terms in the previous equation for diffusion can be combined into a single term called the ____ _________ ________ (__)
lung diffusing capacity, DL
Acid-base balance is regulated by the concerted action of _____ and _______. The ____________ play a key role in the transport of carbon dioxide in blood.
lungs, kidneys, erythrocytes
The _________ of a diffusion potential, measured in millivolts (mV), depends on the size of the concentration gradient, where the concentration gradient is the driving force.
magnitude
The _________ of ionic current is determined by the size of the driving force and the conductance.
magnitude
The _________ of net flux has been calculated as 1.8 × 10−4 mg/sec. The __________ of net flux can be determined intuitively because net flux will occur from the area of _____ concentration (Solution A) to the area of ___ concentration (Solution B). Net diffusion will continue until the urea concentrations of the two solutions become _____, at which point the _______ _____ will be zero.
magnitude, direction, high, low, equal, net diffusion
Historically, analysis of protein sequence was carried out by chemical methods; today, both sequence analysis and protein identification are performed by ____ _____________
mass spectrometry
IgE binds antigens and promotes release of vasoactive amines from ____ cells
mast
IgE has a high affinity for binding sites on ____ cells and _________. Antigenic binding at the ____ region induces crosslinking of the high-affinity receptor, granulation of the cell, and release of __________ _______. By this mechanism, IgE plays a major part in allergy/atopy and mediates antiparasitic immunity.
mast, basophils, Fab2, vasoactive amines
Nearly all autosomal trisomies increase with ________ age as a result of ______________ in older mothers. There is little evidence for a _________ age effect on nondisjunction in males.
maternal, nondisjunctions, paternal
Information from irritant receptors travels to the _______ via CN _ and causes a reflex ____________ of bronchial smooth muscle and an ________ in breathing rate.
medulla, X, constriction, increase
Breathing is controlled by the _________ ____________ ________, which receives sensory information from central chemoreceptors in the brain stem, from peripheral chemoreceptors in the _______ and ______ bodies, and from ________________ in the lungs and joints. Central chemoreceptors are sensitive primarily to changes in the __ of ____, with decreases in pH causing ________________. Peripheral chemoreceptors are sensitive primarily to __, with hypoxemia causing _______________.
medullary respiratory center, carotid, aortic, mechanoreceptors, pH, CSF, hyperventilation, O2, hyperventilation
Thrombocytes are not true cells, but are membrane-bound fragments derived from ______________
megakaryocytes
what an ion would "like" the membrane potential to be is based on ___________ _________, as calculated by the ______ ________
membrane potential, Nernst equation
Biological __________ compartmentalize cellular functions, and also mediate ion and metabolite transport, cellular recognition, signal transduction, and electrochemical processes involved in bioenergetics, nerve transmission and muscle contraction
membranes
Our ability to study chromosomes has been improved by the visualization of chromosomes in _________, by _________ solutions that cause nuclear swelling, and by staining techniques that label chromosome _____.
metaphase, hypotonic, bands
If phenylethanolamine-N-methyl transferase (PNMT) is present (with S-adenosylmethionine as the methyl donor), then norepinephrine is __________ to form _____________.
methylated, epinipherine
One _________ is 1/1000 or 10^−3 moles.
millimole
The content of a single synaptic vesicle produces the smallest possible change in membrane potential of the motor end plate, the _________ ___ _____ _________
miniature end plate potential
Ventilation rate can be expressed either as the ______ ventilation, which is the total rate of air movement into and out of the lungs, or as _________ ventilation, which corrects for the physiologic dead space
minute, alveolar
Blood entering the pulmonary capillaries is ______ ______ blood
mixed venous
Because no gas exchange can occur with a shunt, pulmonary capillary blood from these regions has the same composition as _____ _______ blood: PaO2 is __ mm Hg, and PaCO2 is __ mm Hg.
mixed venous, 40, 46
With airway obstruction, the composition of systemic arterial blood approaches that of _____ ______ blood. With pulmonary embolus, the composition of alveolar air approaches that of ________ air.
mixed venous, inspired
The diffusion coefficient of a gas (D) is a combination of the usual diffusion coefficient, which depends on _________ ______ , and the __________ of the gas
molecular weight, solubility
Sodium dodecylsulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis is used to separate proteins on the basis of their ___________ _______. _____ molecules are retarded in the gel matrix, whereas the _____ ones move more rapidly.
molecular weights, large, small
When the volume in the system is greater than FRC (i.e., the subject inspires from the spirometer), there is _____ volume in the lungs and the collapsing (elastic) force of the lungs is _______
more, greater
A mutation occurs in one cell of the developing embryo. All descendants of that cell have the same mutation, resulting in _________. If the first mutated cell is part of the germline lineage, then ________ _________ results.
mosaicism, germline mosaicism
In some cases, a disease may be inherited in either autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive fashion, depending on the nature of the ________ that alters the ____ product
mutation, gene
This chapter describes two important proteins that reversibly interact with O2: _________ (__), a tissue oxygen storage protein, and __________ (__), a blood oxygen transport protein. Both use an ancient ____-containing polypeptide domain motif to sequester __ and increase its solubility.
myoglobin, Mb, Hemoblogin, Hb, heme, O2
The thick filaments comprise a large molecular weight protein called ______, which has _ polypeptide chains including one pair of ______ chains and two pairs of _____ chains
myosin, 6, heavy, light
The ________ intrapleural pressure is created by two opposing elastic forces pulling on the intrapleural space: The lungs, with their elastic properties, tend to collapse, and the chest wall, with its elastic properties, tends to spring out
negative
At rest, intrapleural pressure is ________, or approximately __ cm H2O.
negative, 5
2,3-BPG is an indispensable _________ allosteric effector that, when bound to Hb, causes a marked ________ in P50 (see Fig. 5.7). Were it not for the high erythrocyte concentration of 2,3-BPG (4.1 mmol/L, nearly equal to that of Hb), the O2 saturation curve of Hb would approach that of __!
negative, increase, Mb
A critical consequence of the conformational differences between the T and R states is that deoxygenated Hb preferentially interacts with the __________ charged 2,3-BPG
negatively
When concentration of solution A is greater than B, there will be ___ _________ of the solute from A to B, which will continue until the solute concentrations of the two solutions become _____ (although the random movement of molecules will go on forever)
net diffusion, equal
In the human brain, there is a family of cell surface adhesion proteins, the _________, which mediate the complex network of interactions between approximately 1012 neurons.
neurexins
hormones that are released from secretory cells (in these cases, neurons) into the blood to act at a distant site.
neurohormones
In contrast to classical neurotransmitters, which are synthesized in presynaptic nerve terminals, ______________ are synthesized in the nerve cell body.
neuropeptides
If a child has been born with a genetic disease that has not occurred previously in the family, it is possible that the disease is the product of a ___ (or __ ____) ________.
new, de novo mutation
the _________ receptor on the _____ ___ _____ is actually an ion channel that opens when acetylcholine (ACh) binds to it; when open, it is permeable to Na+ and K+ ions.
nicotinic, motor end plate
pulmonary edema without left sided heart failure AKA
noncardiogenic pulmonary edema
Experimental analysis of the quaternary structure indicates multiple ___________ interactions (________ bonds and ____________ bonds) between each pair of dissimilar subunits, i.e. at the α-β interfaces. In contrast, there are fewer and predominantly ___________ interactions between identical subunits, at the α1-α2 or β1-β2 interfaces.
noncovalent, electrostatic, hydrogen, hydrophobic
In meiotic ______________, two chromosome homologs migrate to the same daughter cell instead of disjoining normally and migrating to different daughter cells. This produces monosomic and trisomic offspring.
nondisjunction
The most common cause of aneuploidy is ______________, the failure of chromosomes to disjoin normally during meiosis
nondisjunction
The major metabolite of norepinephrine is ________________. The major metabolite of epinephrine is _____________. Both norepinephrine and epinephrine are degraded to ___
normetanepherine, metanepherine, VMA
Major diffuse ___________ lung disorders are chronic bronchitis, emphysema, bronchietasis, and asthma. Typical results in these patients: FVC? FEV1? Ratio of FCV to FEV1?
obstructive slightly decreased markedly decreased decreased
By definition, the equilibrium potential is calculated for ___ ion at a time.
one
Bicarbonate buffer is an ____ system which remains at ___________ with atmospheric air
open, equlibrium
EPSPs are produced by _______ ___ and __ channels, similar to the nicotinic ACh receptor.
opening Na+, K+
One ______ is the number of particles into which a solute dissociates in solution.
osmole
If the membrane is freely permeable to the solute, σ is 0, and the solute will diffuse across the membrane down its concentration gradient until the solute concentrations of the two solutions are equal. In other words, the solute behaves as if it were water. In this case, there will be no effective _______ _________ difference across the membrane and, therefore, no driving force for osmotic water flow.
osmotic pressure
the preparation has been modified so that water flow into Solution 1 is prevented by applying pressure to a piston. The pressure required to stop the flow of water is the _______ ________ of Solution 1.
osmotic pressure
Albumin serves as an _______ regulator and is a major _________ protein
osmotic, transport
Compliance of the lungs and the chest wall is measured as the slope of the pressure-volume relationship. As a result of their elastic forces, the chest wall tends to spring ___ and the lungs tend to _________. At ___, these two forces are exactly balanced and intrapleural pressure is _________. Compliance of the lungs __________ in emphysema and with aging. Compliance ___________ in fibrosis and when pulmonary ___________ is absent.
out, collapse, FRC, negative, increases, decreases, surfactant
an ______ or O-glycosidic bond, sometimes a _________ or N-glycosidic bond.
oxygen, nitrogen
the PO2 at which hemoglobin is 50% saturated (i.e., where two of the four heme groups are bound to O2)
p50
Respiratory componenet of the acid base balance AKA
pCO2
How can you quickly tell physiologic dead space from shunt?
pCO2 in venous side. Normal in shunt, increased in dead space
Chemoreceptors for what change are found only in carotid bodies, not aortic?
pH
Mixed acid-base disorders result in a greater change in blood __ than simple disorders; they may pose diagnostic difficulties.
pH
pH is a logarithmic term that is used to express hydrogen (H+) concentration.
pH
pH formula of bicarbonate buffer
pH = pK + log (([bicarbonate])/pCO2*0.23)
Henderson-Hasselbach equatoin
pH = pKA + log [A-] / [HA]
Henderson-Hasselbach equation of amine
pH = pKa + log [RNH2] / [RNH3+]
The brain stem chemoreceptors are exquisitely sensitive to changes in the __ of _____________ _____ (___).
pH, cerebrospinal fluid, CSF
The jargon term 'blood gases' means the measurements of ___, ____, and __ (or ________ ion concentration) from which the concentration of ___________ is calculated using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
pO2, pCO2, pH, hydrogen, bicarbonate
Zinc finger proteins recognize and bind to short ___________ sequences of DNA
palindromic
Apical neoplasms cause what syndrome? AKA what? What type of lung cancer?
pancoast syndrome Pancoast tumor Small cell lung carcinoma
On gel electrophoresis, monoclonal immunoglobulin forms a single band in the γ region (the ___________ band)
paraprotein
H+-K+ ATPase is found in the ________ cells of the _______ ______ and in the _____-____________ cells of the ______ __________ ____.
parietal, gastric mucosa, alpha intercalated, renal collecting duct
As described by Henry's law, the concentration of dissolved O2 is proportional to the _______ _______ of O2; the proportionality constant is simply the solubility of O2 in blood, 0.003 mL O2/100 mL blood/mm Hg.
partial pressure
The amount of O2 in solution is, in turn, directly proportional to its _______ ________. Thus, in the arterial blood (__°C, pH ___) the pO2 is ___ mmHg, which produces a concentration of dissolved O2 of ____ mmol/L.
partial pressure, 37, 7.4, 100, 0.13
The concentration of CO2 in solution is given by Henry's law, which states that the concentration of CO2 in blood is the _______ ________ multiplied by the __________ of CO2.
partial pressure, solubility
Diffusion of O2 and CO2 across the alveolar/pulmonary capillary barrier is governed by Fick's law and driven by the _______ _______ difference of the gas. Mixed venous blood enters the pulmonary capillaries and is "arterialized" as __ is added to it and ___ is removed from it. Blood leaving the pulmonary capillaries will become systemic ________ blood.
partial pressurs, O2, CO2, arterial
Permeability includes the ___________ coefficient, the _________ coefficient, and the ________ thickness.
partition, diffusion, membrane
one of the most commonly used tools in medical genetics
pedigree
Reduced __________ describes the situation in which persons who have a disease-causing genotype do not develop the disease phenotype.
penetrance
__________ is an all-or-none phenomenon: one either has the disease phenotype or does not. ________ __________ refers to the degree of severity of the disease phenotype.
penetrance, variable expression
Patients with a serious strep infection are treated with a combination of __________ and an _____________
penicillin, aminoglycoside
S. agilactae: Patients who have serious infections are treated with a combination of __________ and an ______________, and those with penicillin allergy are given __________.
penicillin, aminoglycoside, vancomycin
IgM normally circulates as a ________, with a molecular mass of 971 kDa, linked by _________ bonds and the _ chain
pentamer, disulfide, J
Different combinations of disturbed ventilation and _________ may occur
perfusion
In the lungs of a normal person at rest, O2 transfer from alveolar air into pulmonary capillary blood is _________-limited
perfusion
Right-to-left shunt is __________ of lung regions that are not ___________.
perfusion, ventilated
If the inversion includes the centromere, it is called a ___________ inversion. Inversions that do not involve the centromere are termed ___________ inversions.
pericentric, paracentric
a diffusion potential can be generated only if the membrane is _________ to that ___
permeable, ion
Phospholipids consist of a ______________ ________ backbone ("____") and two fatty acid "_____"
phosphorlyated glycerol, head, tails
When activated, myosin-light-chain kinase _____________ myosin light chain.
phosphorlyates
The inspiratory center sends its motor output to the diaphragm via the _______ nerve.
phrenic
_______________ dead space includes the anatomic dead space of the conducting airways plus a functional dead space in the alveoli.
physiologic
About 2% of the cardiac output normally bypasses the alveoli—there is a _____________ _____-to-____ shunt.
physiologic right left
when ventilation is adequate but perfusion poor, gas exchange cannot take place: in such cases, part of the lung behaves as if it had no alveoli at all, forming the '___________ ____ _____'
physiologic dead space
Osmotic presure AKA
pi
For a clinician, _______ is an important 'window' on metabolism
plasma
albumin binds many drugs present in ______
plasma
For example, the Cl− concentration in plasma is slightly ____ than the Cl− concentration in interstitial fluid (due to the effect of the impermeant _______ ________)
plasma proteins
Lipids are found primarily in three compartments in the body: ______, _________ tissue and biological __________
plasma, adipose, membranes
Gibbs-Donnan ratio for Cl− is 0.95, meaning that [Cl−]______/[Cl−]____________ _____ equals 0.95
plasma, interstitial
One of the major defenses against blood-borne bacteria is the blood ________, which possesses a remarkable ability to kill bacteria in the blood and in or on the cardiac valve vegetation
platelet
The ___________ center turns off inspiration, limiting the burst of action potentials in the _______ nerve.
pneumotaxic, phrenic
SCD is caused by an inherited, single _____ mutation in the gene encoding ____-______, leading to the expression of the Hb variant ___
point, beta globin, HbS
Resistance of airways is determined by _____________ ___.
poiselleue's law
Asparagine and glutamine have amide-bearing side chains. These are _____ but _________ under physiologic conditions.
polar, uncharged
The classic definition of a carbohydrate is a ___________ ________ or ______
polyhydroxy aldehyde, ketone
Carbohydrates are __________________ and _______; they exist primarily in ______ forms, which are linked to one another by __________ bonds.
polyhydroxyaldehydes, ketones, cyclic, glycosidic
In a person with normal lungs, the forced expiration makes the pressures in the lungs and airways very ________
positive
for each cycle of the Na+-K+ ATPase, more ________ charge is pumped out of the cell than is pumped into the cell. Thus, the process is termed ____________ because it creates a charge separation and a potential difference.
positive, electrogenic
Because of structural changes in hemoglobin as a result of binding of oxygen and other effectors, the binding affinity for subsequent molecules of oxygen may be increased (________ cooperativity) or decreased (________ cooperativity).
positive, negative
Intracellular buffers are primarily proteins and phosphates. However, the hydrogen ion enters cells in exchange for __________. Therefore, an accumulation of the hydrogen ion in the plasma (________) and the consequent entry of excess of hydrogen ion into cells ________ plasma potassium concentration. Conversely, a deficit of hydrogen ion in plasma (_________) may lead to a ___ plasma potassium concentration.
potassium, acidemia, increases, alkalemia, low
Long-term ____________ occurs in storage of memories and involves both increased release of neurotransmitter from presynaptic terminals and increased sensitivity of postsynaptic membranes to the transmitter.
potentiation
These temporal relationships are critical in that the action potential always _________ the rise in intracellular Ca2+ concentration, which always ________ contraction.
precedes, precedes
Osmosis occurs because of a ______ difference, whereas diffusion occurs because of a _____________ (or activity) difference of water.
pressure, concentration
ACh is the neurotransmitter released from all preganglionic and most postganglionic neurons in the _______________ nervous system and from all preganglionic neurons in the ____________ nervous system.
presympathetic, sympathetic
When the ATP energy source is directly coupled to the transport process, it is called _______ active transport.
primary
Each body fluid compartment must obey the _________ __ ____________ _________________; that is, each compartment must have the same concentration, in mEq/L, of positive charges (cations) as of negative charges (anions).
principle of macroscopic electroneutrality
Zinc fingers are commonly occurring sequences that allow _______ binding to double-stranded ___
protein, DNA
Within cells, the hydrogen ion is neutralized by intracellular buffers, mainly ________ and __________
proteins, phosphates
Intracellular buffers are ________ and __________
proteins, phsophates
A ________ is defined as the full complement of proteins produced by a particular genome.
proteome
As Hb binds O2, _______ dissociate from selected weak acid functions. Conversely, in acidic media, ___________ of the conjugate bases inhibits O2 binding
protons, protonation
One of the side chain imidazole nitrogens of the invariant ________ histidine (HisF8) is close enough to bond directly to the pentacoordinate ____ atom. On the opposite side of the heme plane the ______ histidine (HisE7), which is too far from the heme iron for direct bonding, functions to stabilize bound __ by ________ bonding.
proximal, Fe2+, distal, O2, hydrogen
surfactant is a phospholipid that is produced by type II alveolar cells and functions as a detergent to ________ surface tension and _________ lung compliance
reduce, increase
The volume of gas remaining in the lungs after a maximal forced expiration is the _________ volume (__), which is approximately ____ mL and cannot be measured by spirometry.
residual, RV, 1200
___________ _________ is common and is caused primarily by diseases of the lung that affect gas exchange. ___________ _________ is rarer and is caused by hyperventilation, which decreases pCO2. _________ ________ is common and results from either overproduction or retention of nonvolatile acids in the circulation. _________ _________ is rarer: its most common causes are vomiting and gastric suction, both causing loss of hydrogen ion from the stomach.
respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, metabolic alkalosis
A consequence of the hyperventilation is that "extra" CO2 is expired by the lungs and arterial PCO2 decreases, producing ___________ _________
respiratory alkalosis
S pneumoniae is commensal in the throat and nasopharynx of healthy individuals and is transmitted via ___________ ________
respiratory droplets
Respiration rate is controlled by the ___________ center located in the _________
respiratory, brainstem
If the primary cause is the change in pCO2, the acidosis or alkalosis is called ___________, and if it is bicarbonate, the acidosis or alkalosis is called ________
respiratory, metabolic
The medullary respiratory center is located in the _________ _________ and is composed of _ groups of neurons that are distinguished by their anatomic location: the ___________ ______ (______ respiratory group) and the ___________ center (_______ respiratory group).
reticular formation, 2, inspiratory center, dorsal, expiratory, ventral
Subtelomeric rearrangements involve deletions or duplications of DNA in the gene-____ regions near __________. They can be detected by hybridizing specifically designed FISH probes to _________ chromosomes or by comparative genomic hybridization of patient and control DNA to microarrays containing _____________ probes.
rich, telomeres, metaphase, subtelomeric
The increased concentration of 2,3-DPG causes the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve to shift to the _____
right
In chronic hypoxia, the increased pulmonary arterial pressure causes hypertrophy of the _____ _________, which must pump against an increased __________.
right ventricle, afterload
during exercise the oxygen-Hb binding curve shifts _____ with a _________ p50
right, decreased
The increases in temperature also cause a _____ shift of the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve and an ________ in P50, facilitating unloading of O2 in the tissues.
right, increase
During exercise, the O2-hemoglobin curve shift to the _____ is advantageous, of course, because it is associated with an ________ in P50 and _________ affinity of hemoglobin for O2, making it easier to unload O2 in the exercising skeletal muscle.
right, increase, decrease
A defining characteristic of the hypoxemia caused by a _____-to-_____ shunt is that it cannot be corrected by having the person breathe a high O2 gas (e.g., 100% O2) because the shunted blood never goes to the lungs to be oxygenated.
right, left
In a _____-to-_____ shunt, hypoxemia always occurs because a significant fraction of the cardiac output is not delivered to the lungs for oxygenation.
right, left
Pulmonary blood flow is the cardiac output of the _____ heart, and it is equal to the cardiac output of the ____ heart. Pulmonary blood flow is regulated primarily by ____ , with alveolar hypoxia producing ________________.
right, left, PAO2, vasoconstriction
Deletions sometimes occur at both tips of a chromosome. The remaining chromosome ends can then fuse, forming a ____ _________
ring chromosome
The role of surface tension is demonstrated by repeating the experiment in a ______-filled lung. The inspiration and expiration limbs are the same when the ______-___ interface, and thus surface tension, is eliminated.
saline, liquid air
Two opposite-charged amino acids, such as glutamate with a γ-carboxyl group and lysine with an ε-amino group, may form a ____ ______, primarily on the surface of proteins
salt bridge
The solubility of a protein may be increased by the addition of ____ at a ___ concentration (salting in) or decreased by ____ ____ concentration (salting out).
salt, low, high salt
Cotransport (symport) is a form of secondary active transport in which all solutes are transported in the ____ __________ across the cell membrane.
same direction
Promoter works because it is on the _____ strand of DNA as the gene being transcribed and is referred to as the ___-______ ________. this emphasizes taht it only affects proximal genes on the same chromosome
same, cis acting sequence
The ester bond of triglycerides and other glycerolipids is also readily hydrolyzed ex vivo by a strong base, such as NaOH, forming glycerol and free fatty acids. This process is known as ______________; one of the products, the sodium salt of the fatty acid, is ____.
saponoficiation, soap
tumor cells composed of round to fusiform shape, scant cytoplasm, and finely granular chromatin What type of lung cancer?
small cell carcinomas
Thus, _____ solutes in ___________ solutions have the largest diffusion coefficients and diffuse most readily; _____ solutes in _________ solutions have the smallest diffusion coefficients and diffuse least readily.
small, nonviscous, large, viscous
Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in _______ _______________ can used to separate proteins, based on charge
sodium dodecsysulfate
Nonpolar solutes tend to be _______ in oil and have ____ values for partition coefficient, whereas polar solutes tend to be _________ in oil and have ___ values for partition coefficient.
soluble, high, insoluble, low
Data show that ____________ are the most likely cause of BAs and that most occur in the ________ and ________ lobes supplied by the _______ ________ artery.
streptococci, frontal, temporal, middle cerebral
The attractive forces between adjacent molecules of the liquid are _________ than the attractive forces between molecules of liquid and molecules of gas in the alveoli, which creates a ________ ________
stronger, surface tension
homocystinuria, a defect in _______ ______ ____ metabolism
sulfur amino acid
The mechanism underlying the cooperativity in oxygen binding by hemoglobin involves a shift between two conformational states of the hemoglobin molecule which differ in oxygen affinity. These two quaternary conformations are known as the _ (_____) and _ (_______)
tense, relaxed
The three-dimensional, folded and biologically active conformation of a protein is referred to as its ________ structure.
tertiary
As a ________ of globins, Hb is one of the best characterized examples of cooperativity in ligand interactions.
tetramer
Amino acids that are both polar and hydrophobic, such as _________, _______ and __________, are oriented with their polar functions toward the globinprotein's ________.
threonine ,tyrosine, tryptophan
Heparinate prevents clotting by binding to ________. EDTA and citrate bind ____ and ____, thus interfering with the action of calcium and magnesium-dependent enzymes involved in the clotting cascade
thrombin, Ca2+, Mg2+
__________ are not true cells, but are membrane-bound fragments derived from megakaryocytes
thrombocytes
The volume of air inspired in one breath is the _____ ______ (__), which is approximately 0.5 L
tidal volume, VT
Normal, quiet breathing involves inspiration and expiration of a _____ volume (__). Normal _____ volume is approximately ___ mL and includes the volume of air that fills the _______ plus the volume of air that fills the _______.
tidal, VT, tidal, 500, alveoli, airways
The total amount of fluid or water in the human body is called _____ ____ _____, which accounts for __% to __% of body weight.
total body water, 50, 70
Transcription factors are sometimes referred to as _____-______ _______ to emphasize that, as soluble proteins, they can diffuse within the nucleus and act on multiple different genes on different chromosomes.
trans acting factors
The DNA-binding proteins are ____-acting transcription factors that bind with ____ specificity to these sequences, and facilitate the binding and positioning of ______ __ for synthesis of ___-____.
trans, high, RNAPol II, pre mRNA
One way to characterize the interaction of a ____________ ______ with a particular ___ ________ is to use a technique termed the electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA)
transcription factor, DNA sequence
Initiation of transcription requires binding of _____________ _______ to DNA
transcription factors
In addition to a DNA-binding domain, sequence-specific transcription factors also have a _____________-__________ domain that is required for their ability to modulate transcription
transcription regulatory
The control of gene expression involves both ______________ and ____-_______________ events that regulate the expression of a gene in both time and place and in response to numerous developmental, hormonal and stress signals.
transcriptional, post transcriptional
A _____________ is the interchange of genetic material between nonhomologous chromosomes
translocation
The Philadelphia chromosome consists of a _____________ of most of chromosome __ onto the ____ arm of chromosome _. A small distal portion of __ in turn is translocated to chromosome __. The net effect is a _______ chromosome 22, which explains why the Philadelphia chromosome was initially thought to be a _________. This translocation is seen in most cases of _______ __________ ________.
translocation, 22, long, 9, 9q, shortened, deletion, chronic mylogenous leukemia
Some integral proteins are ______________ proteins, meaning they span the lipid bilayer one or more times; thus, these proteins are in contact with both ___ and ___
transmembrane, ECF, ICF
The _________ _____ begins with the enzyme in the E1 state, bound to ATP.
transport cycle
Na+/K+ ATPase is what kind of protein?
transport protein
Meiotic failure, in which a diploid sperm or egg cell is produced, can also produce a _______ zygote.
triploid
The polyploid conditions that have been observed in humans are _________ (69 chromosomes in the nucleus of each cell) and __________ (92 chromosomes in each cell nucleus).
triploidy, tetraploidy
a filamentous protein that runs along the groove of each twisted actin filament. Moves away during contraction
tropomyosin
Once purified, for the determination of its amino acid composition, a protein is subjected to hydrolysis, commonly in 6 mol/L HCl at 110°C in a sealed and evacuated tube for 24-48 h. Under these conditions, __________, __________ are destroyed, and __________ and __________ are quantitatively deaminated to give _________ and __________, respectively. Recovery of ______ and _________ is incomplete and decreases with increasing time of hydrolysis.
tryptophan, cystine, glutamine, asparagine, glutamate, aspartate, serine, threonine
Neurofibromin gene type What disease is it mutated in?
tumor suppressor NF1
Most laryngeal cancers are what type?
typical squamous cell carcionomas
Norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine are members of the same family of biogenic amines: They share a common precursor, ________, and a common biosynthetic pathway
tyrosine
Interstitial fluid is an _____________ of plasma, formed by filtration processes across the _________ ____.
ultrafiltrate, capillary wall
Structural chromosome abnormalities may be __________ (the rearrangement causes a gain or loss of chromosomal material) or ________ (the rearrangement does not produce a loss or gain of chromosome material)
unbalanced, balanced
when bacteria are transferred to lower temperature, they respond by increasing the content of ___________ fatty acids in membrane phospholipids, thereby maintaining membrane fluidity at low temperature.
unsaturated
Because movement of a solute ______ is work, metabolic energy in the form of ATP must be provided.
uphill
the pneumotaxic center, located in the _____ ____, limits the size of the _____ ______, and secondarily, it regulates the ____________ ____.
upper pons, tidal volume, respiratory rate
Promoters are usually ________ of the transcription start point of a gene
upstream
CAAT box is often found __________ of the TATA box, typically about __ bp from the start of transcription
upstream, 80
Osmotic pressure is calculated by the _____ ____ equation, which converts the concentration of particles to a ________, taking into account whether the ______ is retained in the original solution.
van't Hoff, pressure, solute
A third type, a combination of unitary and multiunit smooth muscle, is found in ________ smooth muscle.
vascular
Exposure of phosphatidylserine in the outer leaflet of the erythrocyte plasma membrane increases the cell's adherence to the ________ ____ and is a signal for __________ recognition and ____________.
vascular wall, macrophage, phagocytosis
At high altitude, alveolar gas has a low Po2, which has a direct ________________ effect on the pulmonary vasculature
vasoconstricting
Nitric oxide, a potent __________, is stored on Hb as S-nitrosoHb (___-__)
vasodilator, SNO-Hb
The physiologic shunt is increased in several pathologic conditions (called a ___________/_________ ______)
ventilation perfusion defect
Lung ___________ and _________ are main factors controlling gas exchange. The ____ regulates the ventilation rate through central chemoreceptors in the _________. When pO2 decreases, this control switches to pO2-sensitive __________ receptors in the _______ ______ and in the ______ ____
ventilation, perfusion, pCO2, brainstem, peripheral, aortic arch, carotid bodies
Regions of low V/Q have low ___________ relative to _________, usually because ____________ is decreased.
ventilation, perfusion, ventilation
The expiratory center is located in the _______ respiratory neurons and is responsible primarily for ___________.
ventral, expiration
In smooth muscle, Ca2+ enters the cell during the action potential via _______-_____ ____ channels. Ca2+ then binds to __________, and the Ca2+-calmodulin complex activates ______-_____-_____ _______, which phosphorylates ______. Myosin~P can bind actin, form cross-bridges, and generate _______. Other sources of intracellular Ca2+ in smooth muscle are ______-____ ____ channels in the ___________ membrane and __-gated ____ channels in the ____________ __________ membrane.
voltage gated Ca2+, calmodulin, myosin light chain kinase, myosin, tension, ligand gated Ca2+, sarcolemmar, IP3, Ca2+, sarcoplasmic reticulum
Sensors that respond to changes in membrane potential
voltage-gated ion channel
lung compliance describes the change in lung ______ for a given change in ________.
volume, pressure
The relationship between lung ______ and lung ________ is obtained by inflating and deflating an isolated lung. The slope of each curve is the __________. In the air-filled lung, inspiration (inflation) and expiration (deflation) follow different curves, which is known as __________.
volume, pressure, compliance, hysteresis
_-___ ________________ and ___ _____________ are usually used for determination of the three-dimensional structure of proteins
x ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy
A ____ ______ motif in steroid receptors binds to the steroid response element in DNA
zinc finger
These complex lipids contribute charge to the membrane: phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine are ____________ at physiologic pH and have __ net charge, while phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylinositol are _______
zwitterionic, no, anionic
Coeffecient of relationship formula
(1/2)^n-1
Alveolar Ventilation equation What is value of K?
(Rate of CO2 production) (K) / (PaCO2) 863 mmHg
Alveolar ventilation formula
(Vt - Vd) * breaths/min
Acidic pH amino acids have what charge?
+
At pH below PI, what is the predominant charge on a protein? Above PI?
+ -
Chrage of basic AA? Acidic
+ -
Streptococci are Gram-_ _____ arranged in pairs and chains and are one of the normal microflora of humans and animals.
+ cocci
Streptococci are Gram-_ _____ arranged in _____ and ______ and are part of the normal microflora of humans and animals Metabolism type? Catalase? Lactic acid production
+, cocci, pairs, chains Facultative anaerobe - Yes!
Na+ equilibrium potential? K+? RMP?
+65 mV -85 mV -70 mV
Strep: They are catalase-_ and ferment ______________, with the production of ______ ____.
-, carbohydrates, lactic acid
Alveolar pressure during inspiration During expiration
-1 1
Normally, at rest, intrapleural pressure is __ cm H2O because of equal and opposite forces trying to collapse the lungs and expand the chest wall. With a pneumothorax, the intrapleural pressure becomes _____ __ atmospheric pressure, causing the lungs to ________ and the chest wall to _______.
-5, equal to, collapse, expand
End plate potential value?
-50 mV
The resting membrane potential of excitable cells falls in the range of ___ to ___ mV.
-70, -80
Cl- equilibrium potential
-90 mV
Because the motor end plate must be depolarized from its resting potential of ___ mV to the threshold potential of ___ mV, it must, therefore, depolarize by __ mV. Depolarization by 40 mV requires ___ quanta (because each quantum or vesicle depolarizes the motor end plate by ___ mV).
-90, -50, 40, 100, 0.4
Shunt V/Q ratio
0
the reflection coefficient falls somewhere between _ and _ if a solution is neither impermeant or completely permeant to a solution
0, 1
If the membrane is freely permeable to the solute, σ is _, and the solute will diffuse across the membrane down its _____________ ________ until the solute concentrations of the two solutions are _____.
0, concentration gradient, equal
Each MEPP, which represents the content of one synaptic vesicle, depolarizes the motor end plate by about ___ mV
0.4
Normal V/Q ratio value
0.8
in a normal person, FEV1/FVC is approximately ___, meaning that __% of the vital capacity can be expired in the first second of forced expiration
0.8, 80
Like triglycerides, the glycerophospholipids contain a spectrum of fatty acids at the sn-_ and sn-_ position, but the sn-_ position is occupied by _________ esterified to an _____ compound
1, 2, 3, phosphate, amino
Pathway from hypoxia to new RBC's (5)
1. Hypoxia increases Hypoxia Inducible Factor 1alpha 2. Renal fibroblasts increase EPO mRNA 3. Increased EPO synthesis 4. Increased Proerythroblasts 5. Increased Erythrocytes
Progression of formation of SCLC (3)
1. inactivation of tumor suppressors on chromosome 3 short arm 2. inactivation of tp53 3. Activation of KRAS
If the membrane is impermeable to the solute, σ is ___, and the solute will be retained in the original solution and exert its full _______ effect.
1.0, osmotic
_/_ of each tidal volume fills the anatomic dead space.
1/3
Mean pulmonary arterial pressure is _/_ that of systemic, it is considered pulmonary hypertension
1/4
Coefecient of relationship for first cousins
1/8
Alveolar air, pulmonary capillary blood, and systemic arterial blood all have a PO2 of ___ mmHg
100
In the lungs, is ___ mm Hg. Hemoglobin is nearly ___% saturated (all heme groups are bound to O2). Due to positive cooperativity, affinity is _______ and O2 is most _______ bound (the flat portion of the curve).
100, 100, highest, tightly
Gene switching on chromosome __ causes HbF to decrease shortly after birth
11
erythrocytes have a finite life span of approximately ___ days before being trapped and broken down in the ______
120, spleen
Normal breathing rate
15 breahts/min
Fatty acids: long, straight-chain alkanoic acids, most commonly with __ or __ carbons. They may be saturated or unsaturated, the latter containing _-_ double bonds, all in ___ geometry. The double bonds are not conjugated, but separated by _________ groups.
16, 18, 1, 5, cis, methylene
Trisomy __ (47,XY,+__), also known as Edwards syndrome, is the second most common autosomal trisomy, with a prevalence of about 1 per 6000 live births
18, 18
Dissolved O2 is free in solution and accounts for approximately _% of the total O2 content of blood.
2
a solution containing 1 mmol/L NaCl is _ mOsm/L
2
an important allosteric effector of Hb, decreasing the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin; this is an important adaptation to high altitude and in pulmonary disease. Protons, through the Bohr effect, and CO2 also promote the release of oxygen from hemoglobin in peripheral tissue. Conformational changes in both the tertiary and quaternary structures characterize the transition between deoxygenated and oxygenated states What molecule?
2, 3-BPG
Hemoglobin subunits may assume _ different conformations that differ in __ affinity
2, O2
Hb binds oxygen cooperatively, with a Hill coefficient of ~___
2.7
Cl--HCO3- transporter AKA
3 band protein
Where do miRNAs bind a mRNA molecule?
3' UTR
With this stoichiometry of _ Na+ ions per _ Ca2+ ion(s), _ positive charges move into the cell in exchange for _ positive charges leaving the cell, making the Ca2+-Na+ exchanger electrogenic.
3, 1, 3, 2
The polyunsaturated fatty acids are commonly classified into two groups, ω-_ and ω-_ fatty acids, depending on whether the first ______ ____ appears three or six carbons from the terminal methyl group
3, 6, double bond
Troponin C can bind as many as _ Ca2+ ions per molecule of protein
4
_ common classes of DNA-binding domain are: Name them!
4 Helix-turn-helix motif Helix-loop-helix motif Zinc fingers Leucine Zippers
There are _ subtypes of glutamate receptors. Three of the subtypes are __________ receptors, or ______-_____ ion channels including the ____ receptor that is widely distributed throughout the central nervous system. A fourth subtype comprises ____________ receptors, which are coupled via heterotrimeric ___-binding proteins (_ proteins) to ion channels
4, ionotropic, ligand gated, NMDA, metabatropic, GTP, G
mixed venous blood has a PO2 of __ mm Hg (because O2 has diffused from systemic capillaries into the tissues).
40
In the tissues, is approximately __ mm Hg, much _____ than it is in the lungs. At a PO2 of 40 mm Hg, hemoglobin is only __% saturated and the affinity for O2 is _________.
40, lower, 75, decreased
The remaining __% of the total O2 content of blood is reversibly bound to __________ inside the ___ _____ cells.
98, hemoglobin, red blood
Group _ streptococci include Streptococcus pyogenes, which causes "strep throat" and scarlet fever
A
Ig_ is found in secretions and presents an antiseptic barrier, which protects mucosal surfaces
A
Ig_ represents 7-15% of plasma immunoglobulins and has a half-life of 6 days.
A
Surface Area AKA
A
The GABA_ receptor is directly linked to a Cl− channel and thus is ionotropic.
A
Thin filament proteins of muscle (3)
Actin Troponin Tropomyosin
represents the active force developed during cross-bridge cycling.
Active tension
Primary active transport: Passive or active? Carrier mediated? Uses metabolic energy? Dependent on Na+ gradient?
Active, uphill Yes Yes, direct No
Sore throat
Acute pharyngitis
clinical syndrome caused by diffuse alveolar capillary and epithelial damage. The usual course is characterized by rapid onset of life-threatening respiratory insufficiency, cyanosis, and severe arterial hypoxemia that is refractory to oxygen therapy and may progress to multisystem organ failure.
Acute respriatory distress syndrome
▪ With its wide variety of effector molecules, Hb is also a prototype of an __________ proteins and enzymes.
Allosteric
S. pneumoniae hemolysis type
Alpha
Viridans strep hemolysis type?
Alpha
Viridans streptococci: Hemolysis? What are the 4 groups?
Alpha Salavarius, Mutans, Mitis, Anginosus
Proteinase inhibitor example
Alpha 1 antitrypsin
Being born without albumin condition
Analbuminemia
Decreased RBC count
Anemia
_______ is a common finding in chronic renal failure because the decrease in functioning renal mass results in decreased synthesis of EPO and decreased production of ____________ and the accompanying decrease in __________ concentration.
Anemia, erythrocytes, hemoglobin
__________ conditions consist primarily of monosomies and trisomies. They are usually caused by ______________. Autosomal _________ are almost always lethal, but some autosomal _________ are compatible with survival.
Aneuploid, nondisjunction, monosomies, trisomies
Negative charges AKA
Anions
Foreign substance AKA
Antigen
Countertransport AKA (2)
Antiport Exchange
__________ is an abnormal breathing pattern with prolonged inspiratory gasps, followed by brief expiratory movement.
Apneuesis
Family of crystalline hydrates silicates with fibrous geometery
Asbestos
UIP disease symptoms, along with golden brown, fusiform or beaded rods with a translucent center What disease
Asbestosis
___________ and _________ have amide-bearing side chains. These are polar but uncharged under physiologic conditions.
Asparagine, glutamine
Patient aspires gastric contents, while unconscious or during repeated vomiting What type of pneumonia
Aspiration pneumonia
Consanguinity is usually the culprit behind what type of disease transmission?
Autosomal recessive
Mean Corpsucular Hemoglobin
Average amount of hemoglobin per RBC
Mean platelet volume
Average volume of a platelet
Mean Corpuscular Volume
Average volume of an RBC
Group _ streptococci include Streptococcus agalactiae, which is associated with neonatal diseases.
B
LYmphocyte subgroups (2)
B cells T cells
Synthesize antibodies Which lymphocytes?
B lymphocytes
Monoclonal immunoglobulins are the product of a single _ cell, and arise from benign or malignant transformations of _ cells
B, B
Gene associated with familail pulmonary hypertension
BMPR2
The only "trick" in applying the general gas law to respiratory physiology is to know that in the gas phase _____ is used, but in the liquid phase, ____ is used. ____ means body temperature (__°C, or ___ K), _______ pressure, and gas saturated with ______ _____. For gases dissolved in blood, ____ is used, meaning standard temperature (_°C, or ___ K), standard pressure (___ mm Hg), and ___ gas
BTPS, STPD, BTPS, 37, 310, ambient, water vapor, STPD, 0, 273, 760, dry
Community acquired acute pneumonias are caused by what/
Bacteria
Secrete histamine, mediate inflammatory resopnse, secrete platelet activating factor Which granulocytes?
Basophils
Marker in urine for multiple myeloma
Bence jones protein (kappa chain excess in urine)
Group A strep hemolytic type?
Beta
Group B strep hemolysis type?
Beta
Albuterol drug class
Beta 2 agonist
If the H-bonds are formed laterally between peptide bonds, the polypeptide sequences become arrayed parallel or antiparallel to one another in what is commonly called what?
Beta pleated sheet
The main buffer that neutralizes hydrogen ions released from cells
Bicarbonate buffer
Dopamine Epinephrine Histamine Norepinephrine WHat type of NT's?
Biogenic amines
Skin infection that causes squamous hyperplasia similar to squamous cell carcinoma
Blastomyces
The effect of PCO2 and pH on the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve is called the ____ ______
Bohr effect
Patchy distribution of inflammation that generally involves more than one lobe Which type of pneumonia?
Bronchopneumonia
Any form of emphysema that produces large subpleural blebs or bullae
Bullous emphysema
Sulfur-containing amino acids
C (cysteine) M (methionine)
The ___ technique, in which differentially labeled DNA from test and control sources is hybridized to probes in microarrays, allows the detection of chromosome ____________ and _________ but not ________ ______________. Array CGH can detect deletions and duplications shorter than ___ kb and requires only small amounts of DNA.
CGH, deletions, duplications, balanced rearrangements, 100
In the tissues, ___ is produced from aerobic metabolism.
CO2
c-reactive protein AKA
CRP
Exteremely common form of vaginal infection in women, especially those who are pregnant, diabetic, or on oral contraceptives
Candida vaginitis
95% of lung cancers are what type?
Carcinomas
Striated muscles types (2)
Cardiac SKeletal
Oubain Digitalis What type of drugs?
Cardiac glycosides
Necrosis type seen in Tb
Caseous necrosis
_________, 50-100 nm plasma membrane invaginations, and _____ _____ are plasma membrane patches (microdomains) important for signal transduction and endocytosis.
Caveolae, lipid rafts
Central or proximal parts of acini are effected while distal alveoli are spared What type fo emphysema?
Central acinar
Collections of crystalloids made up of eosinophil proteins what disease are these seen in?
Charcot Leyden crystals Asthma
ACh is waht type of NT?
Choline ester
_________ structure affects access of transcription factors to genes, and thereby affects gene expression
Chromatin
Chronic refractory diseae affecting the mucous membranes, hair, skin, and nails, associated with underlying T cell defects
Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis
Chronic cor pulmonale AKA
Chronic right sided heart strain. Seen commonly with recurrent pulmonary emboli
protein that helps determine urine dilution
Creatinine
competes with ACh for the nicotinic receptors on the motor end plate, decreasing the size of the EPP. When administered in maximal doses, it causes paralysis and death.
Curare
Mucus plugs comtaining whorls of shed epithelium seen in asthma
Curschmann spirals
Candida that causes skin infections everywhere
Cutaneous candidiaseis
a defect of the skin of the scalp on the posterior occiput Seen in what disease?
Cutis aplasia Patau syndrome
The study of chromosomes and their abnormalities
Cytogenetics
Gigantism on both cell and nucleus What virus infection?
Cytomegalovirus
Infectious, mono-like illness with fever, atypical lymphocytosis, lymphadenopathy, hepatomegaly, abnormal liver function tests, ,mild hepatitis in healthy host What diseae?
Cytomegalovirus
Pneumonitis by what disease has mononuclear foci with necrosis and progresess to ARDS?
Cytomegalovirus
Diffusion coeffecient AKA
D
Diffusion Coeffecient Formula
D = (KT) / (6PiRn) D = Diffusion coeffecient K = Boltzmann's constant T = Absolute temperature (Kelvin) R = molculear radius n = Viscosity of the medium
An excellent example of facilitated diffusion is the transport of _-_______ into skeletal muscle and adipose cells by the _____ transporter.
D glucose, GLUT4
Sugar that is transported via GLUT4 carrier besides D-glucose
D-galactose
a form of curare, is used therapeutically to cause relaxation of skeletal muscle during anesthesia.
D-tubocurarene
Transcription factors have highly conserved ___ binding sites
DNA
Thickness of the Membrane AKA
Delta X
DL can be measured with carbon monoxide (CO) because CO transfer across the alveolar/pulmonary capillary barrier is limited exclusively by the __________ process.
Diffusion
_________-limited gas exchange is illustrated by the transport of O2 during strenuous exercise and in pathologic conditions such as emphysema and fibrosis.
Diffusion
Potential difference AKA
Diffusion potential
_________-limited gas exchange is illustrated by CO and by O2 in fibrosis or strenuous exercise. _________-limited gas exchange is illustrated by N2O, CO2, and O2 under normal conditions.
Diffusion, perfusion
Proximal portion of acinus is normal but distal part is primariliy involved What type of emphysema?
Distal acinar
______ tubules generate new bicarbonate and excrete _________
Distal, hydrogen
Watch video on sarcomere
Do It!!!!!!!!
Watch Amino Acid classification/structure video
Do it!!
Review Prader-Willi syndrome
Do it!!!!!
Draw action of SGLT1
Do it!!!!!!
Draw cotransport Actino of glucose in small intestinal epithelial cell involving Na+/K+ ATPase
Do it!!!!!!
Write out carbonic anhydrase equlilbrium reaction
Do it!!!!!!
Solve pH problem given H+ concenration
Do it!!!!!!!
Draw diagram of Na+/Ca2+ exchange in a cell
Do it!!!!!!. VitalBook file.
Only tyrosine and dopa enzymes. What NT made from tyrosine?
Dopamine
Inspiratory center AKA
Dorsal root ganglion
when alveolar ventilation is halved, PACO2 _______ Why?
Doubles Less CO2 is removed from the blood
Trisomy 21 AKA
Down Syndrome
_________ transport occurs by diffusion, either simple or facilitated, and requires no input of metabolic energy.
Downhill
Moving down electrochemical gradient
Downill
Obstruction of small or medium pulmonary artery branches leads to what? Obstruction of large branch?
Dypsnea Sudden, silent death
Ig_ binds antigens and promotes release of vasoactive amines from mast cells
E
Ig_ is similar to IgM in its unit structure.
E
Tyrosine, Dopa, Beta, and PMNA What NT from tyrosine?
E
Membrane potential AKA
Em
Acinus inflammation
Emphysema
Abnormal permanent enlargement of the air spaces distal to the terminal bronchioles, accompanied by destruction of their walls without significant fibrosis
Epmhysema
the diffusion potential that exactly balances or opposes the tendency for diffusion down the concentration difference.
Equilibrium potential
Erythroid progeintor transitions to what cell?
Erythroblast
Red blood cells AKA
Erythrocytes
Which blood cells are not complete cells, as they do not possess nuclei and intracellular organelles?
Erythrocytes
Aromatic AA's
F (phenylalanine) W (tryptophan) Y (tyrosine)
Constant region of heavy chain
Fc
If the iron component of the heme moieties is in the ferric, or ____, state (rather than the normal ____ state), it is called _______________.
Fe3+, Fe2+, methemoglobin
________ is the major iron storage protein found in almost all cells of the body
Ferritin
Most common cause of triploidy What is this AKA
Fertilization of an egg by 2 sperm Dispermy
_____ circulation is another example of global hypoxic vasoconstriction.
Fetal
Decreased lung complaince disease
Fibrosis
Restrictive lung disease
Fibrosis
a so-called restrictive disease, is associated with stiffening of lung tissues and decreased compliance
Fibrosis
The _____ _______ Model describes the essential role of phospholipids, integral and membrane proteins and other lipids in the structure and function of biological membranes.
Fluid Mosaic
the total volume of air that can be forcibly expired after a maximal inspiration
Forced Vital Capacity
___ _________ between uterine muscle cells increase significantly during the late stages of pregnancy. They provide high-capacity channels between cells and permit coordinated contraction of the uterus during labor.
Gap junctions
an individual's genetic constitution at a locus
Genotype
Acidic amino acids (2)
Glu Asp
Glucosuria AKA
Glucose in urine
Bicarbonate AKA
HCO3-
As a tetramer of globins, __ is one of the best characterized examples of cooperativity in ligand interactions.
Hb
Over 95% of the Hb found in adult humans is ___, with the α2β2 globin subunit composition.
HbA
____ is elevated in β-thalassemia, a disease characterized by a deficiency in ____-______ biosynthesis.
HbA2, beta globin
Common hemoglobin mutations in black people (2)
HbS HbC
The type of immunoglobulin is determined by what part of the molecule?
Heavy chain
____ proteins, interestingly, participate in these protective mechanisms against ROS by sequestering and transporting oxygen.
Heme
law that deals with gases dissolved in solution
Henrys law
O2-hemoglobin saturation curve shifts to the left when: ___ CO2 ___ pH ___ temperature ___ 2,3 BPG
High Low High High
V/Q defects (4 exampls)
High V/Q Low V/Q Shunts Dead space
banding involves staining chromosomes during prophase or early metaphase (prometaphase), before they reach maximal condensation.
High resolution banding
Pressure vs. volume plot: Emphysema has higher or lower slope than regular breathing?
Higher
Emphysema has a higher or lower FRC than normal? Are they breathing at high or low volume? What conidtion is associated with this?
Higher High Barrel shaped chest
The ____ ___________, determined experimentally, is a measure of cooperativity among ligand-binding sites, i.e. the extent to which the binding of O2 to one subunit influences the affinity of O2 to other subunits.
Hill coeffecient
_________, a biogenic amine, is synthesized from histidine, catalyzed by histidine decarboxylase.
Histamine
_______ ___________ (____) inhibitors are also being tested as therapeutic agents for treatment of rapidly growing cancers, such as lymphomas.
Histone Deacetylase, HDAC
Ligand binding receptors are for what? (2)
Hormone Neurotransmitters
Suprression of the production of other immunoglobulins
Immunoparesis
Mating between siblings or paretns and kids
Incest
a person who has a disease-causing genotype might not exhibit the disease phenotype at all, even though he or she can transmit the disease-causing allele to the next generation. Example of what concept?
Incomplete penetrance
How does Glycine act on a nerve cell?
Increase Cl- conductivity, hyperpolarizing (inhibiting) the neuron
FRC is increased or decreased in emphysema?
Increased
__________ concentrations of ceruloplasmin occur in active liver disease and in tissue damage.
Increased
Empysema increases or decreases lung compliance?
Increases
_________ in alveolar ventilation cause a decrease in PACO2 ; conversely, __________ in alveolar ventilation cause an increase in PACO2
Increases, decreases
This principle states that genes at different loci are transmitted independently
Independent assortment
V/Q ratio in pulmonary embolism
Infinity
ssRNA virus, bounded by a nucleoprotien that determines virus type- A, B, or C
Influenza virus
Vital capacity formula
Inspiaratory volume + Expiratory reserve volume
Disulfide bond AKA
Intrachain disulfide bond
Acinus is irregularly involved, associated with scarring such as that resulting from healed disease what type of emphysema?
Irregular
receptors for noxious chemicals and particles are located between epithelial cells lining the airways what type of receptors?
Irritant receptors
Proteins are generally least soluble at what point?
Isoelectric Point
Partition Coeffecient AKA
K
Partition coeffecient formula
K = (Concentration in Olive Oil) / (Concentration in Water)
Insulin shifts what ion from cells to blood?
K+
Propanalol (beta blockers) shift what ion from cells to blood?
K+
The resting membrane potential of nerve and muscle critically depends on the difference in concentration of __ across the cell membrane
K+
Thus, the resting membrane potential is close to the equilibrium potentials for __ and ___ because the permeability to these ions at rest is ____
K+, Cl-, high
Tyrosine is converted to _-____ by tyrosine hydroxylase, and L-dopa is converted to ________ by dopa decarboxylase.
L-dopa, dopamine
Undifferentiated malignant epithelial tumors that lack cytological features of SCLC and have no glandular or squamous differentiation
Large cell carcinomas
Phosphatidylcholine AKA
Lecthin
If there is a physiolgic dead space, PECO2 will be greater than or less than PACO2?
Less tahn
White blood cells AKA
Leukocytes
__________ are cells, the main function of which is to protect the body from infection
Leukocytes
Certain molecule that binds plasma proteins specifically
Ligand
present in the sarcolemmal membrane. They are not regulated by changes in membrane potential, but by receptor-mediated events.
Ligand-gated Ca2+ channels
gate responds to changes in ligands such as hormones or neurotransmitters
Ligand-gated channels
Starch is soluble in water, cellulose is insoluble; starch is pasty, cellulose is fibrous; starch is digestible, while cellulose is indigestible by humans; starch is a food, rich in calories, while cellulose is roughage What is the main difference in these two things?
Linkage of anomeric carbon
18 : 2; ω-6, Δ9,12 which fA?
Linoleic
18 : 3; ω-3, Δ9,12,15 Which FA?
Linolenic
3-5 acini group
Lobule
Simple Pulmonary Eosinophilia AKa
Loeffler syndrome
High lung volume has high or low resistance?
Low
Monocyte subgroup
Macrophages
Bulk solutions AKA
Macroscopic solutions
Spongiform encephalopathy AKA
Mad cow disease
Rare cancer of mesothelial cells, usually arising in the parietal or visceral pleura, and can also soemtiems occur in peritoneum and pericardium
Malignant mesothelioma
_______ is the C2 epimer, and _________ the C-4 epimer of glucose.
Mannose, galactose
Reticulocyte has disorganization and disaassembly of organelles Exits bone marrow becomes what cell?
Mature erythrocyte
HbF HbA Mb Rank in descending O2 affinity
Mb HbF HbA
_________ smooth muscle is present in the iris, in the ciliary muscles of the lens, and in the vas deferens.
Multiunit
diffusion of a few Na+ ions, sufficient to create the diffusion potential, does not produce any change in ___ _____________ in the bulk solutions.
Na+ concentration
Glucose is rebsorbed into the renal proximal tubule via ___ ___________
Na+ cotransport
. As a result of the net movement of positive charge to Solution 2, an ___ _________ _________ develops and Solution 2 becomes positive with respect to Solution 1.
Na+ diffusion potential
Transmembrane Na+ concentration is maintined by what?
Na+-K+ ATPase
Na+/K+ ATPase AKA
Na+-K+ Pump
___-_______ cotransport and ___-_____ ____ cotransport are present in the luminal membranes of the epithelial cells of both small intestine and renal proximal tubule
Na+-glucose, Na+-amino acid
Ouabain treatment can inhibit what complex?
Na+/K+ ATPase
Na+-K+ ATPase AKA
Na+/K+ Pump
Does glucose dissociate in solution?
No
Uncharged particle AKA
Nonelectrolyte
the actual amount of O2 per volume of blood
O2 content
There are peripheral chemoreceptors for __, ___, and __ in the carotid bodies located at the bifurcation of the common carotid arteries and in the aortic bodies above and below the aortic arch
O2, CO2, H+
Mixed venous blood enters the pulmonary capillary; __ is added to pulmonary capillary blood, and ___ is removed from it by transfer across the alveolar/capillary barrier. ________ ________ blood leaves the pulmonary capillary.
O2, CO2, systemic arterial
The direct benefit of the structural and functional change in the HbF isoform is a more efficient transfer of __ from maternal ___ to fetal ___
O2, HbA, HbF
By far, the major factor regulating pulmonary blood flow is the partial pressure of __ in alveolar gas,____
O2, PAO2
Heme, the __-binding moiety common to Mb and Hb, is a __________ molecule to which an ____ atom (____) is coordinated
O2, porphoryn, iron, Fe2+
Condition where lung expands because air is trapped in it
Obstructive overinflatino THIS IS NOT EMPHYSEMA
the flow of water across a semipermeable membrane due to a difference in solute concentration.
Osmosis
Phospholipase C catalyzes the hydrolysis of ____ to ___ and ___. IP3 then diffuses to the ____________ _________, where it opens ____ release channels (similar to the mechanism of the _________ receptor in skeletal muscle).
PIP2, IP3, DAG, sarcoplasmic reticulum, Ca2_, ryanodine
Plasma Cell Membrane Ca2+ ATPase AKA
PMCA
Pulmonary dysfunction, Pulmonary hypertsneion, and cor pulmonae Is this in CWP or PMF?
PMF
The most important responsibility of the peripheral chemoreceptors is to detect changes in arterial ___
PO2
The peripheral chemoreceptors also detect increases in PCO2, but the effect is less important than their response to decreases in ___.
PO2
General gas law
PV = nRT
Any infection of the lung
Pneumonia
Air in pleural space
Pneumothorax
Presence of air or other gas in teh pleural sac
Pneumothorax
Recurrent pulmonary emboli lead to what?
Pulmonary Hypertension
Acini are composed of waht?
Respiratory bronchioles
Participate in specific immune response Which lymphocytes?
T lymphocytes
Platelets AKA
Thrombocytes
Lung lesions characterized by combination of necrotizing vasculitis and paranchymal necrotizing granulomatous inflammation What disease?
Wegener Granluomatosiss
Deletion of distal short arm of chromosome 4
Wolf-Hirschorn syndrome
Foreign substances AKA
Xenobiotics
Immunoglobulins share a common _-shaped structure of _ _____ and _ _____ chains
Y, 2 heavy , 2 light
Does IgA dimerize? If so, how?
Yes By J chain holding it together
Ka formula
[H+] [A-] / [HA]
Impaired bicarbonate reabsorption and hydrogen ion secretion causes rare renal tubular ________
acidoses
Glyceraldehyde is an ______, and dihydroxyacetone a ______ sugar.
aldose, ketose
Typically, _______ of solute are expressed in moles, equivalents, or osmoles.
amounts
With few exceptions, Hb variants are inherited as _________ _________ traits
autosomal recessive
Second messenger gated channels have gates that are controlled by changes in levels of intracellular signaling molecules such as _____ or ___
cAMP, IP3
Smooth muscle: The rise in intracellular Ca2+ concentration causes Ca2+ to bind to __________. Like troponin C in skeletal muscle, calmodulin binds _ ions of Ca2+ in a cooperative fashion. The Ca2+-calmodulin complex binds to and activates ______-_____-_____ ______
calmodulin, 4, myosin light chain kinase
Ca2+-calmodulin, in addition to the effects on myosin described earlier, also has effects on two thin filament proteins, ________ and ___________.
calponin, caldesmon
Within the sarcoplasmic reticulum, Ca2+ is bound to _______________, a low-affinity, high-capacity Ca2+-binding protein.
calsequestrin
_________ of the larynx represents 2% of all cancers
carcinoma
When the driving force is negative (i.e., Em is more negative than the ion's equilibrium potential), that ion X will enter the cell if it is a _____ and will leave the cell if it is an _____.
cation, anion
The efficiency and specificity of gene expression are conferred by ___-acting elements
cis
▪ Fatty acids are long chain alkanoic acids; unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more ___-______ bonds, which ________ the melting (freezing)
cis double, decrease
DNA sequences and DNA-binding proteins control gene expression. The DNA sequences include ___-acting _________, such as the TATA box, and enhancers and ________ elements
cis, promotors, response
The likelihood of chromosome breakage may be increased in the presence of certain harmful agents, called __________
clastogens
Buffering capacity is greatest at what pH?
closest to pKa of solution
In addition, other proteins can bind to the sequence-specific transcription factors and modulate their function by repressing or activating gene expression; these factors are often called ____________ or ______________
coactivators, corepressors
It is possible to quantify the percentage of DNA sequence shared by a pair of relatives by estimating the ___________ __ ____________
coeffecient of relationship
empyema
collection of pus in pleural cavity
Surfactant provides another advantage for pulmonary function: It increases lung __________, which _________ the work of expanding the lungs during inspiration.
compliance, reduces
Likewise, ______________ of solutes are expressed in moles per liter (mol/L), equivalents per liter (Eq/L), or osmoles per liter (Osm/L).
concentrations
Histone packaging, nucleosome stability and therefore the ______________ of DNA are controlled by reversible ___________ and _______________ of ______ residues in the _____-terminal regions of the core histones, particularly histones __ and __. _______ ______ ___________ (___) transfer acetyl groups from ______-___ to the _____ group of _______, _____________ the charge on the lysine residue and ___________ the strength of histone-DNA interactions, thereby permitting the __________ of the nucleosome. Conversely, enzymes that remove the acetyl groups and promote the local condensation of chromosomes are known as _______ ____________
condensation, acetylatoni, deacetylation, lysine, amino, H3, H4, Histone acetyl trasnferases, HATs, acetyl coA, amino, lysine, neutralizing, decreasing, relaxation, his deacetylases
Member of herpesvirus family, produces variety of disease manifestations, depending on host age and mainly IMMUNE STATUS
cytomegalovirus
Type _ (_____________) receptors are a group of receptor proteins that form homodimers and bind specifically to steroid hormone response elements only in the presence of their ligand, such as the glucocorticoid receptor. Type __ (_______) receptors form homodimers that can bind to response elements in the absence of their ligand, and may also form heterodimers with other type II receptor subunits, to form active units.
cytoplpasmic nuclear
In a patient with a restrictive lung disease such as fibrosis, both FVC and FEV1 are _________ but FEV1 is decreased ___ than FVC is. Thus, in fibrosis, FEV1/FVC is increased or decreased? What about FEV1/FVC in asthma?
decrased, less, increased decreased
FEV1/FCV is _________ in obstructive lung diseae
decreased
Fibrosis is a so-called restrictive disease, is associated with stiffening of lung tissues and _________ compliance
decreased
Regions of high V/Q have high ventilation relative to perfusion, usually because blood flow is _________.
decreased
Respiratory acidosis occurs most often in lung disease and results from _________ ventilation
decreased
Shifts of the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right occur when there is _________ affinity of hemoglobin for O2
decreased
Chronic interstitial disease: _________ compliance _________ breathing pressure necessary
decreased increeaased
The most striking functional difference between HbF and HbA is its _________ sensitivity to _______
decreased, 2,3-BPG
Another characteristic of alkalosis is a _________ level of ionized _______ in plasma, a situation that contributes to muscle spasms and cramps
decreased, calcium
Without surfactant, lung compliance will be _________ and the work of inflating the lungs during breathing will be _________
decreased, increased
Gel electrophoretic pattern observed in serum during the acute phase response. Albumin is ___________, the sum of α1- and α2-globulins is __________, β1-globulins are _________, β2-globulins are __________ and there is a mild _________ in γ-globulins.
decreased, increased, decreased, increased, increase
In a patient with an obstructive lung disease such as asthma, both FVC and FEV1 are _________, but FEV1 is decreased ____ than FVC is
decreased, more
The H+ is buffered in the red blood cells by _______________ and is carried in the venous blood in this form.
deoxyhemoglobin
Hb is more appropriately considered a _____ of ____________, (αβ)2, rather than an α2β2 ________
dimer, heterodimers, tetramer
Mendel's key contributions were the principles of _________ and _____________, ___________, and ___________ __________.
dominance, recessiveness, segregation, independent assortment
Although the distinction between dominant and recessive diseases is not rigid, a ________ disease allele will produce disease in a heterozygote, whereas a _________ disease allele will not.
dominant, recessive
The _________ modifies the internal nucleotide sequence of mature mRNAs
editosome
The compliance of the lungs and chest wall is inversely correlated with their _______ properties or _________
elastic, elastance
At ______________ ___________, the chemical and electrical driving forces acting on an ion are equal and opposite, and no further net diffusion occurs.
electrochemical equilibrium
X-ray crystallography depends on the diffraction of X-rays by the _________ of the atoms constituting the molecule.
electrons
Hypoxia induces synthesis of ______________
erythropoietin
Because the binding of O2 to heme is an __________ process, the O2 affinity of Hb _________ with increasing temperature
exothermic, decreases
Streptococcal superantigens include the pyrogenic _________ _, _, _-_
exotoxins, A, C, G J
S. pyogenes: Pyrogenic __________ are produced by lysogenic strains of streptococci and induce fever, act as _____________, and are responsible for the red rash observed in scarlet fever. Superantigens can interact with both _____ molecules and _-____ receptors, thereby stimulating the Τ cell to proliferate and release cytokines in an uncontrolled manner.
exotoxins, superantigens, MHCII, T cell
Similarly, while the _______________ conformations are the primary forms of fructose in aqueous solution, most of fructose metabolism proceeds from the ________ conformation.
fructopyranose, furanose
Dead space is the volume of the airways and lungs that does not participate in ___ __________. Dead space is a general term that refers to both the _________ dead space of the conducting airways and a functional, or ___________, dead space
gas exchange, anatomic, physiologic
V/Q defects impair ___ ________. If ___________ is decreased relative to perfusion, then PaO2 and PaCO2 will approach their values in mixed venous blood. If _________ is decreased relative to ventilation, then PAO2 and PACO2 will approach their values in inspired air.
gas exchange, ventilation, perfusion
Major reducing substance in the blood
glucose
Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning causes hypoxia because CO occupies binding sites on __________ that normally are occupied by __; thus, CO __________ the O2 content of blood. _______ poisoning interferes with O2 utilization of tissue; it is one cause of hypoxia that does not involve _______ blood flow or decreased __ content of blood.
hemoglobin, O2, decreases Cyanide, decreased, O2
The ____ pO2 in the lungs promotes ligand saturation and forces _______ from the Hb molecule to stabilize the _ state. In the capillary bed, particularly in metabolically active tissues, the pH is slightly _____, due to the production of ________ metabolites, such as _______. Oxygenated Hb, upon entering this environment, will acquire some 'excess' _______ and shift toward the _ state, promoting release of __ for uptake by tissues for aerobic metabolism.
high, protons, R, lower, acidic, lactate, protons, T, O2
Because of the gravitational effect on hydrostatic pressure, Pa is ______ in zone 2 than in zone 1 and higher than PA
higher
hemoglobin F has a ______ affinity for O2 than hemoglobin A, facilitating O2 movement from the mother to the fetus.
higher
In zone 1, where V/Q is _______, ____ is highest and _____ is lowest. In zone 3, where V/Q is _______, ____ is lowest and _____ is highest. These regional differences are present in healthy lungs, and the blood leaving the lungs via the pulmonary vein (representing the sum of blood from all zones) has an average PaO2 of ___ mm Hg and an average of PvO2 __ mm Hg.
highest, PaO2, PaCO2, lowest, PaO2, PaCO2, 100, 40
The D and L designations are based on the configuration at the ______ numbered __________ center, C-_ in the case of hexoses.
highest, asymmetric, 5
Notable exceptions to this general distribution of amino acid residues in globins are the two __________ that play indispensable roles deep within the heme pocket
histidines
In the oxygenated globin structure, the planar heme is positioned between the proximal and distal ___________ (His__ and His__, respectively); only His__ has an imidazole nitrogen close enough to bond with ____. The _____-_______ that contain these histidines are shown in pink. In deoxygenated globins, the _____ position remains vacant, leaving a ________________ iron. In the oxygenated state, __ occupies the sixth position. Both porphyrin propionate moieties participate in hydrogen and electrostatic bonding interactions with ______ side chains and _______.
histidines, F8, E7, F8, iron, alpha helices, sixth, pentacoordinated, O2, globin, solvent
Starch, cellulose and glycogen are important _________ polymers of _______.
homoglucan, glucose
Saccharides composed of a single sugar are termed ___________, while saccharides with complex composition are termed _____________.
homoglycans, heteroglycans
When an allosteric effector affects its own binding to the protein (at other sites), the process is termed __________, e.g. the effect of binding of __ at one site on Hb enhances the affinity for binding of __ to other sites on Hb.
homotropic, O2, O2
S. pyogenes: The capsule comprises ___________ ____ identical to that found in the __________ tissue of the host and hence does not elicit an immune response. It also inhibits the phagocytosis of the bacterium by phagocytes. The _ _______ is located at the end of the fimbriae and is also involved in inhibiting phagocytosis.
hyaluronic acid, connective, M protein
hospitalized patients the short-term changes in plasma albumin concentration are usually due to changes in what? Long term changes can reflect what?
hydration nutritional status (amino acid availibility)
Blood and tissues contain buffer systems that minimize changes in ________ ion concentration
hydrogen
Maintenance of the ________ ion concentration within a narrow range is vital for survival.
hydrogen
The secondary structure of a protein is determined by _________ bonding interactions between amino acid side chain functional groups
hydrogen
The glycerol backbone is ____________, and the fatty acid tails are ___________
hydrophillic, hydrophobic
Peripheral membrane proteins are loosely attached to either the intracellular or extracellular side of the cell membrane by _____________ interactions (e.g., with integral proteins) and can be removed with mild treatments that disrupt _____ or __________ bonds.
hydrostatic, ionic, hydrogen
the equation for ligand binding by Mb describes a _________ with a P50 of _ mmHg
hyperbola, 4
For a constant level of CO2 production, there is a __________ relationship between PACO2 and VA
hyperbolic
If two solutions have different calculated osmolarities, the solution with the higher osmolarity is called ____________ and the solution with the lower osmolarity is called ___________
hyperosmotic, hypoosmotic
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) are synaptic inputs that _____________ the postsynaptic cell, taking the membrane potential away from threshold and farther from firing an action potential. IPSPs are produced by opening ___ channels.
hyperpolarize, Cl-
alkalosis can cause ___________, and ___________ may lead to alkalosis.
hypokalemia, hypokalemia
Water will flow from the _________ solution into the __________ solution.
hypotonic, hypertonic
When two solutions have different effective osmotic pressures, the solution with the lower effective osmotic pressure is _________ and the solution with the higher effective osmotic pressure is __________.
hypotonic, hypertonic
Ascent to high altitude is one of several causes of _________
hypoxemia
Decreased arterial PO2
hypoxemia
At high altitude, _________ results from the ________ PO2 of inspired air. Adaptive responses to hypoxemia include hyperventilation, respiratory _________, pulmonary ________________, polycythemia, _________ 2,3-DPG production, and a _____ shift of the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
hypoxemia, decreased, alkalosis, vasoconstriction, increased, right
Shifts of the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right occur when there is decreased affinity of hemoglobin for O2. A decrease in affinity is reflected in an ________ in P50, which means that 50% saturation is achieved at a ______-than-normal value of PO2. When the affinity is __________, unloading of O2 in the tissues is facilitated.
increase, higher, decreased
An increase in affinity is reflected in a ________ in P50, which means that 50% saturation occurs at a _____-than-normal value of PO2. When the affinity is ____________, unloading of O2 in the tissues is more difficult (i.e., binding of O2 is tighter).
increase, higher, increased
During exercise, the ventilation rate and cardiac output ________ to match the body's needs for O2 so that mean values for PaO2 and PaCO2 do not change. The O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve shifts to the _____ as a result of _________ tissue PCO2, _______ temperature, and _________ tissue pH.
increase, right, increased, increased, decrease
Increased arterial pCO2 leads to _________ breathing rate
increased
One of the most interesting features of the body's adaptation to high altitude is an _________ synthesis of 2,3-DPG by red blood cells.
increased
Right-to-left shunts (right-to-left cardiac shunts, intrapulmonary shunts) always cause hypoxemia and _________ A − a gradient
increased
V/Q defects always cause hypoxemia and _________ A-a gradient
increased
The _________ in pCO2 in venous capillaries _________ the affinity of Hb for O2. Accordingly, a _____ shift in the ligand saturation curve occurs as pCO2 increases. It should be emphasized that the allosteric effector is, in fact, ___, not _____: CO2 reacts reversibly with the unprotonated N-terminal amino groups of the globin polypeptides to form _______ _______
increased, decreases, right, CO2, HCO3-, carbamino adducts
The solubility of a protein may be _________ by the addition of salt at a low concentration (salting __) or _________ by high salt concentration (salting ___).
increased, in, decreased, out
Pulmonary blood flow _________ during exercise
increases
O2 bound to hemoglobin changes its affinity for CO2, such that when less O2 is bound, the affinity of hemoglobin for CO2 _________ (the _______ ______).
increases, Haldane effect
When the H+ concentration in the system _________, the bicarbonate component of the buffer _______ (H+), forming ________ ____, which is subsequently converted into ___ and ___ in the reaction catalyzed by ________ _________: H++HCO3−⇌H2CO3⇌CO2+H2O
increases, accepts, carbonic acid, CO2, H2O, carbonic anhydrase
increases in gas viscosity (e.g., as occurs during deep sea diving) produce _________ in resistance, and decreases in viscosity (e.g., breathing a low-density gas such as helium) produce ___________ in resistance.
increases, decreases
The melting point of fatty acids, as well as that of more complex lipids, _________ with the chain length of the fatty acid, but _________ with the number of double bonds. Why?
increases, decreases cis DB in unsaturated FAs puts a kink in the packing and makes it less stable (lower melting point)
Myelin is a lipid insulator of nerve axons that _________ membrane resistance and _________ membrane capacitance.
increases, decresases
At the population level, consanguinity __________ the frequency of genetic disease and mortality. The closer the degree of consanguinity, the _______ the increase
increases, greater
Consanguinity __________ the chance that a mating couple will both carry the same disease-causing mutation. It is seen more often in pedigrees involving ____ _________ diseases than in those involving ______ recessive diseases.
increases, rare recessive, common
The name secondary active transport, therefore, refers to the __________ utilization of ___ as an energy source.
indirect, ATP
Majro type of influenza virus taht causes flu outbreaks
influenza A
During ___________, intrapleural pressure becomes even more negative than at rest
inspiration
During ___________, the diaphragm contracts, causing the volume of the thorax to increase
inspiration
The additional volume that can be inspired above tidal volume is called the ___________ _______ volume, which is approximately ____ mL. The additional volume that can be expired below tidal volume is called the __________ _______ volume, which is approximately ____ mL.
inspiratory reserve, 3000, expiratory reserve, 1200
Whether secreted normally from the pancreatic beta cells or administered by injection, ________ lowers the blood _______ concentration by promoting _______ uptake into cells.
insulin, glucose, glucose
By convention, membrane potential is expressed as _____________ potential relative to _____________ potential.
intracellular, extracellular
Membrane proteins are classified as integral (_________) or peripheral (__________) membrane proteins.
intrinsic, extrinsic
The compliance of the lungs and chest wall is __________ correlated with their elastic properties or elastance
inversely
if the diffusing solute is an ___ or an ____________, there are two additional consequences of the presence of charge on the solute
ion, electrolyte
The GABAA receptor is directly linked to a Cl− channel and thus is __________
ionotropic
Transferrin transports ____
iron
Isoelectric focusing resolves proteins based on their ___________ _____
isoelectric point
ordered display of chromosomes is termed a _________ or _________
karyogram, karyotype
A banded karyogram (_________) of a normal male. The banded _________ chromosomes are arranged from _______ to ________.
karyotopye, metaphase, largest, smallest
_______ and _______ are important dietary disaccharides
lactose, sucrose
most commoon type of heart shunt
left ot right
______-_____ Ca2+ channels in the sarcolemmal membrane may be opened by various hormones and neurotransmitters, permitting the entry of additional Ca2+ from the ECF. ___-_____ Ca2+ release channels in the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum may be opened by hormones and neurotransmitters. Either of these mechanisms may augment the rise in intracellular Ca2+ concentration caused by depolarization What type of muscle is involved?
ligand gated, IP3 gated smooth muscle
In cell membranes, phospholipids orient so that the lipid-soluble fatty acid tails face each other and the water-soluble glycerol heads point away from each other, dissolving in the aqueous solutions of the ICF or ECF. This orientation creates a _____ _______.
lipid bilayer
The ________ is a model for the structure of a biological membrane, a bilayer of polar lipids with the polar faces exposed to the _______ environment and the fatty acid side chains buried in the oily, ____________ interior of the membrane.
liposome, aqueous, hydrophobic
The _____ supply oxygen necessary for tissue metabolism and remove the generated CO2
lungs
The GABAB receptor is coupled via a G protein to a K+ channel and thus is ____________.
metabatrobic
_________ acidosis results from excessive production, or inefficient metabolism or excretion, of nonvolatile acids
metabolic
If the centromere occurs near the middle of the chromosome, the chromosome is said to be ____________. An ___________ chromosome has its centromere near the tip, and ______________ chromosomes have centromeres somewhere between the middle and the tip. The tip of each chromosome is the _________. The short arm of a chromosome is labeled _, and the long arm is labeled _.
metacentric, acrocentric, submetacentric, telomere, p, q
Globins constitute an ancient family of soluble _______________
metalloproteins
A serious limitation of CGH when used with _________ chromosomes is that deletions or duplications smaller than 5 to 10 Mb cannot be detected microscopically. Higher resolution is offered by _____ ___ (____), in which test and control DNA is hybridized with a microarray that contains hundreds of thousands to millions of oligonucleotide probes whose DNA sequences correspond to specific regions of the genome.
metaphase, array CGH, aCGH
Another factor that can influence disease expression is the interaction of other genes, called ________ ______, with the disease-causing gene.
modifier genes
One ____ is 6 × 10^23 molecules of a substance.
mole
The diffusion coefficient correlates inversely with the _________ ______ of the solute and the ___________ of the medium.
molecular radius, viscosity
IgA appears to function as the primary immunologic barrier against pathogenic invasion of ________ ________. It can promote ____________, cause _____________ degranulation, and activate complement via the so-called ___________ pathway.
mucous membranes, phagocytosis, eosinophil, alternative
Multiunit smooth muscle cells are densely innervated by ____________ fibers of the _______________ and ____________ nervous systems, and it is these innervations that regulate function
multiunit, parasympathetic, sympathetic
During inspiration, intrapleural pressure becomes even more ________ than at rest
negative
Categories of diffuse pulmonary disease (2)
obstructive restrictive
Measurement determination of __, ____ and ___________, and ___, is a first-line investigation and is frequently required in emergencies.
pH, pCO2, bicarbonate, pO2
Airflow into and out of the lungs is driven by the ________ gradient between the atmosphere and the alveoli and is inversely proportional to the __________ of the airways. Stimulation of _____-__________ receptors dilates the airways, and stimulation of ___________ ___________ receptors constricts the airways.
pressure, resistance, beta 2 adrenergic, muscarinic cholinergic
The _____ diseases, also known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, are neurodegenerative diseases that affect both humans and animals
prion
Typically in a pedigree, an arrow denotes the _______, the first person in whom the disease is diagnosed in the pedigree. The proband is sometimes also referred to as the _____ ____ or ___________ (proposita for a female).
proband, index case, propositus
EPO then acts to cause differentiation of ________________
proerythroblasts
Alternative _________ permit tissue or developmental stage-specific gene expression
promoters
Defects in renal handling of bicarbonate and hydrogen ion lead to a group of relatively rare disorders known as renal tubular acidoses (RTA). The ________ RTA is caused by impaired reabsorption of bicarbonate, and the ______ RTA by impaired hydrogen ion excretion. Proximal RTA is usually accompanied by other defects in proximal transport mechanisms (this is known as the _______ syndrome).
proximal, distal, Fanconi
Because croosing over of X and Y tips resembles the behavior of autosomes during meiosis, the distal portion of the Y chromosome is known as the _______________ region
pseudoautosomal
Proline is different from other amino acids in that its side chain _________ ____ includes both the α-amino group and the α-carbon
pyrrolidine ring
___________ structure of proteins is formed by interactions between peptide chains
quartenary
Occasionally, a carrier of a recessive disease-causing allele mates with a person who is homozygous for this allele. In this case, roughly half of their children will be affected, and half will be heterozygous carriers. The recurrence risk is 50%. Because this pattern of inheritance mimics that of an autosomal dominant trait, it is sometimes referred to as ______________ inheritance
quasidominant
The ___________ structure of multi-subunit proteins is determined by covalent and non-covalent interactions between the subunit surfaces
quaternary
Parents at risk for producing children with a genetic disease typically want to know the risk, or probability, that their future children will be affected. This probability is termed the __________ ____. If one parent is affected by an autosomal dominant disease and the other is unaffected, the recurrence risk for each child is _/_ (assuming that the affected parent is a ____________, which is nearly always the case).
recurrence risk, 1/2, heterozygote
Pedigree illustrating the inheritance pattern of retinoblastoma, a disorder with _______ __________. The unaffected obligate carrier, denoted by a dot, has the same genotype as the affected pedigree members.
reduced penetrance
Carbon monoxide ______ the number of sites available for O2 binding to hemoglobin and causes a shift of the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the ____
reduces, left
The 47,XXX and 47,XYY karyotypes are seen in about 1/1000 females and males, respectively. Each involves a slight degree of _________ in IQ but few _________ problems.
reduction, physical
Balanced translocations in somatic cells can sometimes cause malignancies by interrupting or altering genes or their __________ _________.
regulatory sequences
Sympathetic stimulation produces __________ of bronchial smooth muscle via stimulation of _____ receptors.
relaxation, Beta-2
Drugs such as epinephrine, isoproterenol, and albuterol produce __________ of bronchial smooth muscle, which underlies their usefulness in the treatment of _______. Drug type?
relaxation, asthma Beta-2 agonists
During exercise, the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve shifts to the _____
right
The sarcoplasmic reticulum contains a Ca2+-release channel called the _________ receptor (named for the plant alkaloid that opens this release channel)
ryanodine
The nonsuppurative diseases include acute rheumatic fever and acute glomerulonephritis. What bacteria?
s. pyogenes
The rise in intracellular Ca2+ in smooth muscle contraction is partly due to Ca2+ entry across the ___________ ________ and partly due to Ca2+ release from intracellular __ stores.
sarcolemmal membrane, SR
In addition, the ____________ _________ of muscle cells and the __________ _________ of other cells contain variants of Ca2+ ATPase that pump _ Ca2+ ions (for each ___ hydrolyzed) from ______________ fluid into the ________ of the sarcoplasmic or endoplasmic reticulum (i.e., Ca2+ sequestration).
sarcoplasmic reticulum, endoplasmic reticulum, 2, ATP, intracellular, interior
The T tubules make contact with the terminal cisternae of the ___________ _________ and contain a _______-sensitive protein called the _________________ receptor, named for the drug that inhibits it
sarcoplasmic reticulum, voltage, dihydropyridine
All forms of carrier-mediated transport share the following three features: __________, _________________, and ___________.
saturation, stereospecificity, competition
Finally, when all of the binding sites are occupied, __________ is achieved at a point called the _________ _______, or __.
saturation, transport maximum, Tm
An oral manifestation of _______ _____ is "strawberry tongue," characterized by a red surface that is seen after an initial yellowish-white coating on the tongue is shed
scarlet fever
The _________ structure of a protein is determined by hydrogen bonding interactions between amino acid side chain functional groups
secondary
The name ________ ______ transport, therefore, refers to the indirect utilization of ATP as an energy source.
secondary active
Countertransport is a form of _________ ______ transport in which solutes move in ________ directions across the cell membrane
secondary active, opposite
ion channels are _________ and allow ions with specific characteristics to move through them.
selective
in the presence of a constant level of intracellular Ca2+, if there is activation of myosin-light-chain kinase, more cross-bridges will cycle and more tension will be produced (Ca2+-____________); conversely, if there is activation of myosin-light-chain phosphatase, fewer cross-bridges will cycle and less tension will be produced (Ca2+-_________________).
sensitization, desensitization
The gates on ion channels are controlled by three types of _______
sensors
Afferent (_______) information reaches the _________ ___________ ______ via central and peripheral chemoreceptors and ________________. Efferent (_____) information is sent from the inspiratory center to the ________ nerve, which innervates the _________.
sensory, medullary inspiratory center, mechanoreceptors, motor, phrenic, diaphragm
we would say that patient's _____ albumin was 40 mg/dL.
serum
Metacentric, submetacentric, and acrocentric chromosomes. Note the stalks and satellites present on the _____ arms of the ___________ chromosomes.
short, acrocentric
The presence of oxygen-poor blood in the arterial circulation is known as the '_____' condition.
shunt
S. agalictae In some strains, the polysaccharides that constitute the capsule have terminal ________ _____ (neuraminic acid) residues that can inhibit the alternate complement pathway S agalactiae is found in the genitourinary tract and the lower gastrointestinal tract. Infection can occur in utero, at the time of birth, or during the first few months of life.
sialic acid
In some strains of S agalactiae, capsular polysaccharides have terminal _______ acid residues that can inhibit the __________ complement pathway.
sialic, alternative
In a plot of Y versus pO2 when n > 1, the equation for ligand binding of hemoglobin describes a _______ (_-_____) curve
sigmoid, S shaped
Shape of O2 hemoglobin dissociation curve Increases sharply up to what %? Gradually increases at what %?
sigmoidal 40 50-100
The ____ of the diffusion potential depends on the charge of the diffusing ion.
sign
Transfer of gases across cell membranes or capillary walls occurs by ______ _________
simple diffusion
Gel filtration chromatography separates proteins on the basis of ____
size
How do beta lactams work?
slow bacterial killing by inhibition of cell wall synthesis
The ______ equilibration of O2 at high altitude is exaggerated in a person with fibrosis
slower
a _____ alveolus (one with a _____ radius) will have a high collapsing pressure and require more pressure to keep it open.
small, small
Starch is _______ in water, cellulose is _________; ______ is pasty, _________ is fibrous; ______ is digestible, while _________ is indigestible by humans; ______ is a food, rich in calories, while _________ is roughage.
soluble, insoluble, starch, cellulose, starch, cellulose, starch, cellulose
spindle poisons, such as colchicine and colcemid, that arrest dividing _______ cells in ___________, when chromosomes are maximally _________ and easiest to see; the use of a _________ (___-salt) solution, which causes swelling of cells, rupture of the nucleus, and better separation of individual chromosomes; and the use of ________ materials that are absorbed differently by different parts of chromosomes, producing the characteristic light and dark bands that help to identify individual chromosomes.
somatic, metaphase, condensed, hypotonic, low, staining
Lung volumes and capacities are measured with a ___________ (except for those volumes and capacities that include the ________ ______).
spirometer, residual volume
Lung volumes and capacities. Measurements of lung volumes and capacities are made by __________. ________ volume cannot be measured by spirometry.
spirometry, residual
PTH-rp is present in what type of lung cancer?
squamous cell carcionoma (NSCLC)
Pulmonary blood flow is unevenly distributed in the lungs of a person who is ________: Blood flow is lowest at the ____ of the lung and highest at the ____. Ventilation is similarly distributed, although regional variations in ventilatory rates are ___ as great as for blood flow. Thus, V/Q is highest at the apex of the lung and lowest at the base, with an average value of ___. Where V/Q is _______, PaO2 is highest and PaCO2 is lowest.
standing, apex, base, not, 0.8, highest
Amylose, a component of ______, is an _____-_→_-linked linear glucan, while cellulose is a ____-_→_-linked linear glucan.
starch, alpha 1, 4, beta, 1, 4
The DNA-binding and hormone-binding regions of _______ receptors share a high degree of homology. The ________ receptor is less similar to the glucocorticoid receptor than are the others
steroid, estrogen
Myoglobin: an oxygen _______ protein
storage
The explanation for the different curves (i.e., hysteresis) lies in _______ _______ at the liquid-air interface of the air-filled lung: The intermolecular attractive forces between ______ molecules lining the lung are much stronger than the forces between ______ and ___ molecules.
surface tension, liquid, liquid, air
In neonatal respiratory distress syndrome, __________ is lacking
surfactant
__________ is a phospholipid that is produced by type __ alveolar cells and functions as a detergent to reduce surface tension and increase lung compliance
surfactant, II
ATP is synthesized in the ___________ neurons that innervate ________ ______ muscle.
sympathetic, vascular smooth
The blood that leaves the pulmonary capillaries has been arterialized (oxygenated) and will become _________ _________ blood.
systemic arterial
The ________ structure of a protein is determined by interactions between side chain functional groups, including disulfide bonds, hydrogen bonds, salt bridges, and hydrophobic interactions
tertiary
reflection coeffecient symbol
theta
Hemoglobin: an oxygen _________ protein
transport
van't Hoff equation
π=g C σ R T π = Osmotic pressure (atm or mm Hg) g = Number of particles per mole in solution (Osm/mol) C = Concentration (mmol/L) σ = Reflection coefficient (varies from 0 to 1) R = Gas constant (0.082 L - atm/mol - K) T = Absolute temperature (K) (Costanzo 13)
