Philosophy Exam 1

disjunction

"or" statements

if justified true belief is wrong, we either need to: 1. 2.

1. fix it 2. throw out knowledge (skepticism)

2 commonalities of knowledge:

1. luck 2. fallibility

Aristotle believed in 2 kinds of substance:

1. matter 2. form

3 branches of philosophy

1. metaphysics 2. epistemology 3. value theory

Descartes 2 objectives

1. to prove certainty 2. to prove God's existence

2 step process of philosophy

1. trying to understand the strongest most persuasive view of argument 2. critically evaluate your understanding

2 ways an argument can go wrong

1. using false premises 2. premises don't support conclusion

relevant dissimilarities of paleys argument

1. watches are mechanical while humans are organic (response: their both still complex and the nature of the design is irrelevant) 2. some human parts don't have purpose (response: we don't have to understand we can still see that its designed)3. flawed designs to humans (god has a plan that we don't need to understand)

law of noncontradiction

A and not A can't be there act the same time

Which of the following describes an argument in logic?

A claim/conclusion with supporting evidence

law of identity

A is A

Arguments vs. Explanations

A: premises prove conclusion E: reasons clarify target proposition

what is an auxiliary argument

Arguments for important premises which support the main claim of the paper

How does Descartes determine that God cannot be a deceiver in the 3rd meditation?

God is perfect, and deceit and fraud are imperfect

determinism is inspired by

Gods omniscience

What is the main conclusion in the following argument? Humans have attention, focus, and energy limitations, so they must form moral habits in order to have consistent moral behavior. Most people have morally consistent behavior, so most people have formed moral habits.

Most people have formed moral habits

Which of the following is a good way to test for validity.

Pretend the premises are true, then determine if the conclusion must be true

who disagrees with brain in a vat

Putnam

Paley's Teleological Argument

The parts of the eye are so arranged as to enable it to achieve its purpose. 2. If the parts of the eye are so arranged as to enable it to achieve its purpose, then someone designed the eye. 3. Only God could have designed the eye. (If something designed the eye, then that something was God.) 4. If God designed the eye, then God exists. 5. God exists

What does Russell think happens once we begin to philosophize?

We find that even the most common things lead to problems with incomplete answers

descarted defined a human as

a combination of mind and body

Anselm of Canterbury offered

a deductive argument for the existence of God

therefore indicates

a final statement

assertion

a linguistc act that has a truth value (statement)

fallacy of begging the question is an example of

a posteriori

conditional premise

a premise consisting of a conditional, or if-then, statement

statement

a unit of language that can be true or false

types of fallacies

ad hominem, false dichotomy, hasty generalization, appeal to authority, appeal to popularity, and naturalistic fallacy

argument

an attempt to show that certain evidence supports a conclusion

pallets argument is an __

analogy

metacognition

any kind of thinking about thinking

narrative

any passage that gives a sequence of events

metareasoning

apply our ability to reason to our reasoning itself

cogent

argument is strong and premises are true

inductive

arguments that are strong rather than valid

deductive

arguments that are valid

form

arrangement of ingredients that depend on the purpose

fallacy of begging the question

assume the truth of the conclusion based on the premises

ad hominem

attack against the person instead of the argument

ethics and politics are under the branch of

axiology

premise indicator examples

because, as, for, since, given that

relativism

belief

category 1 of meditation 1

belief from evidence of the senses

category 3 of meditation 1

beliefs from just the mind that don't need senses to know it exists-but a demon could be fooling you into thinking that green is green for example

category 2 of meditation 1

beliefs from the senses for really close things/ if im dreaming then I can doubt all of the evidence from my senses

to know, we have to __ and it must be __

believe it; justifiable

what did Descartes mean by extension

body takes up space just as the mind thinks

bottom-up processing

body to brain

top down processing

brain to body

anselms argument

classical ontological argument the concept that God is the greatest being implies that He exists

if an argument,ent is strong and has true premises, it is

cogent

what types of sentences are not statements

commands, questions, exclamations

analogy

comparison to draw a conclusion

therefore, then, thus, so, it follows that, are examples of

conclusion indicators

the instinctive man

confines himself to what he knows because he's scared of the unknown

2 examples of habits of thought

confirmation bias and implicit/explicit bias

proposition

content assertion or the underlying meaning of what your saying

contexts are important for __ thinking

critical

when logic is studied for practical reasons its called

critical thinking

who thought of brain in a vat

dancy

validity and soundness only apply to __ arguments

deductive

thought experiments can be __

defeated

necessary and sufficient conditions are not

dependent

__ takes down the free will defense

determinism

just one __ can tank an argument

dis analogy

"we are all in class or we are all in France" is an example of

disjunction

why did Russell think the philosopher is free and calm

dogma is a prison (any challenge is a threat)/ a philosophers thinking and mind is open to the universe so there are no threats and he isn't bound to dogma

fallibility means

doubtable

a posteriori

empirical or sense data

p1) god is love p2) love is blind p3) ray Charles is blind c) ray Charles is god

equivocation fallacy ("is" used twice in different ways)

value theory is split into

ethics and aesthetics

determinism

every effect has a cause

Appeal to Popularity Fallacy

everybody believes it so its right

justification

evidence for belief

alternate explanation for paleys argument

evolution

Immanuel kant went against anslems argument and said

existence is not a predicate

Russell was an

existentialist

Adam stole the money, because he needed to b uy food -> this is an example of

explanation

objectivism

fact of the matter

ways that an argument can go wrong is a

fallacy

A statement can be a question.

false

True or False: The following argument is sound. 1. All mammals are cold-blooded 2. All dogs are mammals 3. All dogs are cold-blooded

false

True/False: All philosophy papers have a predictable structure

false

True/False: Philosophy papers always use commonly understood definitions, so there's no need to keep an eye out for particular distinctions or different meanings of terms

false

treu or false: false beliefs cannot exist

false

true or false: Nozick claims that permanently going into the experience machine would cause us to lose nothing.

false

true or false: Unger claims that our values are just about experience, so most of us would agree to living in the experience machine/Matrix.

false

false dichotomy

false claim that only 2 choices are possible

formal logic is to lab science as informal logic is to

field science

when logic is studied for theoretical reasons, its often pursued as

formal logic

responses to Hume

free will, soul making theory, God has a plan

practical arguments

goal is to get the audience to do something

who brought up the greatest island theory

guanillo

Edmund guttier proposed

guttier cases

cognitive bias

habit of reasoning that can be dysfunctional due to biases

cognitive biases

habits of thought or belief that are hard to break

canonical form

has each premise numbered and written on a separate line

experience machine was made as an objection to

hedonism

existentialist

humanistic philosophy about the way to be in the world

soul making theory and counter argument

humans need to see the bad in order to learn and grow moral values to make their soul good counter: why does it have to be so bad

who didn't believe in determinism

hume

free will counter argument

if God already knew what was going to happen why didn't he change our actions

content neutrality

if an argument is good for one topic it will be good for another

sound

if the argument has true premises and is valid (true in real life)

Why is the following an inductive argument? Every time you eat peanuts, you start to cough. Therefore, you're allergic to peanuts.

if the premises are true the conclusions probably true

hume thought

if there is a God he isn't perfectly good

wax example

if wax melts, the body can't know its the same wax but the brain does so they must be separate

when arguments are in __ form they are always valid

if/then premise

the benefit of philosophy is __ for others

indirect

strong and weak apply to __ arguments

inductive

__ hold logic together

inference

critical thinking is generally pursued as

informal logic

contexts are written in

italics

what did Unger say about luck

its not knowledge if its true by accident

alternative luck solution

its not knowledge if there's too much luck/ how do you define too much?

knowledge

justified true belief

with epistemology we try to pin down

knowledge of facts

examples of a priori

law of identity(3rd meditation or things we don't need evidence to know) and law of noncontradiction

__ uses reasoning and strong arguments that don't fall victim to fallacies

logic

a priori

logic and reasoning with no external or empirical evidence

__ argument is not rhetoric

logical

logical argument is ___

logical inference

philosphia means

love of wisdom

canonical form helps to

make the structure clear

brain in a vat says

maybe we are only a brain and a genius ensures all out experiences seem real

which meditation thought the mind and the body were separate and why

meditation 2 because thinking doesn't require a body so they must be separate

"is there a god?" is an example of a ___ statement

metaphysical

meditation 2 is a __ claim

metaphysical

if you want to believe something, read

multiple sources that disagree with it

what did Russells value of philosophy teach us

must first free our minds from prejudices and material needs in order to enlarge our coneception of what is possible

philosophy started with scholars torn between __ and __

mythos and philos

metaphysics

nature of the universe itself

Unger says __ is a value of its own

network of relationships

if guns re outlawed, then only outlaws will have guns. don't outlaw guns is this an argument

no it has a missing premise

I went to the store and bought milk is this an argument

no its a narrative

p1) capital punishment is legit and appropriate for heinous crimes p2)murder is a heinous crime c) capital punishment is justified for crimes like murder is this an argument

no, fallacy of begging the question (haven't established anything just said the same thing in a different way)

p1) everything in the Bible is true p2)the Bible says God exists c) therefore God exists is this an argument

no, fallacy of begging the question (we believe the premises are true because we've already assumed the conclusion to be true

who thought of experience machine

nozick

__ and __ make an analogy stronger

number of similar properties and diversity

implicit bias mis

opaque

an important part of metacognition is our awareness of

our own thinking, especially its weaknesses and biases

hume problème of evil

p1) there is evil in the world p2) good beings either try to avoid or prevent evil p3) God is pe4rfectly good and all powerful c) God doesn't exist

propositional attitude

persons mental state toward the proposition their making

compatibilism

physical events are determined and mental events are not

matter

physical stuff (ingredients)

hedonism

pleasure is all that matters

generally the burden of proof lies with the __ claim

positive (ex: only need one unicorn to prove they exist)

rhetoric looks at the __ of arguments, regardless of whether or not they lead to the truth

power

Russell believed __ was overrated

practicality

__ are the evidence

premises

strong argument

premises don't garuntee the truth of the conclusion, but they make a good bet

because, as, for, since, given that are examples of

premises indicators

inductive arguments have a __ conclusion based on premises

probable

belief

propositional attitude of truth

trolley problems are an example of a thought experiment in that they __

pump an intuition or a quick response to a question

aristotle believed __ separates humans from other beings

rationality

inference

reaching a conclusion based not he premises

nozick thinks we value the relation to

reality (cypher knows the pain and wants the pleasure of the machine back)

Logic is concerned with __ focused on argument

reasoning

explanation

reasons are used to define a greater understanding of something that is already known

dis analogy

relevant dissimilarities

psychology of religion focuses on what 3 things

religious claims, philosophical arguments, and metaphysical questions

in formal logic, we get content neutrality by

replacing parts of the argument with abstract symbols (ex: A,B,C)

philos

science

statenment

sentence with a truth value

critical thinking requires __

sharp reasoning applied to the real world

nonarguementative passage where the speaker asserts what they believe without giving reason

simple statement of belief

types of nonarguemnt

simple statement of belief, expository passage, narrative

guttier cases

situations int which one can have justifies true belief but not knowledge (luckily right)

what are some guidelines for reading philosophy

skim to find conclusion, important premises, specific terms, and unargued assumptions

hasty generalization

some characteristic assigned to the entire group with too small of a sample size

critical thinker

someone who has sharpened their reasoning abilities using metareasoning and is able to use it in real world situations

predicate

something that's said of another object

referents

something to refer to

guano disagreed with anselms argument that "God is the greatest being implies that He exists" and thought

somethings existence can't be predicate or verbal, and that answers argument is too broad and can be used to argue any other topic

statements are also called

speech acts

the pledge of allegiance is a ___

statement

conclusion

statement of claim

conclusion

statement that the argument is trying to convince the audience of

expository passage

statements are organized around a central theme or topic statement (elaborating but not giving evidence)

premises

statements of evidence

mythos

storytelling

if it is very probable that the conclusion is true then the argument is

strong

metaphysics

studies fundamental nature of reality

ethics

studies human conduct (right and wrong)

epistemology

studies the nature and scope of knowledge

aesthetics

studies the nature of beauty

axiology

study of value

lack of understanding God's will and why it begs the question

supposed proof for existence of God through paleys arguement/the response to the counter begs the question because we can't accept the response until we know the conclusion that God exists is true

appeal to authority

take the opinion of an authority figure without examining if we should

confirmation bias

tendency to ignore evidence that goes against their beliefs

philosophy means

the academic study of anything

inference

the act of coming to believe a conclusion on the basis of a set of premises

target proposition

the conclusion or explainee

win Descartes first meditation what does he question

the existence of everything including himself

descartes meditation 2

the human mind is more easily known than the body/ maybe I am the author because I am thinking so I'm certain I exist/ mind and body are separate

p1) school vouchers are being used in 13 states and dc p2) the quality of education has decreased where vouchers are tried C) =

the quality of education has decreased in 13 states and dc

valid

the strongest inference where if the premises are true then the conclusion is true

ontology

the study of being

rhetoric

the study of effective persuasion

critical thinking

the use of metareasoning to improve our reasoning in practical situations (effort at self improvement)

the key to studying argument is focusing on

the way its argued for

if either side of disjunction is true then

the whole thing is true

natrualistic fallacy

there's something in nature that indicates that something should be the case

conclusion indicators

therefore, then, thus, so

why does Descartes claim senses are not to be trusted

they sometimes deceive

why is false knowledge impossible

to know something you must believe it and it must be true (justified true belief)

3 main thought experiment examples

trolley problems, brain in a vat, experience machine

A fallacy is a way in which our reasoning can go wrong and ruin an argument.

true

An inductive argument can be strong, but cannot be valid.

true

True or False: For an argument to be sound, it must also be valid.

true

True/False: Russell claims that while philosophy decreases our certainty of what things are, it increases our knowledge of what they may be.

true

just because you know something doesn't mean its __

true

true or false: Descartes' evil demon thought experiment involves the idea that the world and everything in it is an illusion.

true

true or false: false knowledge is impossible

true

true or false: for a belief to be true it must correspond with reality

true

truth value

true, false, or indeterminate

all declarative sentences have

truth values

humility

trying to learn something and never assuming your right

Russell claims __ is characteristic of the study philosophy?

uncertainty

who disagrees with experience machine and why

unger; thinks the value is missing and oversimplified

in order to study reasoning, we have to

use metareasoning

opinions are not __ and are based on __

verifiable; emotion

facts are __ and can't be __

verifiable; false

why does Putnam disagree with brain in a vat

we can't have a conception of the real world if we haven't experienced it/ need referents

opaque

we can't tell

In Grau's paper, the "brain in a vat" thought experiment is meant to show?

we don't really know what kind of thing we are

what did desecrated believe about dreams

we feel sensation in dreams so its only mental and we don't need a body to feel sensation

selective attention

we get what we're looking for

dualism

we have a separate soul/mind and body

Which of the following is NOT one of the reasons Nozick gives for refraining from plugging in to the experience machine? we only want to have good experiences we want to actually do things, not just unreal experience we value contact with reality we value being certain kinds of people, not just an experience

we only want to have good experiences

assumption

we should only believe with evidence

descartes meditation 1

what can we know for sure?/ if I can doubt anything about the category then I can doubt all the beliefs in the category

sufficient condition

what garuntees and event will happen

thought experiments ask __ and isolate __

what if; a single point

necessary conditions

what's required for an event to occur

fallacy

when a bad argument resembles a good argument

burden of proof

who has the responsibility for the proof

Hobbes disagreed with Descartes "I think therefore I am thought" and said

why can't we just be a body that thinks

abortion is allowable because a fetus is not a person is this an argument

yes

abortion is wrong because abortion is murder is this an argument

yes

idea of experience machine

you can be plugged into experience machine and guaranteed a pleasurable life and not aware that ur in it, would you plug in?