Persuasion Exam Two (chapters 7-10)

chapter 7

language and persuasion

class notes: repetition and mere exposure

Repeated exposure to a stimulus increases liking for the stimulus Repetition an increase awareness, learning, retention Wear-out can occur with over-exposure Examples...wrecking ball, etc.

rhetoric

(aristotle) the faculty of discovering all the available means of persuasion -today connotes empty or meaningless

gain-framed messages

*the better option, says Horne -emphasize the positive -longer-lasting effects -disease-preventing: more effective

kinesics: body language: three gesture types: illustrators

-accompany speech; don't mean by themselves -illustrate, emphasize, or repeat what is being said -use of these increases speaker's persuasiveness -some illustrators make speakers seem more effective and composed, which helps when you're trying to persuade

paralinguistics (7 types of NV comm)

-aka vocalics; study of vocal stimuli aside from spoken words -pitch, rate, pauses, volume, tone of voice, silences, laughs, screams, sighs, etc. -one study showed those with high voices were perceived as more attractive and extroverted than those with low voices -another study showed that managers who speak clearly and varied their tone were better liked by employees -speeches delivered at fast raters are more persuasive (may sound more competent) -synthetic voices are just as persuasive as the human voice

proxemics: personal space

-an invisible bubble that surrounds us -some research suggests that violating a person's space may be more effective (i.e salesmen) -b/c ppl tend to stand closer to people they like, persuadees may simply be reciprocating the liking by complying with the violator's request -those invaded may perceive persuaders as demanding, desperate, and needy

information processing theory

-argues that to be persuaded, you must first attend to and comprehend a persuasive message -then you compare your own position on the message to the position that's being argued by the source -then you either accept or reject the source's position -language intensity affects this process by making a source's position on an issue seem more extreme compared to your own position -this can be good, up to a point -in general, some discrepancy between a persuader and a receiver's positions leads to increased attention and more attitude change -too much discrepancy may lead a receiver to reject a message or to scrutinize a message so much that listener fails to hear all of the message's content -intense language tends to be specific and vivid

dispositio

-arrangement; selecting the most important arguments and ideas and effectively ordering them; questions of strategy (book emphasizes this one the most) -issue of sequencing messages when more than one persuader is involved (debates, trying to address his arguments)

reinforcement thoery

-assumes that people are motivated to avoid pain and seek pleasure -if a person generally agrees with the position advocated by a source, the person will find it rewarding and evaluate the source positive and vice versa -language intensity is believed to enhance this effect -if the listener generally agrees with the speaker, when the speaker throws some forceful language at the listener, the listener is even more motivated to agree and vice versa - Intense language facilitates persuasion with a friendly audience; can bring you closer Intense language can alienate a hostile audience; inhibit your message

language expectancy theory

-assumes that we have expectations about what types of language are normal to use when trying to persuade other people -when persuaders violate our expectations concerning normal language, those violations either help or hurt the effectiveness of the persuasion depending on if they were perceived in a positive or negative way -how violations are received depends on who is using the language -highly credible sources have a wider range of acceptable comm than those with low credibility -when speakers with low cred use language that is aggressive and intense, their level of persuasion goes ex. if your coach cusses you out, you probably find it normal; if your teacher does, that's a negative violation

physical appearance

-beauty sells -normally, if ppl are informed you are trying to persuade them, compliance goes down; but for attractive people, it actually goes up -halo effect - one positive feature seems to extend to other characteristics

height

-being taller, especially if you're male, is positively associated with ratings of leadership, performance, and social esteem -taller people earn more money in their careers than shorter people

physical appearance: characteristics related to perceptions and/or persuasiveness

-body shape -facial appearance -hair -height

order effects and persuasion

-can be difficult to separate strong messages from weak ones -have to decide how to arrange the arguments -best strategy is put argument first or last -medium should determine which method to use -auditory messages: strong arguments first -visual showed no preference for first or last

chronemics: time as persuasive ploy

-certain businesses target those who are in a hurry (mcds, drive-through bank, jiffy lube, 1-hr photo) -too often, ppl seek quick solutions to complicated problems (sculpt your abs in 3 minutes a day), and persuaders play on this quick-fix mentality -principle of scarcity

future-minded people

-consider long-term consequences -EQUALLY persuaded by loss and gain-framed messages

repetition

-discrepancy over whether repetition is effective -impact of rep. depends on how personally relevant the message is to audience (won't work if not relevant; not processing analytically) -ppl are more willing to hear a strong argument repeated than a weak one

loss-framed messages

-emphasize the negatives -books says these are generally more persuasive -disease-detecting: may be more effective in motivating people to follow through on preventive medical check-ups

ceiling effect

-evidence tends to increase a source's perceived cred -**if a source already has very high cred, evidence won't help -for people who don't have very high cred, it will help

facial appearance

-faces are more attractive when they have wide cheekbones, narrow cheeks, high eyebrows, wide pupils, large smiles, noses that are not too long or too short, and eyes that are not too far apart or too close together -baby-faced people are perceived as more trustworthy and honest -mature-faced people are more persuasive when expertise is questioned

artifacts and physical features of the environment (7 types of nonverbal comm)

-first impressions are often based on seemingly trivial appearance cues (clothing, grooming, hair length, body piercing) -influence credibility, attractiveness, and whether or not to hire someone -in certain contexts, more important than verbal cues

present-minded people

-focus on short-term consequences of their decisions -respond more favorably to loss-framed messages

proxemics (7 types of nonverbal comm)

-how we use space to communicate -being geographically close to someone increases attractiveness which facilitates persuasion -others believe being close increases persuasion because we seem more familiar, accessible, and likely to be encountered again in the future -ppl may think that those who are geographically close are more similar which increases persuasion -personal space -some studies suggest invading ppl's space inhibits persuasion -expectancy violation theory

proxemics: practical suggestions

-if you think the person you are trying to persuade sees you as attractive, powerful, or credible, it is best to stand a little farther or a little closer to that person than would be expected -if you are think you are seen as powerless/unattractive/low cred, stand at the appropriate/expected distance -never overdo it; don't stand too close or too far away

the direct effects model of immediacy

-immediacy - actions that communicate warmth, closeness, friendliness, and involvement with other people -there is a simple relationship between nonverbal behavior and social influence: warm, involving, immediate behaviors lead to increased persuasion -usually true, but an awareness of other factors may be necessary to sort out the sometimes complex relationship between NV behaviors and persuasion

five parts of rhetoric

-inventio -elocutio -memoria -pronuntiatio -dispositio

intensity

-language that is ___ is emotional, metaphorical, opinionated, specific, forceful, extreme, and evaluative -the quality of language which indicates the degree tow which the speaker's attitude deviates from neutrality -is this language persuasive? it depends -four theories

features of enviornment

-large office may communicate power and status -ppl with tidy office were perceived as more authoritative, more trustworthy, open, relaxed, animated, friendly -untidy ppl may be seen as more dynamic -ex. staging homes, store layouts

kensics and body lanuage

-mirroring gestures and body movements -consistent with the direct effects model of immediacy, ppl who lean forward when comming tend to be more persuasive than those who don't -ppl are more persuasive when they are using open body positions -three gestures: emblems, illustrators, self-touch

use of evidence

-narratives, anecdotes, stats, quotes, graphs, physical evidence -usually, evidence facilitates persuasion -quantity of evidence matters more when people have low involvement -quality of evidence matters more when people have high involvement

kinesics: body language: three gesture types: emblems

-nonverbal behaviors, usually hand movements, that have precise verbal meaning; they can substitute for words (stop sign with hand, middle finger) -play a large role in fostering attention and retention in persuaders -ppl recalled 34% of a verbal message when it was accompanied by an emblem compared to only 11% when other types of gestures were used

7 types of nonverbal comm

-nonverbals do not occur in isolation!! -kinesics -haptics -proxemics -chronemics -artifacts and physical features of environment -physical appearance -paralinguistics/vocalics

quality of argument

-number of arguments is inconsequential; need good arguments -people are involved in argument -central route

kinesics and eye contact

-panhandlers making eye contact with you; some research suggests making eye contact makes you more persuasive, but may depend on other factors (such as legitimacy of request you make) -using eye contact when making a legit request increases compliance while using eye contact when making an illegit request decreases compliance (looking away might make you seem more humble or embarrassed thereby increasing persuasion by winning sympathy)

risk averse

-people fear losses much more than they prefer gains -ppl are willing to take greater risks in order to avoid or recoup their losses

artificats

-physical objects that we own such as cars, furniture, clothes, etc. -in our society, material goods are viewed as an extension of oneself -uniforms tend to make us obedient -in certain contexts, it is helpful to dress in a way that makes you identify with the persuadee -nice clothes can make you more attractive which helps persuasion

hair

-politicians are more likely to be elected if they have a full head of hair -clean-shaven are more persuasive when endorsing products related to attractiveness -bearded men are more persuasive when endorsing products related to trustworthiness and expertise

profanity and persuasion

-profanity, like any symbol, is arbitrary; still plays a role in persuasion mostly b/c such strong connotations are associated with swearing -some, like Quintilian, advise against it; others believe it is so common it can be used effectively -most studies say you will be perceived as more credible, attractive, and persuasive if you don't use profanity -profanity may be persuasive, but only very specific conditions (context, audience expectations)

evidence as peripheral cue

-prosecutor may pile up a mountain of evidence against a defendant

political correctness

-refers to issues of inclusive speech and advocacy of nonracist, nonageist, and nonsexist terminology; how to be nonoffensive

kinesics and face

-smiling usually increases persuasion (in right context!); smiles that appear quickly seem less trustworthy/attractive than slow-onset smiles -ppl who smile too much may not seem authentic -dominant behaviors are more effective in established hierarchies -patients were healthier in follow-up visits when their doctors expressed negative emotions prior to their visit (wtf?)

stats v. anecdotes

-some research shows stats are more effective when receiver involvement is high -narrative proof works best when receiver involvement is low -you can combine these for maximum effect (narrative first then stats)

powerless language and persuasion

-some speech audiences cause speakers to be perceived as powerless -hesitations - "Well, I, uh, you know, um.." -hedges - qualify the utterance in which they occur; "I guess I sort of like you and kind of want to know you" -intensifiers - fortify the utterance; "I really believe that and agree with you very much" -polite forms - indicate deference and subordination; "excuse me, if you wouldn't mind..." -tag questions - "lessens the force of a declarative sentence; "don't you think?" -disclaimers - utterances offered before a statement that anticipate doubts, signal a problem, or ask for understanding; "I know this is a really dumb question, but..." -deictic phrases - phrases indicating something outside the speaker's vicinity - "that man over there is the one who stole my wallet"

kinesics: body language: three gesture types: self-touching behaviors (adaptors)

-still being contested in regards to effects on persuasion -adaptors - scratching your arm, picking your nose, touching your hair -often seen as a sign of anxiety and lack of composure -some research says that ppl are more persuasive when they use these, but authors caution against them

kinesics (7 types of nonverbal comm)

-study of eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, body movements, & posture

impression management theory

-suggests that ppl control their behaviors - particularly nonverbal ones - in order to create desired impressions of themselves -some argue that this theory should be expanded to include the ways in which we strategically attempt to control impressions made of others; sometimes our attempts to appear honest and desirable are undermined by others; others may try to make us seem more undesirable and dishonest -ex. political debatenon

sophists

-teachers in Athens; made private schools; charged fees; attracted charlatans who gave them bad rap (today connotes deceitful/fallacious reasoning) -plato thought they were interested in lies and dazzling audiences; "making the worse cause appear the better" -modern day sophists use doublespeak and euphemisms to lie and dazzle

chronemics (7 types of nonverbal comm)

-the study of how time is used to communicate -time is very important commodity in U.S. -the higher your status, the more power you have over ppl's time -be careful: ppl who are fifteen minutes late may be perceived as dynamic, but also less competent, composed, and sociable than those who are on time

haptics (7 types of nonverbal comm)

-touch -often increases persuasive ability -using firm grip while making eye contact during a handshake increases persuasiveness -touch may put people in a good mood, making them more likely to comply -ppl who touch create more favorable impressions of themselves and are therefore more persuasive -touch is very ambiguous, so you have to be careful -touching that is persuasive is usually on hands or arms -some touches might be so subtle that we aren't even aware of them

the effects of vividness

-vivid info captures and holds our attention and excites our imagination b/c it is emotionally interesting, concrete, and imagery-provoking; proximate in a sensory, temporal, or spatial way -evidence that vivid language is more persuasive than pallid language is questionable -it all depends on what is being vivified -when the central thesis of a message is vivified, it helps us process the message and promotes persuasion -when irrelevant features of a message are vivified, it can distract us and undermine persuasion -have to know when and how to use vividness

proxemics: expectancy violation theory

-we all have expectations about how close ppl should be -when ppl violate these expectations - either too close or too far away - we experiene arousal and may be distracted -how we react depends on the reward value (if violator is attractive, has power to reward or punish us, or is just likeable, the violation is seen as a pleasant surprise) -if violations are so extreme they are perceived as violation, persuasion obviously goes down

chronmeics: principle of scarcity

-when something is threatened or limited, people experience psychological reactance and may want it even more than before -"act now," "limited time offer" -ppl rate others as more attractive as a bar nears closing time - "if you can't have a 10, you can at least have two 5's" -sometimes psychological reactance is so uncomfortable, a nonurgent tactic is preferable (starbucks with free wifi hoping you will stay and continue buying; no-pressure car salesmen; free 30-day trial offer; pay no money down, 0% interest for a year)

communication accommodation theory

-when we comm with others, we adjust our style of speaking to their style in order to gain approval and increase comm efficiency -speakers who use intense language are most persuasive with people who also use intense language -speakers using nonintense language are most persuasive with people who use nonintense language -speakers who match the style of their audience are perceived as more credible

additional variable that affect paralinguisitics

-with topics that are not personally relevant, speakers should not be monotone and should speak louder -when topic is relevant, speaking louder distracts audience and results in less persuasion -rate of speech may depend on encoding ability of the sender and decoding ability of the receiver -good decodes are more likely to comply with speeches delivered at fast rates -poor decoders are more likely to comply at slower rates -speeches delivered at faster rates may hinder people's ability to scrutinize messages, so persuasion might be easier -people who speak at normal speed with with strong arguments are persuasive -speeches at accelerate speeds are persuasive with both strong and weak messages

quantity of argument

-works for some people; advocate throws in available argument -when people are not involved in argument -peripheral route

the power of labeling

-your name affects how ppl respond to you -people respond favorably to hearing their name (waitress can get better tips if she uses customers' name) -extends far beyond names ppl are given; labls we use to describe ppl/things reflect our attitudes about them ex. "broken homes" v. "blended family" -sapir-whorf hypothesis

two factors that affect the relationship between power and speech

1. he type of powerless language a person uses may influence how he or she is perceived -not all forms may be detrimental to a speaker; polite forms may actually enhance speakers cred -professional-sounding hedges don't undermine persuasion (probably, may, seem to) 2. the type of language that is most effective may depend on who is using it -low cred sources who use tag questions are less persuasive regardless of if their messages had strong or weak arguments -when high cred sources use tag questions, they are more persuasive, but only if the message contains strong arguments; if you already believe a source is credible, tag questions get you to think more carefully about the message being presented 3. females are persuasive with men when they use powerless forms of speech, but persuasive with females when using powerful speech -for males, it does not matter what form of speech was used -women may need to be more aware of what style they are using and with whom

two possible motives for using euphemisms:

1. people might use them b/c such words are less threatening and more respectful, therefore saving the "face" of the audience members 2. ppl might use them in order to be regarded as tasteful and sensitive, thereby saving their own "face"

nonverbal comm plays an important role in process of social influence b/c...

1. we can use nonverbal behavior to create certain impressions of ourselves; if we are successful in making ourselves appear powerful, authoritative, credible, or attractive, we may also be more persuasive 2. through the use of nonverbal behaviors, ppl can establish intimate relationships; nonverbal cues can be influential in developing rapport 3. nonverbal behaviors can heighten or distract attention from persuasive messages that are likely to reinforce learning 4. through NV cues, a person can be reinforced to imitate a model's behavior 5. nonverbal cues can be used to signal a person's expectations and elicit behavior that conforms to those expectations (a frown can tell a kid of parent's disapproval) 6. nonverbal behaviors can be used to violate people's expectations so as to distract them; sometimes, standing to close too someone may make them more compliant

T/F: total agreement on meanings of symbols is possible

F

three types of ultimate terms

God terms, devil terms, charismatic terms

one of the key decisions facing advertises is whether...

a hard-sell or soft-sell strategy is best

denotative meaning

a word's direct, explicit dictionary definition

doublespeak

ambiguous or evasive language

explicit conclusions

any claim that is made in a message is directly stated by the person sending the message -better when: not knowledgeable about the issue the message is complex or difficult to understand conclusions could be misconstrued listeners have low involvement on the issue

match-up hypothesis

argues that persuasion is increased when endorsers are paired with products that emphasize characteristics of the endorsers

mesomorph

athletic and muscular; seen as strong and adventurous

God terms

carry the greatest blessing in a culture and demand sacrifice and obedience ex. fact, progreess (in the past); family values, critical thinking, teachable moment (present)

pronuntiatio

delivery; delivering speeches effectively

evidence as central processing

evidence is put to best use when receivers rely on CP; there is a positive correlation between evidence use and attitude change, especially when receivers are involved in topic/issue

endomorph

fat and round; seen as warm, sympathetic, agreeable, and dependent; less powerful, successful, attractive, and enthusiastic as those with other body shapes; less likely to get jobs etc.

charismatic terms

have a power that is mysteriously given, not associated with something observable like the other two ex. freedom, democracy, empowerment

mere exposure effect

hypothesizes that familiar objects are more liked than less familiar ones, and that by merely being repetitively exposed, something initially unfamiliar will be looked upon more favorably

euphemisms

inoffensive terms substituted for offensive ones; ppl typically use more familiar ones

three specific variables related to process of persuasion

intensity, vividness, and offensiveness; all closely related

inventio

invention; finding and inventing arguments

momoria

memory; remembering arguments

body shape

mesomorph, ectomorph, endomorph; thin women earn more money than middleweight women; thin men earn less money than middleweight; females perceive normal weight females who eat small meals as most attractive, and men perceive normal weight females who eat large meals as more attractive

chapter 8

nonverbal influence - in what way does nonverbal comm influence the process of persuasion?

Horne's notes on stats v. narratives

o People generally prefer stories over statistics Ex. It's easier to remember bible stories than list the ten commandments o People are, by nature, storyteller o But... o Anecdotal evidence is subject to the "hasty generalization fallacy" Can't just generalize stories o People generally shy away from statistics o They don't trust statistics o "Oh, people can come up with statistics to prove anything. 14% of people know that." - Homer Simpson You can make numbers say what you want Have to look at the numbers in context o Yet... o Quantifiable evidence is more testable, more generalizable

mirroring

or mimicry; rather than using any one type of nonverbal behavior, a persuader should try to build rapport with others by mimicking their nonverbal cues -mimicking another person's behavior may make us more susceptible to that person's persusaive attemtps

Devil terms

perceived by a culture as associated with the absolutely abhorrent and disgusting ex. dead-beat dad, racist, terrorist (present); communism, Nazi (past)

implicit conclusions

persuader is more subtle, allowing persuadees to reach their own conclusions without being told what to do -ELM - when a message is personally relevent, person should be more motivated to draw their own conlusion -generally the best option; same with knowledge -ppl with high need for cognition prefer implicit b/c persuasion is more participatory self-generated conclusions are stronger •people don't like being preached at involved listeners can draw their own conclusions the message is more acceptable to a hostile audience •if you force it down their throats, they're really not going to like it; but if you let them come to your own conclusion, you might wind up agreeing with them

three kinds of profanities

religious, excretory, and sexual sexual are most offensive, religious least offensive

aphorisms

sayings, maxims, and adages that offer advice ex. look before you leap; love is fleeting, herpes is forever found in many facets of everyday life persuasive because they are succinct, easy to remember, appear to contain "truisms;" b/c they are pithy, they require far less explanation

symbol

something that represents something else ex. name

anticlimax order

strong argument comes first; do this with auditory message

climax order

strong argument comes last

chapter 9

structuring and ordering persuasive messages

elocutio

style; speaking with style

sapir-whorf hypothesis

the language we use determines the way we understand the world; literally changes our brain; affects how we view others and reflects things about ourselves; ex. a painter has many words for the word white

Words are...

the primary means of persuasion; affect our perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, emotions, and create reality

connotative

the thoughts and emotions associated with the word; vary widely from person to person; meanings are in people, not words meanings can be associated with certain words for large groups of people, sometimes; these words may have lots of power

two characteristics of symbols

they are arbitrary - symbols have no necessary connection to what they represent (although we sometimes forget this) they are conventionalized - if we want to use a symbol to comm w/ someone else, we have to agree on the symbol's meaning ex. speaking different languages

ectomorph

thin and frail; seen as tense, pessimistic, quiet

when are aphorisms most effective?

using the ELM - most effective using familiar phrases and the peripheral route (when someone is distracted)

ultimate terms

words or phrases that are highly revered, widely accepted, and carry special power in culture; three types power is not stable; connotations associated with such terms may change over time politicians spend lots of money figuring out which words to use in their campaigns cause they are so powerful when meaning of a word is accepted by a large group of people, they can be very powerful and persuasive

class notes: order effects and persuasion

• in what order should you put your persuasive messages o Anticlimax order Start with best o Pyramidal order Stuck in the middle o Climax order Save best for last o Place strongest arguments first or last o The worst approach is in the middle