Philosophy Exam 1
disjunction
"or" statements
if justified true belief is wrong, we either need to: 1. 2.
1. fix it 2. throw out knowledge (skepticism)
2 commonalities of knowledge:
1. luck 2. fallibility
Aristotle believed in 2 kinds of substance:
1. matter 2. form
3 branches of philosophy
1. metaphysics 2. epistemology 3. value theory
Descartes 2 objectives
1. to prove certainty 2. to prove God's existence
2 step process of philosophy
1. trying to understand the strongest most persuasive view of argument 2. critically evaluate your understanding
2 ways an argument can go wrong
1. using false premises 2. premises don't support conclusion
relevant dissimilarities of paleys argument
1. watches are mechanical while humans are organic (response: their both still complex and the nature of the design is irrelevant) 2. some human parts don't have purpose (response: we don't have to understand we can still see that its designed)3. flawed designs to humans (god has a plan that we don't need to understand)
law of noncontradiction
A and not A can't be there act the same time
Which of the following describes an argument in logic?
A claim/conclusion with supporting evidence
law of identity
A is A
Arguments vs. Explanations
A: premises prove conclusion E: reasons clarify target proposition
what is an auxiliary argument
Arguments for important premises which support the main claim of the paper
How does Descartes determine that God cannot be a deceiver in the 3rd meditation?
God is perfect, and deceit and fraud are imperfect
determinism is inspired by
Gods omniscience
What is the main conclusion in the following argument? Humans have attention, focus, and energy limitations, so they must form moral habits in order to have consistent moral behavior. Most people have morally consistent behavior, so most people have formed moral habits.
Most people have formed moral habits
Which of the following is a good way to test for validity.
Pretend the premises are true, then determine if the conclusion must be true
who disagrees with brain in a vat
Putnam
Paley's Teleological Argument
The parts of the eye are so arranged as to enable it to achieve its purpose. 2. If the parts of the eye are so arranged as to enable it to achieve its purpose, then someone designed the eye. 3. Only God could have designed the eye. (If something designed the eye, then that something was God.) 4. If God designed the eye, then God exists. 5. God exists
What does Russell think happens once we begin to philosophize?
We find that even the most common things lead to problems with incomplete answers
descarted defined a human as
a combination of mind and body
Anselm of Canterbury offered
a deductive argument for the existence of God
therefore indicates
a final statement
assertion
a linguistc act that has a truth value (statement)
fallacy of begging the question is an example of
a posteriori
conditional premise
a premise consisting of a conditional, or if-then, statement
statement
a unit of language that can be true or false
types of fallacies
ad hominem, false dichotomy, hasty generalization, appeal to authority, appeal to popularity, and naturalistic fallacy
argument
an attempt to show that certain evidence supports a conclusion
pallets argument is an __
analogy
metacognition
any kind of thinking about thinking
narrative
any passage that gives a sequence of events
metareasoning
apply our ability to reason to our reasoning itself
cogent
argument is strong and premises are true
inductive
arguments that are strong rather than valid
deductive
arguments that are valid
form
arrangement of ingredients that depend on the purpose
fallacy of begging the question
assume the truth of the conclusion based on the premises
ad hominem
attack against the person instead of the argument
ethics and politics are under the branch of
axiology
premise indicator examples
because, as, for, since, given that
relativism
belief
category 1 of meditation 1
belief from evidence of the senses
category 3 of meditation 1
beliefs from just the mind that don't need senses to know it exists-but a demon could be fooling you into thinking that green is green for example
category 2 of meditation 1
beliefs from the senses for really close things/ if im dreaming then I can doubt all of the evidence from my senses
to know, we have to __ and it must be __
believe it; justifiable
what did Descartes mean by extension
body takes up space just as the mind thinks
bottom-up processing
body to brain
top down processing
brain to body
anselms argument
classical ontological argument the concept that God is the greatest being implies that He exists
if an argument,ent is strong and has true premises, it is
cogent
what types of sentences are not statements
commands, questions, exclamations
analogy
comparison to draw a conclusion
therefore, then, thus, so, it follows that, are examples of
conclusion indicators
the instinctive man
confines himself to what he knows because he's scared of the unknown
2 examples of habits of thought
confirmation bias and implicit/explicit bias
proposition
content assertion or the underlying meaning of what your saying
contexts are important for __ thinking
critical
when logic is studied for practical reasons its called
critical thinking
who thought of brain in a vat
dancy
validity and soundness only apply to __ arguments
deductive
thought experiments can be __
defeated
necessary and sufficient conditions are not
dependent
__ takes down the free will defense
determinism
just one __ can tank an argument
dis analogy
"we are all in class or we are all in France" is an example of
disjunction
why did Russell think the philosopher is free and calm
dogma is a prison (any challenge is a threat)/ a philosophers thinking and mind is open to the universe so there are no threats and he isn't bound to dogma
fallibility means
doubtable
a posteriori
empirical or sense data
p1) god is love p2) love is blind p3) ray Charles is blind c) ray Charles is god
equivocation fallacy ("is" used twice in different ways)
value theory is split into
ethics and aesthetics
determinism
every effect has a cause
Appeal to Popularity Fallacy
everybody believes it so its right
justification
evidence for belief
alternate explanation for paleys argument
evolution
Immanuel kant went against anslems argument and said
existence is not a predicate
Russell was an
existentialist
Adam stole the money, because he needed to b uy food -> this is an example of
explanation
objectivism
fact of the matter
ways that an argument can go wrong is a
fallacy
A statement can be a question.
false
True or False: The following argument is sound. 1. All mammals are cold-blooded 2. All dogs are mammals 3. All dogs are cold-blooded
false
True/False: All philosophy papers have a predictable structure
false
True/False: Philosophy papers always use commonly understood definitions, so there's no need to keep an eye out for particular distinctions or different meanings of terms
false
treu or false: false beliefs cannot exist
false
true or false: Nozick claims that permanently going into the experience machine would cause us to lose nothing.
false
true or false: Unger claims that our values are just about experience, so most of us would agree to living in the experience machine/Matrix.
false
false dichotomy
false claim that only 2 choices are possible
formal logic is to lab science as informal logic is to
field science
when logic is studied for theoretical reasons, its often pursued as
formal logic
responses to Hume
free will, soul making theory, God has a plan
practical arguments
goal is to get the audience to do something
who brought up the greatest island theory
guanillo
Edmund guttier proposed
guttier cases
cognitive bias
habit of reasoning that can be dysfunctional due to biases
cognitive biases
habits of thought or belief that are hard to break
canonical form
has each premise numbered and written on a separate line
experience machine was made as an objection to
hedonism
existentialist
humanistic philosophy about the way to be in the world
soul making theory and counter argument
humans need to see the bad in order to learn and grow moral values to make their soul good counter: why does it have to be so bad
who didn't believe in determinism
hume
free will counter argument
if God already knew what was going to happen why didn't he change our actions
content neutrality
if an argument is good for one topic it will be good for another
sound
if the argument has true premises and is valid (true in real life)
Why is the following an inductive argument? Every time you eat peanuts, you start to cough. Therefore, you're allergic to peanuts.
if the premises are true the conclusions probably true
hume thought
if there is a God he isn't perfectly good
wax example
if wax melts, the body can't know its the same wax but the brain does so they must be separate
when arguments are in __ form they are always valid
if/then premise
the benefit of philosophy is __ for others
indirect
strong and weak apply to __ arguments
inductive
__ hold logic together
inference
critical thinking is generally pursued as
informal logic
contexts are written in
italics
what did Unger say about luck
its not knowledge if its true by accident
alternative luck solution
its not knowledge if there's too much luck/ how do you define too much?
knowledge
justified true belief
with epistemology we try to pin down
knowledge of facts
examples of a priori
law of identity(3rd meditation or things we don't need evidence to know) and law of noncontradiction
__ uses reasoning and strong arguments that don't fall victim to fallacies
logic
a priori
logic and reasoning with no external or empirical evidence
__ argument is not rhetoric
logical
logical argument is ___
logical inference
philosphia means
love of wisdom
canonical form helps to
make the structure clear
brain in a vat says
maybe we are only a brain and a genius ensures all out experiences seem real
which meditation thought the mind and the body were separate and why
meditation 2 because thinking doesn't require a body so they must be separate
"is there a god?" is an example of a ___ statement
metaphysical
meditation 2 is a __ claim
metaphysical
if you want to believe something, read
multiple sources that disagree with it
what did Russells value of philosophy teach us
must first free our minds from prejudices and material needs in order to enlarge our coneception of what is possible
philosophy started with scholars torn between __ and __
mythos and philos
metaphysics
nature of the universe itself
Unger says __ is a value of its own
network of relationships
if guns re outlawed, then only outlaws will have guns. don't outlaw guns is this an argument
no it has a missing premise
I went to the store and bought milk is this an argument
no its a narrative
p1) capital punishment is legit and appropriate for heinous crimes p2)murder is a heinous crime c) capital punishment is justified for crimes like murder is this an argument
no, fallacy of begging the question (haven't established anything just said the same thing in a different way)
p1) everything in the Bible is true p2)the Bible says God exists c) therefore God exists is this an argument
no, fallacy of begging the question (we believe the premises are true because we've already assumed the conclusion to be true
who thought of experience machine
nozick
__ and __ make an analogy stronger
number of similar properties and diversity
implicit bias mis
opaque
an important part of metacognition is our awareness of
our own thinking, especially its weaknesses and biases
hume problème of evil
p1) there is evil in the world p2) good beings either try to avoid or prevent evil p3) God is pe4rfectly good and all powerful c) God doesn't exist
propositional attitude
persons mental state toward the proposition their making
compatibilism
physical events are determined and mental events are not
matter
physical stuff (ingredients)
hedonism
pleasure is all that matters
generally the burden of proof lies with the __ claim
positive (ex: only need one unicorn to prove they exist)
rhetoric looks at the __ of arguments, regardless of whether or not they lead to the truth
power
Russell believed __ was overrated
practicality
__ are the evidence
premises
strong argument
premises don't garuntee the truth of the conclusion, but they make a good bet
because, as, for, since, given that are examples of
premises indicators
inductive arguments have a __ conclusion based on premises
probable
belief
propositional attitude of truth
trolley problems are an example of a thought experiment in that they __
pump an intuition or a quick response to a question
aristotle believed __ separates humans from other beings
rationality
inference
reaching a conclusion based not he premises
nozick thinks we value the relation to
reality (cypher knows the pain and wants the pleasure of the machine back)
Logic is concerned with __ focused on argument
reasoning
explanation
reasons are used to define a greater understanding of something that is already known
dis analogy
relevant dissimilarities
psychology of religion focuses on what 3 things
religious claims, philosophical arguments, and metaphysical questions
in formal logic, we get content neutrality by
replacing parts of the argument with abstract symbols (ex: A,B,C)
philos
science
statenment
sentence with a truth value
critical thinking requires __
sharp reasoning applied to the real world
nonarguementative passage where the speaker asserts what they believe without giving reason
simple statement of belief
types of nonarguemnt
simple statement of belief, expository passage, narrative
guttier cases
situations int which one can have justifies true belief but not knowledge (luckily right)
what are some guidelines for reading philosophy
skim to find conclusion, important premises, specific terms, and unargued assumptions
hasty generalization
some characteristic assigned to the entire group with too small of a sample size
critical thinker
someone who has sharpened their reasoning abilities using metareasoning and is able to use it in real world situations
predicate
something that's said of another object
referents
something to refer to
guano disagreed with anselms argument that "God is the greatest being implies that He exists" and thought
somethings existence can't be predicate or verbal, and that answers argument is too broad and can be used to argue any other topic
statements are also called
speech acts
the pledge of allegiance is a ___
statement
conclusion
statement of claim
conclusion
statement that the argument is trying to convince the audience of
expository passage
statements are organized around a central theme or topic statement (elaborating but not giving evidence)
premises
statements of evidence
mythos
storytelling
if it is very probable that the conclusion is true then the argument is
strong
metaphysics
studies fundamental nature of reality
ethics
studies human conduct (right and wrong)
epistemology
studies the nature and scope of knowledge
aesthetics
studies the nature of beauty
axiology
study of value
lack of understanding God's will and why it begs the question
supposed proof for existence of God through paleys arguement/the response to the counter begs the question because we can't accept the response until we know the conclusion that God exists is true
appeal to authority
take the opinion of an authority figure without examining if we should
confirmation bias
tendency to ignore evidence that goes against their beliefs
philosophy means
the academic study of anything
inference
the act of coming to believe a conclusion on the basis of a set of premises
target proposition
the conclusion or explainee
win Descartes first meditation what does he question
the existence of everything including himself
descartes meditation 2
the human mind is more easily known than the body/ maybe I am the author because I am thinking so I'm certain I exist/ mind and body are separate
p1) school vouchers are being used in 13 states and dc p2) the quality of education has decreased where vouchers are tried C) =
the quality of education has decreased in 13 states and dc
valid
the strongest inference where if the premises are true then the conclusion is true
ontology
the study of being
rhetoric
the study of effective persuasion
critical thinking
the use of metareasoning to improve our reasoning in practical situations (effort at self improvement)
the key to studying argument is focusing on
the way its argued for
if either side of disjunction is true then
the whole thing is true
natrualistic fallacy
there's something in nature that indicates that something should be the case
conclusion indicators
therefore, then, thus, so
why does Descartes claim senses are not to be trusted
they sometimes deceive
why is false knowledge impossible
to know something you must believe it and it must be true (justified true belief)
3 main thought experiment examples
trolley problems, brain in a vat, experience machine
A fallacy is a way in which our reasoning can go wrong and ruin an argument.
true
An inductive argument can be strong, but cannot be valid.
true
True or False: For an argument to be sound, it must also be valid.
true
True/False: Russell claims that while philosophy decreases our certainty of what things are, it increases our knowledge of what they may be.
true
just because you know something doesn't mean its __
true
true or false: Descartes' evil demon thought experiment involves the idea that the world and everything in it is an illusion.
true
true or false: false knowledge is impossible
true
true or false: for a belief to be true it must correspond with reality
true
truth value
true, false, or indeterminate
all declarative sentences have
truth values
humility
trying to learn something and never assuming your right
Russell claims __ is characteristic of the study philosophy?
uncertainty
who disagrees with experience machine and why
unger; thinks the value is missing and oversimplified
in order to study reasoning, we have to
use metareasoning
opinions are not __ and are based on __
verifiable; emotion
facts are __ and can't be __
verifiable; false
why does Putnam disagree with brain in a vat
we can't have a conception of the real world if we haven't experienced it/ need referents
opaque
we can't tell
In Grau's paper, the "brain in a vat" thought experiment is meant to show?
we don't really know what kind of thing we are
what did desecrated believe about dreams
we feel sensation in dreams so its only mental and we don't need a body to feel sensation
selective attention
we get what we're looking for
dualism
we have a separate soul/mind and body
Which of the following is NOT one of the reasons Nozick gives for refraining from plugging in to the experience machine? we only want to have good experiences we want to actually do things, not just unreal experience we value contact with reality we value being certain kinds of people, not just an experience
we only want to have good experiences
assumption
we should only believe with evidence
descartes meditation 1
what can we know for sure?/ if I can doubt anything about the category then I can doubt all the beliefs in the category
sufficient condition
what garuntees and event will happen
thought experiments ask __ and isolate __
what if; a single point
necessary conditions
what's required for an event to occur
fallacy
when a bad argument resembles a good argument
burden of proof
who has the responsibility for the proof
Hobbes disagreed with Descartes "I think therefore I am thought" and said
why can't we just be a body that thinks
abortion is allowable because a fetus is not a person is this an argument
yes
abortion is wrong because abortion is murder is this an argument
yes
idea of experience machine
you can be plugged into experience machine and guaranteed a pleasurable life and not aware that ur in it, would you plug in?