Philosophy 1021 Final Exam - Roland

The following statements are biconditionals in ordinary language

"If," "only if," and "if and only if": If Mt. Dana has snow, then Mt. Lassen has snow. Mt. Lassen has snow if Mt. Dana has snow. Only if Mt. Dana has snow, Mt. Lassen has snow. Mt. Lassen has snow only if Mt. Dana has snow. Mt. Dana has snow if and only if Mt. Lassen has snow.

conditional statements form of non argument

"if...then..." statement.SAM ANSWERED NANCY CROSSELY.Sufficient (Antecedent), Necessary (Consequent)

argument against the person tu quoquoe

"you too" argument

In deciding whether an argument is inductive or deductive, we look to certain objective features of the argument. These features include

(1) the occurrence of special indicator words, (2) the actual strength of the inferential link between premises and conclusion, and (3) the form or style of argumentation.

What Are the Factors That Affect the Strength of an Analogical Argument

(1)The relevance of the similarities shared by the primary and secondary analogues(2)The number of similarities between the primary and secondary analogues(3)The nature and degree of disanalogy between the primary and secondary analogues(4)The number of primary analogues(5)The diversity among the primary analogues(6)The specificity of the argument's conclusion

Either burn cream relieves burns and ibuprofen relieves pains or aspirin relieves aches.

(B•I)∨A

Ibuprofen relieves pains and aspirin relieves aches, or burn cream relieves burns.

(I•A)∨B

I∨{(I∨I)∨[(I∨I)∨I]} Main Operator?

1st ∨

fallacy

A defect in an argument that arises from a mistake in reasoning or the creation of an illusion that makes a bad argument appear good. See also Fallacies (of various kinds); Formal fallacy; Informal fallacy

Slippery Slope

A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented

Informal fallacies

A fallacy that can be detected only through analysis of the content of an argument; avoiding; detecting in ordinary language; generally. See also Fallacies (of various kinds)

formal fallacy

A fallacy that can be identified by merely examining the form or structure of an argument. See also Fallacies (of various kinds)

Red Herring

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion

Straw Man

A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea.

Appeal to Ignorance

A fallacy that uses an opponent's inability to disprove a conclusion as proof of the conclusion's correctness.

Warning form of non argument

A form of expression that is intended to put someone on guard against a dangerous situation. (IF NO EVIDENCE IS GIVEN TO PROVE THAT SUCH STATEMENT IS TRUE, THERE IS NO ARGUMENT.)

fallacies of illicit transference

A group of informal fallacies that involves the incorrect transference of an attribute from the parts of something onto the whole, or from the whole onto the parts

fallacies of ambiguity

A group of informal fallacies that occur because of an ambiguity in the premises or conclusion, Fallacies of categorical syllogisms

fallacies of relevance

A group of informal fallacies that occur because the premises of an argument are irrelevant to the conclusion

fallacies of presumption

A group of informal fallacies that occur when the premises of an argument presume what they purport to prove

Complex Question

A single question that actually contains multiple, hidden parts. loaded question - no right answer

Analogical argument?

All of Joe's ex-girlfriends had red hair and green eyes, were stunningly beautiful, and had PhDs in either nuclear physics or organic chemistry. He will probably end up married to a beautiful redhead who teaches organic chemistry at the University. NO

Find premise and conclusion

An ant releases a chemical when it dies, and its fellows then carry it away to the compost heap. Apparently the communication is highly effective; a healthy ant painted with the death chemical will be dragged to the funeral heap again and again

collective

An attribute is predicated collectively when it is assigned to a class as a whole, Common names

distributive predication

An attribute is predicated distributively when it is assigned to each and every member of a class

Argument against the person, abusive

An informal fallacy that occurs when an arguer verbally attacks the person of a second arguer for the purpose of discrediting his or her argument

Imagine you are walking through an empty field and you suddenly find a pocket watch on the ground. Now, even though there may be no sign of another person visible for miles around, you would surely still assume that an item as complex as a watch must have been put together by some intelligent maker who understood the complex workings of such mechanisms. Well, the universe is even more complex and orderly than the workings of even the most elaborate clock. Thus, you can be sure that there is such a creator, whom you might name God, just as certainly as you can be sure that all pocket watches must have been designed and constructed by some watchmaker.

Analogical argument

Find premise and conclusion

Anyone familiar with our prison system knows that there are some inmates who behave little better than brute beasts. But the very fact that these prisoners exist is a telling argument against the efficacy of capital punishment as a deterrent. If the death penalty had been truly effective as a deterrent, such prisoners would long ago have vanished.

Mr. Quigley, who is a lobbyist for the oil industry, says that the government should subsidize oil exploration. In view of Mr. Quigley's credentials, it follows that the government should certainly do this.

Appeal to unqualified authority.

Appeal to the People (Indirect)

Arguer aims appeal not to crowds but to separate individuals, appealing to some aspect of their relationship to a crowd bandwagon or vanity

Appeal to Unqualified Authority

Arguer cites an untrustworthy authority

Appeal to Force

Arguer threatens reader/listener

Benny has argued for a long time for a new national park in Montana, but you really shouldn't listen to him. Benny owns a general store in the proposed vicinity, and if the park is created, he stands to profit handsomely from the flow of visitors.

Argument against the person, circumstantial.

Argument or Nonargument Good intentions aside, there are compelling reasons to avoid water fluoridation. Hydrofluosilic acid, the industrial waste product used in municipal water systems, is contaminated with arsenic, lead, and other heavy metals. There are significant increases in lead levels in children who drink fluoridated water. A 2015 Harvard study found a fivefold to sevenfold increase in bone cancer in exposed young men. Sadly, the youngest children are the most susceptible.

Argument; conclusion: There are compelling reasons to avoid water fluoridation.

Fallacy of Division

Assuming that what is true of the whole is true for the parts.

If aspirin relieves aches, then if burn cream relieves burns, then ibuprofen relieves pains.

A⊃(B⊃I)

Becky, Joanne, and Leticia all won individual state championships as members of their high school tennis teams and, consequently, they received several scholarship offers to play tennis in college. In high school, Becky, Joanne, and Leticia were also heavily involved in community service activities and maintained a 4.0 grade point average while taking very difficult classes. Since Stella took the same classes as Becky, Joanne, and Leticia, and also maintained a high grade point average, participated in similar community service activities, and played on the tennis team, she should also be able to get a college scholarship to play tennis. Which of the following entities function as an analogue in Passage A? Check all that apply.

Becky, Joanne, and Leticia AND Stella all analogues - Becky, Joanne, and Leticia - primary - Stella - secondary

Analogical argument?

Bob is playing much better than Bill right now. Therefore, the team should bench Bill and let Bob be the starting quarterback. YES

Find premise and conclusion

Carbon monoxide molecules happen to be just the right size and shape, and happen to have just the right chemical properties, to fit neatly into cavities within hemoglobin molecules in blood that are normally reserved for oxygen molecules. Consequently, carbon monoxide diminishes the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood.

Weak Analogy

Claiming that items with only minor similarities are the same in almost everything else.

False Dichotomy

Consists of a consideration of only the two extremes when there are one or more intermediate possibilities "either...or" sounds childish

Mt. Dana's having snow is a sufficient and necessary condition for Mt. Lassen's having snow.

D ≡ L or (D ⊃ L) • (L ⊃ D)

Inductive or DeductiveLouis graduated from college after Cheri, and Cheri graduated before Denise. Therefore, it follows necessarily that Louis graduated before Denise.

Deductive, invalid

illustration form of nonargument

Expression involving one or more examples that is intended to show what something means or how it is done.(DO NOT CONFUSE WITH ARGUMENT)(MAY CONTAIN INDICATOR WORDS)`

The fallacy of amphiboly usually involves the ambiguous use of a single word. T or F

False

Which of the following are all conclusion indicators? A. As a result, it follows that, given that. B. Accordingly, because, as indicated by .C. Given that, for, seeing that. D. Hence, thus, so. E. Thus, implies that, because.

Hence, thus, so

Primary vs. Secondary Analogues

If you argue that Mariah Carey's latest album is probably good because her two previous albums were good, the first two albums are the primary analogues, and the third is the secondary analogue.

Argument or Nonargument Aristotle focused on clarifying the concept of virtue itself. He argued that it was virtuous to choose the proper amount of emotion and/or action called for in a particular situation and that extremes of emotion and action were vices. In all communities there are some men of practical wisdom who have the capacity to judge wisely. Aristotle argued that they have the capacity to follow the "right rule" whatever the situation.

Nonargument

begging the question

Often called circular reasoning, __ occurs when the believability of the evidence depends on the believability of the claim. hides that a premise may not be true

Ozone depletion in the atmosphere is a sufficient condition for increased cancer rates. translate

O⊃I

Which of the following entities function as an analogue in Passage A? Check all that apply. New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Philadelphia are the five most populous cities in the United States. In each case, several tall buildings can be found in their city centers. The tallest buildings in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Houston are all more than 1,000 feet tall. Therefore, Philadelphia must also have buildings that are more than 1,000 feet tall.

Philadelphia Houston Los Angeles Chicago

Pet owners argue for a law to ensure that pet food is free of lethal contaminations. Apparently they are unaware that half the children of the world eat contaminated food and drink polluted water every day. Thousands of these kids die regularly from cholera. The nations of the world should unite to halt this ongoing tragedy. In the mean time, we can forget about pets.

Red herring

A necessary condition for a successful business venture is good planning. translate

S ⊃ G

Analogical argument?

Since Joe is not getting the job done, we should kick him off the team. Each member of our team should think of him- or herself as a single part in a well-oiled machine. When all the parts of a machine function properly and fit together well, the machine will produce efficiently. The same kind of cohesion and productivity is essential to our team's success. But when a part breaks down or doesn't fit properly, we have to toss it aside and find another one to do the job. YES

Your little Tommy wants a slingshot for his birthday, but you shouldn't give him one. If you do, next he'll want a B-B gun. Then a 22 rifle. After that it will be a high powered rifle, and then a Uzi and an AK-47. Soon he'll want a bazooka and after that an aircraft gun. In no time your home will become an armory.

Slippery slope.

Karen argues that it's not right to post the photographs of convicted child molesters on the internet. Obviously Karen supports child molestation. But these monsters have completely ruined the lives of thousands of children. They can't be allowed to wreak their havoc any longer. Clearly, Karen's argument is misguided.

Straw Man

Amphiboly

The fallacy of ambiguous construction. It occurs whenever the whole meaning of a statement can be taken in more than one way, and is usually the fault of careless grammar. I met the ambassador riding his horse. He was snorting and steaming, so I gave him a lump of sugar.

Missing the Point

The premises of an argument do support a particular conclusion—but not the conclusion that the arguer actually draws.

The following statements are disjunctions in ordinary language

The zoo is open, or the flamingo is ill. Either the zoo is open, or the flamingo is ill. The zoo is open unless the flamingo is ill. FUnless the zoo is open, the flamingo is ill. The zebra or the flamingo is pink.

Appeal to Pity

This type of fallacy uses the audiences's sympathy, concern, or guilt in order to overwhelm their sense of logic

Amphiboly usually arises from the arguer's misinterpreting a statement made by someone else.

True

arguments that commit the fallacy of begging the question are normally valid T or F

True

Fallacy of Equivocation

Using the same term in an argument in different places but the word has different meanings.

unless

V

The following statements are conjunctions in ordinary language

Water is essential for life; however, tea is high in antioxidants. Whales are marine mammals, and sharks are fish Physics is a fundamental science, although philosophy is a liberal art. Influenza is a virus, but E. coli. is a bacterium The Little Mermaid and Alice in Wonderland are Disney movies.

the fallacy of accident

When a general rule is applied to a situation in which it was not intended to apply. General rule: Birds normally can fly. Fact: Penguins are birds. Therefore, penguins can fly. General rule: 55 mph speed limit on the road Fact: It's raining, there's heavy fog, and it's dark out Should we continue to go 55 mph? NO!

Three-strikes laws will be enforced and longer sentences imposed only if hundreds of new prisons are built, and that will happen only if taxes are increased. translate

[(T•L)⊃H]•(H⊃I)

Hasty Generalization

a fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence take an example and overgeneralize an entire class of people, things, ideas, etc

false cause

a fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second false causal inferential link from premise to conclusion

expository passages form of nonargument

a kind of disclosure that begins with a topic sentence followed by one or more sentences that develop the topic sentence(IF THE OBJECTIVE IS NOT TO PROVE THE T.S. BUT ONLY TO EXPAND IT OR ELABORATE IT, THERE IS NO ARGUMENT).

Children should be seen and not heard. Therefore, it was wrong for that drowning child to scream for help.

accident

The president of our college has promised to stop drinking on campus. Apparently the president has a drinking problem.

amiphoboly

arguments from example form of non argument

an argument that claims to prove something by giving one or more examples.(IF THE PASSAGE MERELY SHOWS HOW SOMETHING IS DONE OR WHAT SOMETHING MEANS IT IS NOT AN ARGUMENT)

composition

an informal fallacy that arises when one infers that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is true of some part of the whole.

•The English ancestry of the American and Canadian legal systems means that many legal arguments are ______ in nature because the English system depends upon precedent.

analogical •However, today many of our laws are produced not by judges but by legislative bodies, codified in statute books, and periodically revised.

In an analogical argument, the entities that are compared are called _______

analogues

The Northern Express railway train is headed north. Therefore, every care on that train is headed north.

appeal to force

Nobody has ever proved that the Big Bang theory of the universe is true. Therefore, we must conclude that the Big Bang theory is false.

appeal to ignorance

Can you believe that some parents want to control their kids' access to the internet? Who are these autocrats who insist on imposing their views on others? This country was born in a spirit of freedom and self determination. Countless patriots have died to preserve our sacred values. We must cherish those values! We must nurture them in our children! End all mind control now and forever!

appeal to people

Practically everyone has driven me home at one time or other after having had a few drinks. Therefore, you shouldn't have any problem with me driving home now, even though you're a bit tipsy.

appeal to people

Members of the jury, surely you will not find defendant Carlos guilty of burglary. Carlos is a visitor from our neighbor to the south, where he has eight young brothers and sisters. Those poor kid and their impoverished mother live a desperate hand-to-mouth existence. Carlos was hoping only to send a few more dollars home to ease their suffering. In the name of humanity, you must vote to acquit this caring broth.

appeal to pity

Supressed evidence

arguer ignores important evidence that requires a different conclusion

Professor Smyth argues for the adoption of stronger standards covering food imported from China. Both Smyth is a disgusting leftist ex hippie who reportedly has sex with his female students. Smyth's arguments are trash, just as he is.

argument against the person abusive

The Bible is unquestionably true because deep in my heart I feel that it is.

begging the question

The government has no right to spy on its citizens because citizens have a right to privacy. And this is true because such a right is guaranteed by the constitution- which follows from the fact that our founding fathers recognized the sanctity of individual privacy against the intrusive power of the government. And of course this is true because the government has no right to spy on its citizens.

begging the question

explanations form of non argument

claims to shed light on some event or phenomenon. the event or phenomenon is usually accepted as a matter of fact

•In law, the _____ of simple analogies is rarely found.

clarity •Modes of similarity between cases are often the result of highly creative thinking by lawyers and judges and the relevance of these similarities to the proposed conclusion is often debatable. •Primary analogues in law (earlier cases) do not all have equal weight. Federal courts are separate from state courts and both state and federal systems have several levels.

Eddie, one of your friends was asking about you the other day. He wanted to know if you were still having sex with 14-year old girls. What should I tell him the next time I see him? Are you still doing it?

complex question

Every member of the Viking Society was born in Norway. Therefore, the Viking Society was born in Norway.

composition

fallacy of ___________ always proceeds from parts to whole

composition

report forms of non argument

consists of a group of statements that convey info about some topic or event

_______ is an argument incorporating the claim that it is impossible for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true.

deductive argument EX The meerkat is closely related to the suricat. The suricat thrives on beetle larvae. Therefore, probably the meerkat thrives on beetle larvae.

This cherry pie is delicious. Therefore, every ingredient in this pie is delicious.

division

fallacy of _________ always proceeds from whole to parts

division (divide it up)

______ and _______ involve the distributive predication of an attribute

divison and composition

Astronomers study stars. Nicole Kidman is a star. Therefore, astronomers study Nicole Kidman.

equivocation

Irving is a wonderful cook. But every cook is a human being. Therefore, Irving is a wonderful human being.

equivocation

statement of belief or opinion form of non argument

expression about what someone happens to believe or think about something.

equivocation and amphiboly are classified as ______

fallacies of ambiguity

In the strict sense of the terms, ''inference'' and ''argument'' have exactly the same meaning.

false

The words ''therefore,'' ''hence,'' ''so,'' ''since,'' and ''thus'' are all conclusion indicators. t or f

false

there can be one or more conclusions t or f

false

My friend Connie used a green Bic pen to solve the problems on her last algebra test, and after the test was graded she got an A. So if you want to get an A in algebra, you should work all the test problems with a green Bic pen.

false cause

The number of alcoholics has risen steadily for the past 20 years, and so has the number of treatment centers. Therefore, to cut down on alcoholism we should eliminate the treatment centers.

false cause

Either you spend $200 on a pair of True Religion Jeans, or everybody will think you're out of style. It's up to you.

false dichotomy

given that

flipper

in case

flipper

necessary condition for

flipper

on condition that

flipper

provided that

flipper

Analogical arguments are closely related to

generalizations In a generalization, the arguer begins with one or more instances and proceeds to draw conclusions about all members of the class

flippers

given that in case provided that on condition that necessary condition for

While driving on the freeway a big truck cut me off when it changed lanes. A few days earlier another truck tailgated me, and yet another refused to dim its lights. The conclusion is obvious that truckers these days are as rude as they are reckless.

hasty generalization

an _____ argument is an argument incorporating the claim that it is improbable that the conclusion be false given that the premises are true.

inductive EX The meerkat is a member of the mongoose family. All members of the mongoose family are carnivores. Therefore, it necessarily follows that the meerkat is a carnivore.

piece of advice form of non argument

makes a recommendation about some future decision or course of conduct(NO EVIDENCE THAT THEY WANT TO PROVE ANYTHING)

Loosely associated statements form of non argument

may be the same as a general subject, but lack a claim that one of them is proved by the others.

Jim, It's clear that you want that job with the Acme accounting agency. Therefore, to improve your chances, you should tell the interviewer that if he doesn't give you the job you will kidnap on of his children.

missing the point

analogical argument yes or no Alleraway Brand allergy medicine does an excellent job of treating my allergy symptoms, but this generic brand is much less expensive. With prices going up for everything else, from food to gasoline, I really need to start saving money whenever possible. Therefore, I should buy this generic brand of allergy medicine.

no

analogical argument yes or no I really enjoy listening to all of the CDs that Jack has recommended. But I'm ready for something different, so I think I'll get this Ravi Shankar CD. I am intrigued by sitar music, and this CD is supposed to be a classic.

no

analogical argument yes or no I simply cannot believe that this universe, with all its complexity and splendor, simply evolved out of the mindless workings of nature. It must have been created by a being at least as powerful and splendid as the universe itself. This is one of the reasons I believe there is a God.

no

Dr. David Sherman of the National Skin Cancer Society reports that tanning salons pose a serious risk for skin cancer. Therefore, we should consider legislation to regulate the tanning industry.

no fallacy

Appeal to the People: Direct Approach

occurs when an arguer, addressing a large group of people, excites the emotions and enthusiasm of the crowd to win acceptance for his or her conclusion attempt to create mob mentality appeal to snobbery appeal to tradition

•An essential feature of the English legal system is its dependence on _______. However, sometimes lawyers and judges are confronted with cases lacking a clear precedent, known as cases of first impression.

precedent •Attempting to resolve them by appealing to analogous instances involves even more creativity than when dealing with normal cases.

predicated distributively

predicate that can only apply to individuals

The set of entities from which similar attributes are drawn are called _____ analogues

primary

Analogical Argument Structure Entities A, B, and C each have attributes x, y, z, and r. Entity D also has attributes x, y, and z. Therefore, entity D probably has attribute r as well. The primary analogues in this structure are entities ______ The secondary analogue would be entity ___

primary - A, B, and C (from which the similarities x, y, z, and r are drawn). secondary - D (about which you infer the likelihood of its having attribute r).

Analogical reasoning

reasoning that depends on a comparison of instances. For example: •Entity A has attributes a, b, c, and z. •Entity B has attributes a, b, c. Therefore, entity B probably has attribute z as well

The entity about which the analogical argument infers some attribute (that is, the subject of the conclusion statement) is called the _______ analogue.

secondary

______ is an inductive argument in which it is improbable that the conclusion be false given that the premises are true.

strong inductive argument

•The more diverse the primary analogues, the _______ the argument.

stronger

The greater the number of similar primary analogues, the ______ the argument.

stronger Dissimilar primary analogues are counteranalogies, which weaken the argument.

argument against the person circumstantial

suggests that the person making the argument is biased or predisposed to take a particular stance and therefore the argument is necessarily invalid

Global warming has never been a big problem in the past. Therefore, it won't be a big problem in the future.

suppressed evidence

fallacy of composition

the incorrect belief that what is true for the individual, or part, must necessarily be true for the group, or the whole

Susan is a human if and only if Susan is a member of the species homo sapiens. You would translate this compound statement into propositional notation using the _________ operator.

triple bar (≡)

In most (but not all) arguments that lack indicator words, the conclusion is the first statement. t or f

true

The words ''for,'' ''because,'' ''as,'' and ''for the reason that'' are all premise indicators. t or f

true

Our weightlifting coach urges with great conviction about the dangers of steroids, but you really can't take him seriously. I've been told by a trustworthy source that when the coach was our age he popped steroid pills every day.

tu quoue

Those boarding a city bus are never required to pass through a security checkpoint. Therefore, those boarding an airliner should not be required to pass through a security checkpoint.

weak analogy

a ________ is an argument in which the conclusion does not follow probably from the premises, even though it is claimed to.

weak inductive argument

•The more specific the conclusion, the ______ the argument.

weaker

I will have a tuna sandwich for lunch, or I will have a meatloaf sandwich for lunch. You would translate this compound statement into propositional notation using the _________ operator..

wedge (∨)

analogical argument yes or no Schnauzers, mastiffs, boxers, and Doberman pinschers are all very intelligent dogs, and they are all working breeds. I want an intelligent dog. Therefore, I think I will buy a komondor since they are also a working breed of dog.

yes

(B≡Y)•(~I∨M) Main Operator?

• dot

•Moral Reasoning and Analogies: The Case of Fetal Abuse

•As in law, arguments from analogy are also useful in deciding moral questions. •But we must also be aware of the subtle effect analogies can have on our thought processes and the power they can have to alter our attitudes and perspectives.

Principles for Evaluating Arguments from Analogy:

•The more relevant the similarities between primary and secondary analogues, the stronger the argument. •The greater the number of similarities between primary and secondary analogues, the stronger the argument. •Differences between primary and secondary analogues are disanalogies, which can either strengthen or weaken the argument.

Cigarette manufacturers are neither honest nor socially responsible.

∼(H∨S)

Psychologists and psychiatrists do not both prescribe antidepressant drugs. translate

∼(O•I)

~~[(Y•I)∨M]≡[B≡(P⊃S)] Main Operator?

≡