personal psychology unit 4: intelligence

intro

Can machines think? Are they intelligent? Will the world be taken over by computers or other machinery someday as technology and scientific knowledge increases? In May 1997, the *chess-playing computer Deep Blue* became the first artificial intelligence machine to beat a world champion chess player in a six-game match. Artificial intelligence, also known as AI, is intelligence in machines, as well as the study and design of this. Although AI has received more press and recognition in recent years, as scientists design more complex machines and programs, the idea is not a new one. The idea of thinking machines has been around since ancient Greece and they've been a common feature of science fiction stories and films for many years. The idea behind AI has been to recreate the workings of the human mind, including reasoning and intelligence. Scientists use the human brain as a model for machines and programs, seeking to replicate the thought processes that we go through, sometimes unconsciously. Today, AI systems are used in a wide variety of industries and areas, including spam filtering programs, business, and national security. Although a human-like AI system has not fully been developed, intelligence both in human form and in artificial form are important parts of our world today.

What is Intelligence?

If we were asked what intelligence is, most of us would probably respond that it is how smart someone is. However, the concept of intelligence is a much more complex and complicated thing that just "smarts." In fact, intelligence may be better thought of as an umbrella term that covers a wide range of properties of the mind, like our ability to reason, use language, and think abstractly. Scholars have examined what intelligence really is for some time. Although the reality of intelligence is hard to capture, most scientists agree that intelligence is multifaceted. In other words, there are many different aspects that make up intelligence. Some individuals may be very good at figuring out how engines work while other individuals may be able to solve complex math problems. Some individuals may have a lot of "book smarts" but not a lot of "practical smarts" about day to day life. You may know someone who seems really smart in some ways, like doing well in school, but who is completely scatter-brained about remembering appointments and where he left things. Some scholars have observed that instead of talking about intelligence, we should be talking about intelligences. *In 1994, 54 researchers on intelligence agreed upon the following definition:* A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on", "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do. In other words, *intelligence* is our ability to apply the knowledge that we have to perform better in the environment that we are in. Intelligence is generally thought of as something functional or directed at solving a problem or completing a task. Scholars have also noted that intelligence varies from culture to culture. If we think back to our definition of intelligence, this makes perfect sense. Each culture has a different environment and situation that individuals need to adapt to in order to survive. What is important in one culture may not be necessary in another. Thus, what people consider intelligent may differ from culture to culture.

Twin, Family, and Adoption Studies

Intelligence studies that examine twins, families, and adopted children can help us understand more about the roles that genetics and environment play in intelligence. If genetics play a larger role than environment in intelligence, identical twins should be more alike than siblings and related family members more alike than non-related family members. Some studies have shown that identical twins raised apart show more similarity in intelligence than fraternal twins raised together, suggesting a stronger genetic component. Adoption studies also provide a way for nature versus nurture to be studied. In one study, the Texas Adoption Study, psychologists tested the intelligence of over 1,000 members of 300 adoptive families who had adopted children from a home for unwed mothers. The biological mothers had also taken IQ tests during their pregnancies. During the first phase of testing, when the children were between 3 and 12 years of age, the psychologists found strong correlations between the children's IQ and that of their adoptive parents. However, when tests were done ten years later, the strongest correlations were between individuals who were biologically related. *Studies like this one suggest that environment may play more of a role in childhood intelligence while genetics may have more influence on intelligence later in life.*

Multiple Intelligences

More recently, scholars have begun to think about intelligence as not a single thing, but many. *Howard Gardner* came up with the *theory of multiple intelligences*, which states that there are a number of different types of intelligence. He identifies these areas as bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, naturalistic, intrapersonal, visual-spatial, musical, and other intelligences. For example, individuals with higher bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are good at building things and at physical activity. These individuals often learn by doing something rather than seeing or reading about it. Individuals with high visual-spatial intelligence are good at manipulating objects and good eye-hand coordination. For Gardner, the idea of multiple intelligences helped explain *savants*, or individuals who are extremely deficient in some areas of intelligence but have one area where they are extremely gifted. For example, some individuals have very poor verbal skills, but are gifted musically, such as being very skilled at musical instruments. The idea of *emotional intelligence* developed in the 1990s, coming out of Gardner's interpersonal and intrapersonal areas of intelligence. The four branch model of emotional intelligence states that emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotions, use emotions to help with thinking, understand emotional meanings, and manage emotions. Individuals with higher emotional intelligence are generally more socially adept, because they can read both their own emotions and those of others within various situations. Some scholars believe that individuals with high emotional intelligence are able to better avoid self-destructive and problematic social behaviors, such as drug use and violent behavior.

quiz ?'s

T/F: Psychologists use psychometric instruments to see how similar or different a person is from others. ~true T/F: Heredity appears to have a large effect on the intelligence of adults than environment. ~true T/F: Individuals who score high on scales of emotional intelligence tend to have trouble in social situations. ~false What is one reason why what is considered a part of intelligence differs from culture to culture? ~Cultures have different environments to adapt to. The AI system Deep Blue played what game? ~Chess Who created the intelligence test that is used as a model for today's tests? ~Alfred Binet What difference did the Wechsler tests have from other earlier intelligence tests? ~It plotted IQ scores on a bell curve distribution. IQ scores have risen by how much each decade over the last fifty years? ~3 points Who came up with the theory of multiple intelligences? ~Howard Gardner Why has the study of genetic differences in intelligence been so controversial? ~The idea of genetic differences has often been used to justify racial discrimination. Which of the following is the equation used to calculate IQ from the Stanford-Binet tests? ~IQ = (MA/CA) x 100 What is the average age at which children can achieve a certain score on an intelligence test known as? ~Mental age What is not considered a part of emotional intelligence? ~Using instincts to solve problems (what is is using emotions to help with thinking, perceiving the emotions of others, and understanding emotional meanings) Who was the first person to try to study intelligence? ~Francis Galton What are measures of cognitive abilities that compare an individual to others? ~Intelligence tests

The Psychometric Approach

The *psychometric approach* is one way of trying to understand intelligence. This approach uses tests in order to discover items or areas that correlate or have strong connections with each other in order to better understand the underlying abilities and skills. In other words, this approach looks at how individuals perform on intellectual tasks to see if they predict performance on other tasks. Scholars use *factor analysis*, or a statistical way of identifying related elements that different tasks may have in common. These related elements are known as *factors*. *Charles Spearman* was the first person to use factor analysis to study intelligence. He came up with the idea of the *two-factor theory of intelligence*, which distinguishes two different types of factors or common elements, general and specific. Spearman called general intelligence the *g-factor*. He noted that students who scored high on areas like general knowledge, vocabulary, and arithmetic tended to score high in related areas. Yet, some people scored high on one area, but poorly on another. Spearman called specific intelligence the *s-factor*, which was specific ability for a certain test or subset of tests. In other words, if someone had a high s-factor score in a particular area, they would do well in that area, but not necessarily in other areas. Someone with a high g-factor score had abilities that could be used in multiple areas. So, *a high g-factor score could be thought of as having many high s-factor scores.*

quiz game

The first person to use factor analysis to study intelligence. ~Charles Spearman Came up with the theory of multiple intelligences. ~Howard Gardner The first person to try to measure intelligence. ~Sir Francis Galton Developed the model for most of today's intelligence tests. ~Alfred Binet Developed intelligence tests that were less biased towards non-native English speakers. ~David Wechsler Uses a number of subtests in order to measure both verbal and nonverbal intelligence. ~Wechsler Tests Measures of cognitive abilities that compare an individual to others. ~Intelligence Tests A score that puts intelligence functioning into a measurement that could be compared to others. ~Intelligence Quotient The average age at which children can achieve a certain score on an intelligence test. ~Mental Age Tests that measure personality treats or intellectual skills. ~Psychometric Instruments One way of trying to understand intelligence. ~Psychometric Approach Individuals who are extremely deficient in some areas but have one area where they are extremely gifted. ~Savants Distinguishes two different types of factors or common elements, general and specific. ~Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence General intelligence. ~G-Factor Specific ability for a certain test or subset of tests. ~S-Factor Related elements in factor analysis. ~Factors States that there are a number of different types of intelligence. ~Theory of Multiple Intelligences The ability to perceive emotions, use emotions to help with thinking, understand emotional meanings, and manage emotions. ~Emotional Intelligence

IQ Tests: The Good and Bad

Two key aspects for any intelligence test are validity and reliability. *Validity *refers to the ability of a test to actually measure what it says it's measuring. *Reliability* refers to the ability of a test to produce the same results consistently. In other words, good IQ tests measure at least some aspect of intelligence. Scientists often try to correlate or show connections between the results of IQ tests and other indicators of intelligence, such as school performance. Good IQ tests should also be reliable in the sense that if a person's IQ is measured today and a week from now, the person's IQ would remain about the same, with no large changes up or down without cause. However, IQ tests have drawn criticism and they are not absolute measures of intelligence. One of the problems that scholars have identified is that IQ tests often have a cultural bias. For example, even within the same country, different subgroups may have different words or phrases to refer to the same thing. Social class has also been associated with IQ differences, which may be a result of higher social classes having more access to the information that would appear on an intelligence test. Thus, while IQ tests have been shown to be both valid and predictable, we still need to keep in mind that IQ tests do have their flaws as well. They are perhaps most useful in identifying individuals at the low and high ends of the bell curve, who may need special attention in educational settings.

Environment

While heredity does have an impact on intelligence scores, particularly for adults, environment does play a role as well. One indication of the effect of the environment is that IQ scores have risen over the last 50 years. In fact, IQ scores appear to be *three points higher each decade*. One reason for this may be the greater complexity expected in occupations today and more educational opportunities. Studies have also shown that individuals raised in situations of economic deprivation are more likely to have lower IQs than those raised in middle or upper class situations. Nutrition has also been shown to play a role in intelligence development. Although the topic of whether intelligence comes from heredity or environment can be a controversial one, the research does suggest that genetics play a significant role. However, the genetic aspect of intelligence does not mean that it cannot be affected by the environment. Rather, the environment can have either a positive or negative effect on the genetic component of intelligence depending on the situation.

Measuring IQ

*Intelligence tests* are measures of cognitive abilities that compare an individual to others. In other words, IQ tests try to measure intelligence in the same way that a scale measures weight. These tests are one type of *psychometric instruments* which are tests that measure various personality traits or intellectual skills. Psychologists can use these types of tests to see how similar or different a person is compared to others. For example, some psychometric tests may examine whether a person is happier or less happy than other people. *Sir Francis Galton* was the first person to try to measure intelligence. He set up a laboratory in 1884 in London, where over 10,000 people paid a small amount of money to undergo tests on memory, reaction time, and other intellectual tasks. Galton was a relative of Charles Darwin and he believed that intelligence was a part of the "survival of the fittest" that Darwin proposed in his work. Although Galton was one of the first people to study how intelligence could be measured, the model for most intelligence tests today came from *Alfred Binet*. Binet developed his intelligence test in France in 1905 to test complex tasks of memory, comprehension, and judgment, which he believed was a true measure of a person's intelligence. Binet was most interested in testing the intelligence of children, as opposed to adults, because France had just established special schools for children with mental retardation. Binet and his study partners wanted to establish a measure to tell apart the children who would go to these schools from children who had normal intelligence. Using his measurements, Binet introduced the idea of mental age. *Mental age* is the average age at which children can achieve a certain score on an intelligence test. For example, if a six year old child achieves a score that is on par with a typical eight year old, the child would have a mental age of eight. For most children, their mental age and chronological age will be the same. For Binet's study on mental retardation in school age children, a child who scored below their chronological age was slow or retarded in their mental development. Other scholars took an interest in Binet's intelligence test. Lewis Terman at Stanford University revised Binet's test, creating the *Stanford-Binet Scale* (1916). One of the most important aspects to come out of this revision was the *intelligence quotient* or *IQ*, which is a score that puts intelligence functioning into a measurement that could be compared to others. In order to come up with the IQ score, Terman came up with a formula that used both mental and chronological age. In the equation, MA represents the mental age that the individual scores on the intelligence test and CA represents the individual's chronological age. *IQ=(MA/CA) X 100* For example, if a ten year old scored a mental age of fifteen on the test, his or her IQ would be 150. In other words, 150=(15/10) x 100. If a ten year old scored a mental age of five, his or her IQ score would be 50. A ten year old who scores a mental age of ten on the test would have an IQ score of 100. In other words, an IQ score of 100 is considered the average intelligence for each age group. Another change in the Stanford-Binet Scale from the Binet test was in the purpose of the tests. Binet was interested in predicting "school smarts" or whether a child should be placed in a school for those with mental retardation or a regular school. With the Stanford-Binet Scale, people began to assume that it tested "smarts" and not just "school smarts." Parents and scholars began looking at the IQ test as a way to predict success in life, rather than just which school would be best for a child. The Stanford-Binet Scale grew rapidly in popularity in the United States. At the time that it was introduced, the country was fighting in World War I and the test offered a way that military recruits could be tested to see if they were "mentally fit" to serve and to predict which individuals would be good officers. The military set up a committee, which included Terman, to adapt the test for groups. The adaptations allowed groups of men to be tested at the same time with just a pencil and paper, unlike the previous forms of IQ tests which were given one-on-one. About 1.7 million men took this new form of IQ test before the end of WWI. This form of testing is one that we are often more familiar with, as tests like the SAT are given in a similar manner. Many of the early intelligence tests, including those used by the military, were biased towards native English speakers both in terms of language and culture. *David Wechsler* attempted to change this with the Wechsler-Bellevue tests. A number of forms of the test have been developed over the years, with the last being the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Third Edition or the WAIS-III. The *Wechsler tests* use a number of subtests in order to measure both verbal and nonverbal intelligence. The subtests include a range of areas, including knowledge of general information, picture arrangement (so the story is in the right order), and picture completion (or being able to identify what is missing in a picture). Individuals are given scores on each of the 14 subtests as well as on overall verbal and nonverbal intelligence. Wechsler also changed that way that IQ scores were assessed. He did away with the concept of mental age, noting that as an individual aged the calculation of their IQ would drop, regardless of whether their intelligence actually changed. Instead, he began plotting IQ scores on a frequency distribution. In other words, Wechsler used a *bell shaped curve to plot IQ scores*, noting that most scores would fall at the middle of the curve, with fewer and fewer scores as the curve moved from the middle. In terms of IQ scores, most people fall within the scores of 85 and 115. As the numbers move higher and lower, fewer people have scores that fall in these ranges. For example, high scores of 150 or more are very rare as are low scores of 50 or below.

Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence

One of the most controversial topics in regards to intelligence is where intelligence comes from and what factors affect it. In the past, *racial differences in intelligence were thought to be purely genetic and were sometimes used as justification for discrimination and prejudice*. A great deal of research has been done to assess to what degree intelligence is inherited or a product of our environments.