Period 2: 1607-1754

Runaways ID SIGS

A lot of common tides that connected regional African-American cultures were the experiences of slavery and the common desire for freedom. In the 18th century, blacks had to risk their life in order to resist enslavement but there were some reports in the newspaper and advertisement of runaway slaves. The ones who tried to escape were usually young African men who had only arrived recently. In South Carolina and Georgia, they tried to escape to Florida, in attempts to inhabit coastal and river swamps or also to Charleston and Savannah where they were able to go for free. Those in Chesapeake and the middle colonies tended to be more familiar with the culture of the white people which meant they could "pretend to be free." The first uprising among slaves was in New York City in 1712 where a group of rebellious slaves set houses on fire and killed the first nine white people who arrived at the scene. Following, 18 conspirators were executed by torture or being publicy burned alive to ensure the slave population would do such a thing again. In the 1730s and 1740s, the warfare in Europe allowed continuous slave resistance. In 1731, there was a slave rebellion in Louisiana. The French and Natchez Indians began to inflict war. There continued to be slave uprisings in the West Indies as well. In 1739, a treaty was passed recognizing their freedom, where they agreed to return future escapees.

Some historians have argued that the freedoms and prosperity for the British Empire were all based on slavery. Examine this statement using specific examples.

America was views as a place with prosperous and economic opportunity but in order to gain such freedom, many individuals would have to go through the process of being an indentured servant which was often, in some ways, similar to slavery. Those who went to indentured servitude often did not come out with full freedom because the freedom dues were often not given in various amounts. Most of the labor that slaves faced had to do with agricultural work as well as working in the plantation which boosted the British economy located in North America. Once African slaves began to be introduced to slaver, the status and treatment of white slaves increased.

Anglicanism ID SIG

Anglicanism is a religion practiced under the Anglican Church. This church was created under the rule of Henry VII and was the established state church of England. Once the Glorious Revolution, it was established that only Anglicans were authorized to hold public office, Anglicanism was known to be the fastest growing religion along with Prebyteriansim within the colonies. The Agnlican faith started to spread rapidly through the North American colonies during the 18th century. During this expansion, there were new churches that were formed and new ministers made their way from England. Anglicanism and other religions like Judaism, Catholicism, the Quakers, and the Pagans helped spread diversity of religions that were present throughout North America. Jews and Catholics were still restricted from activities such as voting and holding public office.

Slave Code ID SIG

Between 1680 and 1700, slave labor was beginning to replace indentured servants on the Chesapeake plantations. Bacon's rebellion and other events contributed to this change. By 1700, black individuals constituted over ten percent of the population in Virginia. Continuing on fifty years later, they were nearly half. In 1705, the House of Burgesses passed a slave code bringing together various legislations from the other century and adding new things that enforced and added white supremacy in the law. This slave code helped to enforce the idea that slaves were property and had to completely subject themselves to their masters as well as the general white community. Since they were merely seen as property, slaves could be bought, sold, leased, debated over in court, and passed on to the next generation. Black and whites were also served and tried in two different courts. Black people, including freed and slaves, were allowed to own arms, strike any white man, or have any white servant. Virginia went from a "society with slaves" where slavery was just one system implemented in the government, to a "slave society where the economy really relied on slaves to grow.

SOAPSTONE: Virginia Slave Laws and Slave Codes

Between 1680 and 1700, slave labor was beginning to replace the roles of indentured servants the Chesapeake plantations. By the 1700, black individuals constituted over ten percent of the population in Virginia and then nearly half fifty years later. By 1705, the House of Burgesses enacted the slave code which emphasized and enforced white supremacy and the idea that slaves were property who were expected to completely subject themselves to their masters and the white community. This document contains the Virginia slave laws between 1642 and 1705 and what the slaves and indentured servants were allowed to do and their punishments if they went against what the Virginia laws stated Listed in the documents are punishments if certain things happen including runaways, English running away with the negroes, what the negro children were to do, and more. These laws were written by Virginia's government and to inform the slaves, indentured servants, and other colonies and warn them that if they did wrong, they would be punished. For example, if there is a negro that is lost or die while they are runnnig away, the Christian servants who were with them either have to pay four thousand five hundred pounts of tobacco and caske or have to serve for four years for every lost negro. These laws were written during the time when slave codes were being enacted and white supremacy was booming. They did not see the slaves or indentured servants as people, they merely saw them as objects or real estate as it is listed in the document. The Virginia slave laws even have a section to help prevent an uprising or rebellion against the negroes. Negroes were not allowed to be armed with a club, staff, gun, sword, or any weapon that can be used as a defence or offence. If they try to go above or against any Christian, they will be faced with thirty lashes to their back. The goal of these laws were to both inform the slaves, servants, and colonies, while also warning and scaring the negroes to prevent them from disobeying their master. The tone of this document is firm and straight to the point. They want to get their point across in an assertive manner to make sure the negroes know their place. This is in hope that they follow the rules of the Virginia slave laws.

How were the actions of King James II toward New England perceived as threats to colonial liberty?

Between 1686 and 1689, Under the rule of James II, he combined all the northern colonies into one big colony making it the Dominion of New England. These colonies included Connecticut, Plymouth, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New York, and East and West Jersey. This was his attempt at receiving more money from America while spending less on Parliament. In command, he appointed Sir Edmund Andros who limited the certain rights and freedom of the colonists. These actions were what made people recognize James II as the enemy of freedom. With Andros in command, he did not have to listen to an elected assembly which allowed him to appoint officials rather than letting the colonists elect. It also resulted in taxes being imposed that were approved by the Representatives and he enforced religious toleration for Protestants.

How did English leaders understand the place and role of the American colonies in England's empire?

Between 1700 and 1770, English North America was experiencing rapid growth. The role of the American colonies was to come out with raw materials and goods that they could use for commerce. They were also expected to import manufactured goods from the mother country. They also provided trading posts and labor. The commerce that they provided for England included cash crops like tobacco, meat, and other manufactured goods. This all helped England's role in the trading world with Europe. English leaders saw its development of North American colonies as a way to enhance the nation's power and wealth. Due to this, they saw the North American colonies as a large industry with a good location.

Compare and contrast England's settlement history in the Americas to Spain's. Consider the treatment of Indians, the role of the Church, the significance of women, and economic development.

Both England and Spain behaved dangerously towards the Native Americans that would eventually lead to detrimental effects to the Indian society. The spanish explorers were really interested in finding land to grow their own economy and they would do anything to accomplish what they wanted. They enslaved millions of Indians forcing them to work for them. Another important aspect of their own Spanish empire was to spread the beliefs of the Catholic Church. They thought it was a vital part of colonizing the land and people of North America. This, to them, was the superior religion and the religion of the Indians were barbaric. Spanish women were not treated as poorly as women in England who had no liberties but were spiritually equal. When the English went to establish themselves in America, they failed twice with no support from the crown, barely any funds, and no plan. The English believed they were really helping the Indians when they made their way over there but they were really only hurting their society. They wanted to take down the Spanish because they thought they were tyrannical and thought Protestantism was better than Catholicism. The English actually echoed some behavior of the Spanish.

During King Philip's War both sides, the English and Indians, were merciless and brutal to their enemies. Why, do you suspect, did the Indians allow for their captives and prisoners of war, Mary Rowlandson and James Printer, to be released from captivity?

Both sides were merciless as they both practiced torture to captives, women and innocent. The Indians did not kidnap people just for the sake of torturing. Possibly they did these things because the English did it as well and they followed suit. They also might have taken captives to make them their own and convert them to their tribe. Mary Rowlandson was released by ransom and that ransom money probably had more value to them than holding a woman captive, thus they let her go. With their shortage of supplies for their own people, they probably wouldn't have been able to salvage and provide for extra people; thus they let Printer go.

Yamasee Uprising ID SIG

Charles II gave authority to eight proprietors the right to establish a colony north of Florida. It wasn't until 1670 when the first settlers made their way and found Carolina. They looked for Indian allies by offering them guns in return for their deer dies and captives, which opened up a lot of raiding between Indians for slaves to sell. Colonists also advised the Native allies to attack Indian located in Spanish Florida; one series of wars that took place between 1704 and 1706 the Creek, Savannah, and Yamasee captured and made around 10,000 Florida Indians slaves. By 1715, the Yamasee and the Creek were blown away by the debt they were in from trading with settlers and by slave traders' raids that affected their territory. This sparked fear and resulted in a rebellion. The Yamasee uprising was ceased, and the remaining Indians were either enslaved or pushed out of the colony and then into the Spanish Florida where there were occasional raids protesting against English settlements.

Many British settlers in North America believed it was the 'best poor man's country.' and that they were the freest people in the world. What factors would lead to such a claim?

Compared to living in England, British settlers were able to enjoy a better way of living if they moved to North America. In North America, the climate was more pleasing than in England, the soil was healthier and more fertiles resulting in an increase of success among family farms, there was more easy access to water as there were extensive rivers which also made trade easier, and North American's government gave out more land.

Cotton Mather

Cotton Mather was known as a New England Puritan minister who, in 1693, wrote "The Wonders of the Invisible World." This book was made after the event of the Salem Witch Trials. The tone of this sermon was aggressive and firm because he wanted to help them stay away from evil spirits. Mather warns against witchcraft, and to not be afraid of what the future holds because it is all part of God's plan. If people were faithful followers and kept to his word, there would be nothing to be scared of. His sermon was used to stray the colonists from unholy activities like witchcraft. Unity and hard work was a prominent message in his sermons. "A Christian at His Calling" was another sermon he wrote in 1701 where he argues that every Christian's purpose is to have a calling in order to have a glorified God. His sermons were intended to list what Christians needed to do to serve the lord and keep away from sins.

Despite their lack of rights, hard-working women and children were often the key to the success of independent family farmers. Demonstrate the truth of this statement.

Due to the higher birth rates, the woman's job and work increased. Women were expected to bear children, cook, assist in the fields, sewing, cleaning, and most of the household jobs. The children were also there to help out around the house and in the field. The children made the labor work easier because they could take up certain jobs and perform those tasks. This was during the 198th century when family was the center of economic life. While the population increased, the death rates decreased it allowed families to be more stable, marriage rates increased, and more work was done which brought in profit to the families. Without the women and children, less work would be done making things around the house and field less efficient.

Why does Elizabeth Sprigs compare her condition unfavorably to that of blacks?

Elizabeth Sprigs is an Indentured servant who compares her condition unfavorably to that of blacks because she is trying to explain how slavery was similar to being an indentured servant. She believes that the slaves were being treated better than her and the other indentured servants

The English believed that, unlike the Spanish, their motives for colonization were pure, and that the growth of empire and freedom would always go hand-in-hand. How did the expansion of the British empire affect the freedoms of Native Americans, the Irish, and even the many English citizens?

Expanding their empire in Ireland killed off many of their civilians, took over Irish land, enforced England's economic practice, and dispatched a large number of settlers. Instead of taking Ireland's system and implementing it into theirs, they totally wiped that and created their own social order. During the time of expansion in the later sixteenth century, England was unable to keep up with the growing number of Native Americans. They soon implemented the enclosure movement which evicted many of the inhabitants resulting in decreasing wages and leaving many to flood into England's cities. Under the rule of Henry VIII, they were unable to fix this social criss and brutally punish the unemployed by whipping them, branding them, forcing them into the army, or even being hanged. Indentured servants were also a consequence. Around two-thirds of English settlers arrived to serve as indentured servants. Many people didn't make it out alive or even get as much freedom as they expected.

Why was Father Junipero Serra such a controversial and significant figure?

Father Junipero became widely known as one of the most controversial figures in California's early history. He went on mission, converting people into Christianity. He managed to convert thousands of Indians to Christinity, teaching them Spanish, while also transforming their hunting-and-gathering economies by showing them the ways of settled agriculture and skilled craft. The forced labor and the diseases that Indians faced began to take a toll on the Indians that were under the mission of Serra. As a result, a handful or the Indians ran away, while the friars responded with whipping and imprisonment. So while he was able to convert many Indians to the Christian faith, he also brought upon disease and forced labor which was a detrimental aspect to the Indians.

George Whitefield

George Whitefield was an English Anglican cleric and evangelist who grew up in England before he moved to American in 1739 at the age of 25. He was able to help start the Great Awakening by various things he did including his sermons like "Marks of a True Conversion." He taught and preached throughout different colonies which attracted over ten thousand listeners. Whitefield was very interested in a democractic religion which he preached, and preached against to establish clergy. His sermons and preachings did not only go to religious leaders, but also to English colonists which allowed him to speak to more people. His sermons emitted passion and a sense of hopefulness. The God he spoke of was merciful and forgave those who sinned. He believed if someone sinned, they would be able to be saved and redeemed unlike Jonathan Edwards, who spoke of burning in hell for those who sinned. He preached that doing good in life will guarantee a better life. Many of his teachings and sermons impacted the start of the Great Awakening.

George Whitefield

George Whitefield was the closest thing to a "father" the Great Awakening had. A passionate preacher, he grew up in England, coming to America in 1739, when he was only 25. His actions would kick off the Great Awakening, and his sermons would attract tens of thousands of listeners, as he preached in many colonies; north and south alike. Whitefield entered the American religious scene almost half a century after the last big change to religion in the colonies (the English Toleration Act of 1690). The world he preached in was one of tepid acceptance of religious diversity and one where many colonies levied taxes directly for the government's preferred church. Looking into Whitefield, it is easy to see why people listened to him. He spoke not to religious leaders, but to the average English colonist. His views were Evangelical, rather than aligning to a specific Protestant church, making his message assessable to the masses. He spoke to the hearts of all Christians, relying on something far deeper than whether or not one believed in transubstantiation. His sermons were passionate, almost zealous in their intensity, but his message was almost radically hopeful for the time. He spoke of a merciful and forgiving god- miles away from the Puritan's fire-and-brimstone views- and said that people (anyone!) could be forgiven for their sins and become redeemed, going against the common Protestant doctrine of predestination. He commanded his listeners to ask themselves, "Are you saved?" In this way, he empowered those who followed his beliefs to follow their own consciouses rather than religious dogma. He also inspired his audience to live better and more religious lives, promising that they could, in effect, save themselves by doing good. His sermons inspired many other men to become Evangelical (those who spread the "good news") preachers spreading Christ's word, as well as the formation of many new churches, which allowed more people to find communities with similar beliefs.

A Discourse Concerning Western Planting ID SIG

In 1584, A Discourse Concerning Western Planting was written at the request of Sir Walter Raleigh, the Protestant minister and scholar Richard Hakluyt. In this, they provided 23 reasons as to why Queen Elizabeth I should help the English Colonies establish in the New World. For example, the document reveals that Catholic Spain was dangerously tyrannical but with her support, they could save the New World by weakening the Spanish's control over America. This could take away the influence of Catholicism and implement Protestantism. The document also included that the inhabitants of the New World were crying out for help from Spain's control and were willing to welcome new English settlers. The colonization done by the English echoed the behavior and actions of the Spanish but the English argued that they weren't the same because they ensured "freedom" for the Native Americans. Hakluyt thought that the act of colizing would boost the nation's power and glory and would be strong enough to go head to head with nations like Spain and France.

Glorious Revolution

Turmoil occurring in England mirrored what was happening in the colonies. In 1688, the struggle for domination of the English government between the Parliament and the crown reached the tipping point in the Glorious Revolution. The Glorious Revolution created a parliamentary system of supremacy along with reserving a Protestant position to the throne. Under the rule of Charles II, the Parliament was able to secure a position of authority during the formation of national policy which later expanded its control of finance and foreign affairs influence. Once Charles II had passed in 1685, James II was his successor and assumed the throne. Due to James II's support in Catholicism, his close ties to France, and his conflicts with the Parliament, William Orange, the husband of James II's Protestant Daughter Mary, assumed the throne in the name of English liberties. The Glorious Revolution is known to be a very bloody event which had no intention of challenging the institution of the monarchy. However, the overthrow of James II obviously established the belief that all birthright of Englishmen were entitled to liberty and that the king was subject to the rule of law.

In 1-2 sentences state the main argument that Smith presents in "The Results of Colonization"

In Smiths, The Results of Colonization, he analyzes the impact of colonization had on the Europeans, Natives, the industry, and the economy in America. He argues that while there were benefits for some, there were detrimental consequences for others.

English Bill of Rights ID SIG

In response to James II's overthrow, the parliament tried to justify themselves by enacting the English Bill of Rights in 1689. This bill authorized parliament power and control among the monarchy and allowed them to limit the power of kings and queens. It listed the parliamentary powers including their control over taxation and rights of the individuals such as trial by jury. These laws were "ancient" and "undoubted rights and liberties" granted to all Englishmen. This Bill of Rights greatly emphasized England's democracy and impacted many things in North American colonies and would later help write the Constitution of the United States by being the first 10 amendments.

In what ways did the New England economy and government differ from those in the Chesapeake colonies?

In the 1600s, England believed in the "rights of Englishmen" and these ideas resided in the Magna Carta of 1215 which listed the "liberties" granted by the king to the free men of their realm. The Magna Carta protected those against arbitrary imprisonment and taking owned property without due process of law. Although it listed all men, it was a restricted group since some of England's population still lived as serfs. In England, the population was governed by a king and "rules over free men." Near the 1850s, the followers of Anne Hutichingson became quakers. They believed that God was within every individual and not just the higher class. When they arrived in Massachusetts, they were whipped, fined, and banished, and those who returned were hanged. In the Chesapeake colonies in the 1640's their colony was ruled by anarchy. Those in the Protestant class wanted to take the power away from the Catholic elite. They denied laws that the proprietor proposed and claimed the same power by the House of Commons in England. Between the two, the Chesapeake colonies relied more on slavery to boost their economy and the differences in class greatly differed. In New England they relied more on a mixed economy while Chesapeake relied on agriculture and cash crops. New England had more of a religious background and was founded more on religion than of the Chesapeake colonies.

Trouble for the Spanish written by Pedro Ponce

In the essay Trouble for the Spanish written by Pedro Ponce, he talked about the Revolt of the Pueblos against the Spanish colonizers that they were submitting to for many years. This document explains that the Spanish explorers used the Indians for many of their own benefits like supplying food or clothing. They viewed the citizens of being debased and undeserving of full citizenship. Any Indian who got in their way or went against their orders would be given cruel punishment including being whipped, imprisoned, hanging, and more. After the Spanish reached the Indians' last straw, they decided to rebel, hence the Pueblo Revolt. The interactions between the explorers and the Indians were unfair. They merely saw them as a pathway to even more economic prosperity. In each of the three documents that were a part of the "Settler Interaction with Native Americans" assignment, showed different points of views on the interactions and solutions dealing with the Native Americans. The Ponce essay stated more facts and talked from an outside perspective, not being there during this time. In the George Washinton letter to Robert Dinwiddle, Washington sounded respectful and as if he didn't want to offend the Indians. In the fourth paragraph of that letter, he talks about sending the Women and Children to the inhabitants because it would be better for them and the children capture the essence of love and friendship. He also talks fondly of these seven armed Indians and how they performed well in action. In The Iroquois were much astonished that two men should have been killed so quickly, Samuel teams up with Native Americans to go and fight the Iroquois. I think that he believed he was doing good because he was "helping" the Indians and also gaining more land while he is actually using the Natives to achieve their own goals. He exploited them and used their land to get a step ahead. In the Proposal for Subjecting Indians, they talk about ways of subjecting the Indians. One of the ways was by blocking them from their resources and trading and making them work for them instead. They also went on by burning their towns in the winter. In each document and essay, there shows different points of views and different aspects of how the Native Americans were treated.

For the English, land was the basis of liberty. Explain the reasoning behind that concept and how it was markedly different from the Indians' conception of land.

In the eyes of the English, owning land was an opportunity for economic prosperity. They had their own labor in their hands and it also gave them the right to vote. Owning land put people on a pedestal and was viewed as wealthy and powerful. Land was also a way for the King to reward relatives and allies. Native Americans, on the other hand, viewed land as a gift from The Creator to his people. Rather than one individual Native owning a piece of land, all the tribes collectively owned the land and would be designated to parts of land for a couple of seasons. Nature and land was thought of in a more spiritual way rather than an economic opportunity like the English. Therefore, Indians believed land is not to be bought or sold because of the unity of their community. Eventually the Native Americans were forced into different practices and beliefs by the English.

Considering politics, social tensions, and debates over the meaning of liberty, how do the events and aftermath of the English Civil War demonstrate that the English colonies in North America were part of a larger Atlantic community?

In the seventeenth cemetery, there were many English colonies that were a part of the larger Atlantic colony. Debates, battles, and tension arose from the English Civil War. They weren't able to agree on what the idea of English liberty meant. Eventually after the Civil War, most of the England colonies took Parliament's side and were victorious. Once the monarchy was restored in 1660, Charles II reaffirmed the Massachusetts charter as well as making the colony recognize the "liberty of conscience" of the Protestants. They wanted to stabilize the economy as well as attract more settlers. To do this, Clavert appointed a Protestant governor and provided a safe place for Protestant Dissenters to be persecuted in Virginia. Maryland got the Act of Concerning Religion or the Maryland Toleration act in 1649. This was to initiate religious toleration that had previously prevailed. Christians were now allowed to freely exercise their religion but this act didn't establish religious liberty in a modern sense.

Covenant Chain ID SIG

In the seventeenth century, sir Edmund Andros, appointed governor of New York following the fight with the French in the Caribbean, established an alliance referred to as the Covenant Chain, in which England and the Indian's imperial ambitions reinforced each other. The covenant chain included treaties and alliances. The treaties regarding colonial settlement, trade, and the acts of violence between the iroquois and the colonists. The goal of the covenant act was to establish the Iroquois tribe's dominance over all the other tribes so that the Iroquois gained power while New York gained political and economic control over colonies. Andros wanted the Iroquois reinforcement to take over land without other Indian tribes interfering. The five Iroquois Nations helped Andros by riding the area of New York where rival tribes were located as well as aiding the British in fights against the French and their Indian alliances. On Andros' part, he recognized the Iroquois claim of control over Indian communities that stretched to the Ohio River but in the 1680s, the Indians located around the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley reconvened and grouped with the French for the help in attacking the Iroquois while pushing them towards the east. Towards the end of the century, Iroquois Nation took on a policy of careful neutrality, while they attempted to get the European Empires off one another all the while profiting from the fur trade.

Society of Friends (Quakers) ID SIG

In the seventeenth century, the last English colony to be established was Pennsylvania. William Penn, the proprietor, imagined this place as a safe haven for those facing religious persecution in Europe and provided them with spiritual freedom while allowing Indians and colonists to coexist in harmony. In 1681, Charles II granted Penn with a large amount of land in south and west of New York, and present-day Delaware. Penn was a dedicated member of the Society of Friend (also known as the Quakers) and he focussed a lot of his energy towards establishing a safe place for his coreligionists, who were facing a lot of persecution in England. The quakers were a radical Protestant sect that wanted to restore the idea of early spiritual Christianity and they looked at Pennsylvania for refuge. Penn was a large part of the foundation of government that was announced in 1677, the West jersey Concessions, a very liberal era. Under the quaker ideals, there was an established elect assembly with a large suffrage and also created a space for religious liberty. Penn's goals was to make West Jersey into a place where there are small farms rather than large landowners. In quackers principles, they were to include everyone (women, blacks, and Indians). In a Quakers outlook, everyone was entitled to liberty; no one person or group had the freedom of liberty.

How does Mary Rowlandson's experiences differ from James Printer? Why did her experiences differ?

James Printer, a Native American from the nipmuc tribe, was falsely accused of taking part in a protest in Lanchester, Massachusetts. After he escaped his death, he was given two options; go with Metacomet and his men or stay and watch their stores burn. He agreed to captivity and was seen as a traitor from the English. Mary Rowlandson was captured for 11 weeks by the Native American's and was later freed after a ransom. Both Rowlandson and Printer chose to be held captive over dying and were held for weeks. The fact that Rowlandson was a female and Printer was a Native American, contributed to their captivity experiences. Printer served as the scribe for Metacomet and was used to help with Rowlandsom's ransom. While Rolwandson was freed by ransom, Printer was granted an amnesty. To redeem this offer, he had to prove his loyalty to the colonists by returning with the heads or scalps of Native Americans.

What does Johannes Hanner have in mind when he calls America a "free country"

Johannes Hanner means that you don't have to give landlord taxes when you own land and you have a lot of opportunities to do trading. The land that runs from Canada to the Spanish border isn't open for anyone and they don't need to ask permission. In America the prices are cheaper than the prices of Europe.

John Winthrop and Cotton Mather

John Winthrop and Cotton Mather, both influential preachers of their time and community. In 1630, Winthrop led a new group of English colonists in New England, where he made his most significant contributions to the colonies. In Mather's case, he wrote The Wonders of the Invisible World during the period of the Salem witch trials in 1630. Both played influential roles in important American history events. Winthrop preached to the Christians of the New England colonies as more were arriving from England to spread the word of God. In Mather's The Wonders of the Invisible World, he preaches to the common people of the New England colonies. At the time of this document, the witch trials were taking place and spreading throughout the colonies. In his "A Christian At His Calling" document from 1701, Mather preaches to Christian colonist men about their calling. Winthrop explained the ways that colonists could be exemplary models of Christianity and "do more service to the Lord." He kindly preached that they are all fellow members of Christ, creating a community of Christian New Englanders. Winthrop also explains to the colonists that should anyone no longer serve the Lord, then they will "surely perish out of the good land." When addressing the people on the witch trials, Mather preaches that they must unite to survive the witchcraft that is persecuting the colonists. He also speaks on his beliefs of an invisible world, and how it could be what is causing evil spirits and conjures to provoke the colonists. In the second document, Mather condescendingly informs the Christian colonist men that God has given them a calling. He explains that it is their duty to fulfill the calling that God has given them whether or not it is the calling they desire. He also addresses parents and states that when choosing their children's calling, they should consider their capabilities otherwise they could be the downfall of their child.

Jonathan Edwards

Jonathan Edwards was a Congregationalist Protestant pastor of the Church of Christ in Northampton, Massachusetts. He preached his sermon, "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God," on July 8, 1741, in Enfield, Connecticut, to his own congregation during the time of the religious Great Awakening, which allowed colonists to question authority and think about religious matters for themselves. Although he preached to his congregation, the written sermon could also be directed towards other American colonies that questioned authoritative figures and those who wanted to focus on themselves through religion as well. Edwards believed that Christians should not stray away from God or else they will end up in Hell, and warned that those who did would be condemned by God for their wickedness on the Day of Mercy, also known as Day of Judgment in the Bible. He wanted to convince those who weren't Protestants to convert to Protestantism and be saved from damnation, threatening that they will burn in Hell at the hands of God on the Day of Mercy. In his sermon, Edwards was passionate and serious about his religious belief in Protestantism, believing that praising God would be the colonists' only way of saving themselves from going to Hell.

Indentured Servitude ID SIG

Like slaves, indentured servants labor to benefit others for little to no income. Both slaves and indentured servants can be bought or sold, not eligible to marry unless they have the permission of their owner, submitted to cruel physical punishment, and their labor was enforced by the law. However, slaves are forcefully put to work while indentured servants give up their freedom for usually five to seven years in exchange for entry into America. Indentured Servitude was prominent in the 17th century because that was around the time when about two-thirds of English settlers came to America as indentured servants. If the indentured servant makes it out of their allotted working years, they are paid in "freedom dues" and then are once again, free members of the society. Indentured servitude didn't actually guarantee a passageway to economic autonomy because due to all the abuse, strenuous labor, and malnutrition, the death rate increased preventing servants from reaching the end of their term. In addition, when their freedom dues were handed out to the indentured servants, they only gave them a little amount, which made it so that they weren't able to gain any land for themselves. With all that said, the indentured servants realized the low possibility of gaining land and wealth for themselves in the New World.

Bacon's Declaration SOAPSTONE

Nathanial Bacon's Declaration, Bacon's Rebellion: The Declaration (1676), covers lists of complaints from Bacon and his followers, in which he states that William Berkley and the government was corrupt and provided unfair treatment towards poor farmers, indentured servants, and slaves. He also lists names of who he thinks should turn themselves in and step down from their position of power. In this declaration, he made sure to write it in a way that sounded demanding, serious, and to express his and his followers' feelings of exclusion. This account was written in 1676 and was intended for William Berkley and the governmental elite explaining the inconveniences that Bacon and his followers were facing because of how they were treated under Berkley's regime. During this time, Bacon wanted the Indians out, lower taxes, and an end to rule by "grandness." Bacon's Rebellion occurred for many reasons but the most prominent ones are the lack of retaliation on the attacks to western farmers by the Indians, the decrease in prices of tobacco, high tax prices, and the obvious favoritism towards the elite planters in Virginia. The amount of tobacco boomed during this time which led to overproduction leaving white farmers with a little amount of money. These grievances were all a part of Bacon's declaration along with other accounts made on behalf of him and those negatively impacted by the regime. The declaration gave a different point of view by showing the grievances and hardships that people faced. This was his way of standing up for those who weren't treated unfairly by the regime and protested on how the Berkley and Virginia's government did not consider their problems. This declaration had many purposes; to persuade others to join his following as a form of propaganda, justifying the rebellion that took place stating all the unfair treatment, making demands for better treatment for him and his people, and warning other colonial elites to not act in the same way. By writing this, he hoped for all around better treatment.

The textbook states, "Prejudice by itself did not create American slavery." Examine the economic forces, events, and laws that shaped the experiences of enslaved people.

North American colonies were in charge of helping to profit the mother country by producing cash crops like sugar and tobacco. Producing and selling all these crops led to a high demand in these products which resulted in the need for more cheap labor. That's when plantation owners turned to slaves rather than indentured servants to aid in cultivating more crops faster. They weren't able to use Indians at the time because the population was rapidly dying out from disease. There were already Africans who were already being bought and sold into slavery even before the Europeans arrived. Plantation workers wanted to keep the slaves for life so they had to restrict any opportunities from them. There were not laws that were saying anything against slavery and there were also laws being implemented that stated the children of slaves would also have to be enslaved. In 1705, the House of Burgesses implemented a slave code which stated that slaves were merely just property; they were not seen as human beings anymore. During this time, blacks were mistreated and were given unfair rules. Things white men were able to do, black people were unable to do so. Slave or not, blacks were frowned upon.

Explain how Puritans used their concept of moral liberty to justify their actions against others in the New World. Then discuss why some Puritans, other English settlers in the New World, and those remaining in England might see these justifications as hypocritical.

Puritans fled England and made their way to North America to seek religious freedom and liberty. Puritans saw freedom as a spiritual affair. It allowed them opportunity and responsibility to obey God by self-governing and self-denial. Although the Puritans left England to seek religious freedom, they weren't as open minded as they wanted others to be about their religion. John Wintrhop, the governor of the Puritans and a strong Puritan believer, said there are two kidneys of liberty: "Natural" liberty which they suggest as bad and "a liberty to do evil" and then there was "Moral" liberty which he believed was "a liberty to that only which is good." This had severe restraints on speech, religion, and behavior. Winthrop thought that true freedom was based on "subjection to authority." Puritans saw liberty as the higher class was allowed to establish churches and govern society but that others were prohibited from challenging the puritan beliefs of authority. Others might see their actions as hypocritical because the whole reason they left England was to gain religious freedom but once they gained that, they didn't tolerate any other religions. The Puritans could argue that it was because of "moral" liberty.

How did the ideas of republicanism and liberalism differ in eighteenth century British North America?

Republicanism celebrated and encouraged people's active participation in public life by economically independent citizens as the essence of liberty. Those who owned property were the citizens seen with "virtue," which to them in the eighteenth century meant not just personal moral equality but also giving in to subordinate self-interest to the pursuit of the public good. Those who were virtuous were those with freedom, according to Benjamin Franklin. Republicanism was centered more around public and social equality by liberalism was focused on the individual and privacy. This belief stated that ordinary people should not be able to participate in the government and held the nation that the men participating in the government and voting should willingly surrender some of their rights to the government, while Republicanism sought peoples rights. By surrendering their rights, they would get to enjoy the benefits of the rule of law. The leading philosopher in this was John Locke and his Two Treatise of Government in 1680. He believed the government should evolve his social contract which was an unspoken agreement between the government and the governed where the government ran by the consent of the people. If they don't abide by the agreement, the governed have the right to overthrow or rebel.

Roanoke Colony ID SIG

Sir Walter Raleigh was given a charter by the English so that he could go off and establish colonies around America in 1586. He brought with him English Colonists to America to support and accomplish his goal of creating permanent colonies to Roanoke Island. Then in 1590, supply ships discovered the Roanoke colony abandoned because they believed the inhabitants left to live with the Indians due to the word "Croatoan," meaning neatby island or tribe, carved into a tree. Before this, Raleigh had put together a group of 100 young men to build a base on the Roanoke island. They weren't able to do so because they colonists went back to England. Due to his failure in both of his colonizing attempts, Raleigh was left almost bankrupt and had no motivation to continue to try to colonize. At the time, there wasn't anyone who could have provided enough economic resources and planning to successfully colonize.

Stono Rebellion

Slaves saw an opportunity to rebel from the War of Jenkins' Ear. September 1739, a group of South Carolina slaves, some previously soldiers in Kongo, went to a store that sold weapons at the town of Stono. To gain followers and supporters, they banged their drums and marched their way southward toward Florida where they burned houses and other buildings, taking the lives of white people that cross their paths, while also shouting "Liberty." This group of slaves eventually expanded to at least 100 slaves. The slaves continued to kill as many as two dozen whites and the rebellion also took at least 200 slaves either connected or not connected to the rebellion. Those who survived the rebellion reached Florida, where in 1740 they were guarded and armed up by the Spanish to help prevent an attack towards St. Augustine. This rebellion, the Stono Rebellion, eventually resulted in severe tightening of the South Carolina slave code and more restrictive laws as well as a temporary prohibition on taxing imported slaves. This rebellion is known to be one of the largest slave revolts.

Atlantic Slave Trade ID SIG

The Atlantic Slave Trade referred to a trading system used between the English mainland colonies, the West Indies, and the African shore in the 18th century and was dominated by British merchant ships. Of the 10 million Africans brought to the New World in 1492-1820, more than half arrived between 1700 and 1800. During the 18th century, this system of slave trade was normalized business where European merchangs, African traders, and American planters bargained over the lives of human beings. These bargains were in hopes to gain profit. At this point of time it was normal to trade people as slaves but this system would later be deemed as a crime against humanity. In the 18th century, many people heavily relied on slaves making slave trade a vital part of world commerce. It became so abundantly used that the New World utilized and relied on slave labor and fought for the control of this trade. The asiento, which was an agreement that Spain subcontracted to a foreign power the lawful right to give slaves over to Spanish America, was a key diplomatic prize and later helped the rise of commercial supremacy. While free laborers working for wages were not as common in this century, slavery was. It also greatly contributed to the English economic development. The goods that were in demand including sugar, rice, coffee, and tobacco, were made by slaves which increased the use of the Atlantic Slave trade.

Explain how the ideals of republican liberty and liberal freedoms became the widespread rallying cries of people from all social classes in the British empire.

The British people viewed themselves as the more free nation which led to the who philosophies; the Republican liberty and Liberty which became a widespread rally of cries from people in various social classes. The Repiublican ideals favored land owners and believed those who were economically independent and stable, held the right to reserve a position of power in the government, giving them more say and opportunities for participation. They believed those with land had virtue which also meant freedom for themselves. This also supported the ideals of the American elite. The Liberal ideals mainly centered on individuals. This idea was pushed and supported by John Locke and his social contract. They believed in individual rights, to rule by the consent of the governed, and to accept rebellions if they do not abide by what they are expected to do. These two ideals and beliefs managed to highlight most people's interests from those economically independent to those who do not own their own land.

Why is the power of literacy so important during war? How do those who are literate have an advantage in war?

The English distinguished and separated themselves greatly from the Indians by their literate ability; to read and write. Being able to read and write was what the English used to measure themselves to the Indians. They considered those who lacked the ability to read and write to be savages, barbaric and uncivil. Being literate, the Puritans believed they had more of an advantage and control. By being able to read and write, the English were able to write about their side of the war and reconcile themselves. They did not have competition from their enemy because they did not have the same literate advantage. Therefore, those who read about the war, would hear it from the English standpoint unless heard orally by a survivor. Nathaniel Saltonstall wrote down the many English towns that had perished, the English lives tortured and last, and the overall cruelty brought upon by the Indians. King Phillip was earlier seen as a villain who wanted to capture and torture the English because they weren't able to write their side of the story. It wasn't until Washington Irvine wrote about the war from an Indian's point of view, that people began to see a leader merely trying to protect the Indian people and their land. Being literate was very powerful because it shaped the opinions of others and the way they treated those who were depicted as the villain.

Today Americans treasure freedom of expression in all forms, and codify these rights in the First Amendment. Why were these freedoms considered dangerous in the eighteenth century and thus not guaranteed to everyone in the British empire?

The First Amendment contains the basic liberties of individuals including freedom of religion, speech, press, petition, and their right to an assembly. Freedom of press would have been a threat for both colonial and British leaders in the eighteenth. Press held the power to decieve citizens by printing provoking material. Those publishing in the press could bash those in power like officials or those in a position of government. Freedom of speech was also not widely accepted in the eighteenth century. It was usually only granted to those in the Parliament to share their thoughts. Freedom of religion would be controversial in the eighteenth century as well. People who were firm believers of a certain religion, like Christiniaty, looked down upon those who did not have the same faith and made attempts to convert them. Religion is still a heavy topic but it is more widely accepted to have a different religion than another person. Those who weren't Christian, in the eighteenth century, were often accused of not being pure and are just waiting to go to hell. They use vivid imagery to scare people into believing Christiniaty and Jesus was the only way to be saved.

What Acts were a result of Mercantilism? How did these acts/trades affect the colonies?

The Navigation Act was a result from Mercantilism. This act was passed in 1651 by parliament under Oliver Cromwell. They want to obtain control of world trade from the Dutch who profited from tree trade worldwide including all existing empires. Under the Navigation Act, certain "enumerated" goods were transported only in English ships and sold initially in English ports and then re-exported to go to foreign trade markets.This act prohibited colonists from importing manufactured goods outside of England unless they had gone through England, where taxes were permitted. The colonists were not allowed to export tobacco and sugar to anywhere else, but England. Colonists that were affected by it resented the laws they had to abide. While this increased their regulation, and decreased the amount of profit they make. England was now the one who profited from the work of the colonists. A lot of the tension that was created during this time had a big impact on the American Revolution.

Both the Puritans and William Penn viewed their colonies as "holy experiments." How did they differ?

The Puritan colonies were considered holy experiments" because they were trying to restore and purify their faith. They fled England in hopes to find a place of religious freedom and liberty. While they were looking for a safe haven for their own religion, they didn't allow for other religions to shine through. They didn't allow anyone to question or challenge their faith/religion but it didn't stop them from doing it. This ideal can be seen as hypocrisy but William Penn and his colony's ideas were quite the opposite in that he welcomed all religions and encouraged those who have religious beliefs to believe and practice how they want. He wanted to create a safe place for those who were facing religious persecution in Europe giving them spiritual and religious freedom while Europeans and Indians coexisted in harmony.

Virginia Company ID SIG

The Virginia Company was created in April of 1606 by James I that was composed of two divisions. These private business companies shareholders included merchants, aristocrats, and members of Parliament. They funded voyages of three English ships to sail America to accomplish their goal of establishing colonies there. Those three English ships sailed to Chesapeake Bay from Cape Henry in the Spring of April 26, 1607. When they arrived, they settled sixty miles inland of James River to prevent any contact from Spanish warships. Upon their arrival, they established Jamestown as the capital of the Virginia colony. The three English ships went home and there remained 104 settlers in Virginia, all of whom were males a part of the Virginia Company who thought that discovering gold and gaining economic prosperity was more interesting. Jamestown eventually became known as English's first permanent settlement located in what is now, the United States. These colonial settlers paved the way for other organizations who would eventually change the Atlantic world completely.

How did Smith support his argument in "The Results of Colonization?"

The discovery of America and the passageway to the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope brought both benefits and consequences; it united the post distant parts of the world while also killing off many Native Americans. Sending things directly to American as well as sending it through a medium has proved to have gained a more extensive market for their surplus, which consequently leads to them having to increase their quantity.

Navigation Acts ID SIG

The first Navigation Act was passed in 1651 by the parliament under the control of Olver Cromwell. Their goal was to obtain control of world trade from the dutch where they profited from free trade world wide including all existing empires. Under the Navigation laws, certain "enumerated" goods or the most valuable colonial products, such as sugar and tobacco, were expected to be transported only in English ships and sold initially in English ports. Then, they were able to be re-exported to make their way into foreign trade markets. When colonies wanted to import European goods, they had to be shipped through England where they were also supposed to pay custom duties. This allowed English merchants, manufactures, shipbuilders, and sailors to leech the benefits from colonial trade. The government also lavished in the incoming taxes. In addition, not only was it just England who benefited from these laws, it also included American colonies because their ships were considered English. Due to the Navigation Acts and their laws, it created a spike of England's shipbuilding industry.

Mercantilism

The goal was for the good of the nation The government was a big part of regulating trade because the economic outcomes should serve the country Mercantilism doesn't want people to spend because it can lead to allowing money to flow into other countries Higher tariff rates

Capitalism

The goal was the good of the individual Light government regulation in order to protect the rights of the individual Competing against other individuals Capitalism wants consumer spending because it' result in allowing the economy to grow Low tariffs on foreign goods

What factors might explain the different experiences of these two emigrants to British North America?

The government might have had a factor where the parliament granted liberty to certain groups of people. The parliament did not give representation to those on the less wealthy side of England's social class.

How involved were colonial merchants in Atlantic trading system, and what was the role of the slave trade in their commerce?

The merchants were actively participating in the Atlantic trading system. The merchants would buy slaves to use for their own benefit while also selling slaves to the Indies. Most of the colonial vessels would transport from places like New York to ports in the Caribbean. The merchants in New York, Maryland, and Rhode Island would transport the African slaves to the Southern colonies. Other merchants and workers benefited from the labor of the slaves which increased the demand of buying and selling African slaves.

Three distinct slave systems were well entrenched in Britain's mainland colonies. Describe the main characteristics of each system. For Question 3, in the old textbook, the 3 slave systems may be found under the "Review Table" on page 177, under the Chesapeake and North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia, and Middle Colonies. For those with the new textbook, the chart is below.

The plantations in Chesapeake and North Carolina tended to be smaller with a substantial master-slave contract and were more based on tobacco. They supplied the mother country with agricultural goods, imported British goods, and had close ties to culture and political values to London. The continued encouragement for tobacco simultaneously created a high demand for continual slave imports. South Carolina and Georgia's plantations were larger with intensive slave labor and were based on rice and indigo. Production of cash crops led directly to economic development, the number of slaves imported, and a growing divide between the black and whites. Rice became the foundation of South Carolina slavery and then the welathiest slaveowning class in North America mainland. The planters needed more land in South Carolina because rice needed a lot of capital investment to drain swamps and create water systems. In 1732, James Oglethrope wanted to create a safe haven where the poor could find economic opportunity for themselves. In the middle colonies, their plantation included a lot of family members and family members on the farm. There were monkey domesticated house servants. There was a smaller population of slaves which meant there was less of a threat from slaves which in turn, allowed them more freedom. They did not have to face the same brutality that slaves in the North had to face.

Plantation ID SIG

The term plantations refer to communities that are "planted" from a wide foreign population. Originally, this term was used to describe Protestant settlements in Ireland and then later was used to describe the early English colonies in North America and the West Indies. During most of the seventeenth century, money and work were consumed that could have potentially been used towards colonizing the New World. However, after their struggle, England was able to conquer Ireland. Ireland's Catholic population intimated the Protestant rule, therefore, the English government implemented different methods in hopes to preserve Protestant rule. This included military conquest, killing off civilians, taking over more land, and introducing and enforcing new economic practices. England took Ireland's new methods and practices and eventually applied it in acquiring Native American land.

English Toleration Act ID SIG

The year following the enactment of the English Bill of Rights, the English Toleration act was passed in 1690. This allowed Protestant Dissenters (those Protestants who came from the denomination other than the Anglican Church), excluding Catholics, to have freedom of worshiping what they desired, but only Anglicans could hold public office. During this time, the Catholics and Dissenters faced different forms of discrimination. While England was growing their new sense of liberty in their nation, there were other American colonies like Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and Carolina that were more advanced in religious freedom. The destruction of the "New England Way" really impacted the non-Puritan merchants and landowners in a positive way.

What were the bases of the colonists' sense of a collective British identity in the eighteenth century?

There were different factors that led to the colonist's sense of collective British identity including the Seven Years' War, Anglicanism, and the transatlantic trading connections. The Seven Years' War allowed the British to be present in the colonies and made it seem that like the colonies were important to the british. In regards to Anglicanism, the Americans mirrored what the British customs were and applied it to their own society. Trading gave merchant connection to other parts of the world across colonies and the Atlantic Ocean, creating the bond between the mainland and the colonies. Liberty also played a big role, where it stated that no man was above the law.

Review the debates over the true meaning of freedom and "English liberty" following the English Civil War. What would you say was the lasting significance of these debates?

There were many ideas and opinions of liberty and these debates soon took over and became a priority in English society. Ideas of freedom became more dramatic as new groups emerged and took on their idea of freedom. This resentment towards the social structure and their newfound voice helped to legitimize Native colonization. These ideas of freedom also helped to lay the groundwork of the Constitution. Religious tolerance also became more prevalent in England. Later on, it also became a real concept. The practice and idea of Democracy that was introduced by groups including the Levellers and the Diggers, mirrored later on into colonial America that would later go into the American Revolution

Enclosure Movement ID SIG

Through the 16th and 17th centuries, England was going through a time of social cris, along with unstable economic growth. The economy was not able to keep up and provide for the population growth. English peasants were very attached to their own plot of land but during the 16th and 17th century, landlords were looking for money so they raised sheep to expand the wool trade and more modern farming. For this, they implemented the enclosure movement which was a legal process where they took the large farm lands in English owned by groups of English peasants, and were divided into smaller plots for individuals. Due to this process, many peasants were uprooted from their land which led them to the English cities where wages decreased. As a consequence of the influx of gold and silver, the cost of living in England increased which was detrimental for England's economy and people. The English government was not able to keep up with all the economic changes and problems. It worsened to the point where the employed were subjected to physical abuse like being whipped, branded, hanged, or they were forced in the army to work. This was during the rule of Henry VIII but once Elizibeth came into office, peace and the lives of the people were more prominent. Richard Haluyl mentioned that a way to help was to have the poor come to the New World to help contribute to the nation's wealth and provide work for the poor there.

How did the tobacco economy draw the Chesapeake colonies into the greater Atlantic world?

Tobacco was a very valuable cash crop which is why it was in such very high demand around the world. This cash crop was being produced in the Chesapeake bay colonies. There were many uses for tobacco; smoking and medical benefits. It was so valuable that they had to produce up to around 30 million pounds. Due to this valuable trading good, it reserved the Chesapeake colonies a position in world commerce and also helped boost their economy. Tobacco can be considered the basis of their economy.

Bacon's Rebellion ID SIG

Virginia went from white indentured servants and then to the African slaves as the main plantation labor force was quickly being pushed by a prominent era, Bacon's Rebellion of 1676. For thirty years, Governor WIlliam Berkley oversaw and controlled a corrupt regime together with wealthy tobacco colonies. For his committed followers, he gave them land and lucrative offices. In the beginning, the tobacco in Virginia rapidly increased and didn't only benefit planters but it also helped small farmers. Some of those farmers were previous slave workers who managed to acquire farms. As tobacco spread through, those farmers tied with the governor got the best pieces of land which left the previous servants who were now farmers with no option but to work as tenants or to move to the frontier. There were also heavy taxes on tobacco at the time. By the time of the 1670s, poverty among white increased and spread. Previously, the right to vote was granted to all adult men but was then restricted to land owners. From all the pent up anger, tension, and resentment against Berkley's unfair treatment resulted in Bacon's Rebellion. The spark was a confrontation between Indians and Virginia colonists. They demanded that the governor all authorize to get rid of the removal of Indians and to open more land for the white. Berkeley refused these demands which spiked in Indian massacres and later turned into a full on rebellion. The rebellion was led by Nathaniel Bacon who was a wealthy planter who came to Virginia in 1673. A lot of his men were previously servants. He promised those who joined in arms would be guaranteed freedom. He refused the request of Berkley to stop the Rebellion and made his way to Jamestown and burn it down. The aftermath was that Berkley fled leaving Bacon the ruler of Virginia. While his rebellion was still over, his followers were still mistreated by Berkley's followers.

Trade - Why was the idea of free trade so important for the colonies?

When people refer to free trade, it means that there are no restrictions on trading; no tariffs. In a free trade, both sides will benefit from the trade, increasing wealth on both sides of the transaction. Under the Navigation Act, the colonists had to go through the English when they import and export goods. They also had to pay taxes towards the English which the colonists resented. Having free trade would expand their trading and it would introduce them to other countries which would all result in an increase in their economy.

Mercantilist System ID SIG

While the New World was being used as a battleground for wealth and power, Europe left to capture the control of the Atlantic trade, secure their position in control on North America's east coast, and bear even more control upon their empire. It became known by the middle of the seventeenth century that the colonies would be a valuable source of wealth for the mother country. According to mercantilism, the government should be controlling the nation's economic activity in order to promote national power. Mercantilism emphasizes manufacturing and commerce by special bounties, monopolies, and other measures to get the nation at the top. Most importantly, trading within the country is very specific and needs to be controlled in order to have more gold and silver flow into the country and less of it to flow out; more exports than imports. In the process of mercantilism, the colonies were to serve and subdue the mother country by creating raw materials l and importing manufactured goods from home.

British citizens connected freedom and liberty to land ownership and not having to work for wages. Why did they make these connections and what were the consequences for the social structure?

Working for yourself rather than working for a boss or master was thought of to be economically independent. It was very much frowned upon when you worked for someone because it was reminiscent of slavery or servants. Owning land went hand in hand with making your own wages. You can't profit off of someone else's land. All this was equivalent to a form of liberty where one was in charge of their own labor. Having land also granted them a vote and a voice in governmental issues. Since owning land was tied to being able to vote, only a small fraction of people were able to vote and influence governmental decisions because a lot of people were serving as indentured servants, slaves, or didn't own land.