Physics and Math

W=

(if pressure constant) -PΔV

alpha decay equation

222/88 Ra ---> 4/2 He + 218/86 R

Error in basic science research most often results from error in measurement .

Accuracy (validity) is the quality of approximating the true value. Precision (reliability) is the quality of being consisted in approximations.

ring substituent

An atom or group other than hydrogen on a molecule. (The atom or group has substituted for the missing hydrogen.)

Humanistic Theory

Big maslow's heirchy of needs. An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life rather than individual components of behavior and focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and self-worth

Projectile motion

Contains both an x- and y-component. Assuming negligible air resistance, the only force acting on the object is gravity.

Equivalent capacitance (parallel)

Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...

Electric field equation

E = F/q= kQ/r^2

Electric field in a capacitor

E = V/d

Energy of a photon of light equation

E = h f

Total mechanical energy equation

E=U+K

Past-in-present discrimination

Even if discrimination done in the past is no longer allowed, can still have consequences for people in the present. like not watning to swim with black kids in the same pool even though it's allowed.

Temperature Conversions

F = 9/5C + 32 K = C + 273

Buoyant force equation

Fb = p(fluid) V(disp) g = p(fl) V(sub) g

centripetal force equation

Fc=mv^2/r

Correlation and causation are linked by

Hill's criteria

In the chromatography of the reaction mixture, water absorbed on cellulose functioned as the stationary phase. What was the principal factor determining the migration of individual components in the sample?

Hydrogen bonding. the relative amount of hydrogen bonding to the stationary phase will determine the relative rate of migration of the various components in the sample.

Current equation

I = Q / deltaT

Kirchoff's junction rule equation

I into juntion= I leaving junction

Intensity

I=P/A

Conservative forces are path independent and do not dissipate the mechanical energy of a system

If only conservative forces are acting an object, the total mechanical energy is conserved. Examples of conservative forces include gravity and electrostatic forces. Elastic forces, such as those created by springs, are nearly conservative.

K to C to F conversion

K=C+273.15; C=K-273.15. F=C(9/5)+32

Strong bases are

LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2

logarithm of exponent-containing expression

LogA^B=BlogA

mechanical advantage

Mechanical advatange = F(out)/F(in) the number of times a machine increases a force exerted on it

Current flows only conductive materials

Metallic conduction relies on uniform movement of free electrons in metallic bonds. Electrolytic conduction relies on the ion concentration of a solution. Insulators are materials that do not conduct a current.

Anime group

NH2

hydroxyl group

OH-

Zeroth law of thermodynamics state that objects are in thermal equilibrium when they are at the same temperature

Objects in thermal equilibrium experience no net exchange in heat energy. Temperature is a qualitative measure of how hot or cold an object is; quantitatively, it is related to the average kinetic energy of the particles that make up a substance.

Definition of power equation

P = W / t = deltaE / t

Test charges will move spontaneously in whichever direction results in a decrease in their electric potential energy

Positive test charges will move spontaneously from high potential to low potential. Negative test charges will move spontaneously from low potential to high potential.

Equivalent resistance in series

Rs=R1+R2+R3+...+Rn

Specific gravity equation

SG = p / (1g/cm^3) = p / 1000kg/m^3

Scalars are quantities without direction.

Scalar quantities may be the magnitude of vectors, like speed, or may be dimensionless, like coefficients of friction.

Snell's Law Equation

Sin (transmission angle)/Sin (incident angle) = Speed of Medium 2/ Speed of Medium 1

The regulation of which neurotransmitter is implicated in the specific finding reported with Study 1? A.Acetylcholine B.GABA C.Endorphins D.Serotonin

The answer to this question is D because the specific finding from Study 1 states that aggression and oppositional behaviors had the strongest association with the risk of hunger. Serotonin is involved in the regulation of both mood (specifically, aggression) and appetite (it is also used to regulate intestinal movements). The distractors are other neurotransmitters that are not specifically involved in the hunger drive, mood, or aggressive behavior.

The lone pair of electrons in ammonia allows the molecule to: A.assume a planar structure. B.act as an oxidizing agent. C.act as a Lewis acid in water. D.act as a Lewis base in water.

The answer to this question is D because, by definition, a Lewis base is a substance that donates an electron pair in forming a covalent interaction.

colon

The appendix is part of this. It's another name for the large intestine. mostly water absorbed here.

What is the conjugate base of the bisulfate ion (HSO4-)?

The conjugate base of HSO4-, formed by the loss of one proton, is SO42-.

Functions of the liver.

The detoxification of poisons and the production of bile, which facilitates fat absorption in the small intestine by breaking large fat droplets into smaller ones, are major liver functions. The production of factors involved in blood pressure regulation (D) is not a major function of the liver.

Cross product

The product of numbers on the diagonal when comparing two ratios AXB = |A||B|sin0

The mass defect is the difference between the mass of the unbounded nucleons and the mass of the bonded nucleon within the nucleus.

The unbonded constituents have more energy and, therefore, more mass than the bonded constituents. the mass defect is the amount of mass converted to energy during nuclear fusion.

For horizontal flow

There is an inverse relationship between pressure and speed, and in a closed system, there is direct relationship between cross-sectional area and pressure exerted on the walls of the tube known as the Venturi effect.

Lenses refract light to form images of objects

Thin symmetrical lenses have focal points on each side. Convex lenses are converging systems and can produce real, inverted images or virtual, upright images. Concave lenses are diverging systems and will only produce virtual, upright images. Lenses with non negligible thickness require use of the lensmaker's equation

social reproduction

Transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next

Kirchoff's loop rule equation

Vsource=Vdrop

Zero exponent identify

X^0=1

stereogenic center

a carbon atom bonded to four different groups

Fission occurs when

a large nucleus splits into smaller nuclei

The arithmetic mean or average is

a measure of central tendency that equally weights all values it is mots affected by outliers

Exponents are

a notation for repeated multiplication. They may be manipulated mathematically, especially went the bases are the same.

Lyases

add groups to or remove groups from double-bonded substrates

Closed pipes (closed at one end)

also support standing waves, and the length of the pipe is equal to some odd multiple of quarter-wavelengths

Half-life is the

amount of time required for half of a sample of radioactive nuclei to decay

electron capture

an inner orbital electron is captured by the nucleus of its own atom. protons lose one.

Linear, semiology, and log-log plots can be distinguished by their

axes

Natural logarithms, which use

base e (Euler's number) can be converted into common logarithms, which use base 10.

Hydrolases

cleave bonds on molecules with the addition of water

Trailing waves have

continuously shifting points of maximum and minimum displacement

Confounding is an error in

data analysis that results form a common connection of both the dpeendent and independent variables to a third variable.

Standard change in free energy equation

deltaG = -RTlnK

In plane-polarized light, all of the light rays have

electric fields with parallel orientation

Capacitors have the ability to store and discharge

electrical potential energy

Bernoilli's Equation

faster moving water (higher velocity) is lower pressure. Idea behind venturi's effect

Average acceleration equation

final velocity minus starting velocity divided by time it takes to change velocity

Kinetic friction equation

fk = uk N

Point charges may undergo uniform circular motion

in a uniform magnetic field wherein the centripetal force I the magnetic force acting on the point charge.

Displacement (x)

in a wave refers to how far a point is from the equilibrium position, expressed as a vector quantity.

During research, we manipulate the

independent variables and observe changes in the dependent variable

Viscosity

is a measurement of a fluid's internal friction. Viscous drag is a nonconservative force generated by viscosity.

Tangent is the ratio f the side opposite an angle to the

length of the hypotenuse

logarithm of inverse

log(1/A) = -log(A)

Scientific notation logarithm approximation

log(n x 10^m) = approximately m + 0.n

laminar flow means there is

no friction

Whether or not a finding is statistically significant is determined by the comparison of a

p-value to the selected significance level (a). A significance level of 0.05 is commonly used.

Dipole moment equation

p=qd

Paramagnetic materials

possess some unpaired electrons and become weakly magnetic in a external magnetic field

Beta negative decay equation

protons gain one.

Beta postive decay (positron emission)

protons lose one

Ferromagnetic materials possess

some unpaired electrons and become strongly magnetic in an external magnetic field

square root approximations

sqrt(2)= 1.414 (use 1.4) sqrt(3)=1.7

Dividing like bases with exponents

subtract the exponents

Snell's law (the law of refraction) states

that there is an inverse relationship between the index of refraction and the sine of the angle of refraction (measured from the normal).

Ethnocetrism

the belief that the ways of one's own culture are superior to those of other cultures

exoderm

the outer germ layer that develops into skin and nervous tissue

Every charge generates and electric field

which can exert forces on other charges

Leukocytes

white blood cells

Kinematics (no acceleration)

x=vt

decay constant equation

- Decay Constant = Change in Number of Atoms / Change in Time

atm to torr

1 atm = 760 torr

Optics equation

1/f = 1/o + 1/i = 2/r = 2/r f: focal length o: dist object and mirror i: dist b/w image and mirror r: radius of curvature

focal length of multiple lens system equation

1/f=1/f1+1/f2....

mg to g

1000 mg = 1 g

Change in sound level

Bf = Bi + 10log(If/Ii)

Universal gravitation equation

Fg = G m1 m2 / r^2

Strong acids are

HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4

Heat gained or lost (phase change):

Q = mL

What is the best experimental method to analyze the effect of tdh2 gene deletion on the rate of histone acetylation? Comparing histone acetylation in wild-type and Δtdh2 cells by: A.Western blot B.Southern blot C.Northern blot D.RT-PCR

The answer to this question is A because posttranslational modification of proteins such as histone acetylation is analyzed by Western blotting.

During the production of insulin, the translated polypeptide is cleaved into the mature form and secreted from the cell. The cleavage most likely takes place in which of the following locations? A.Nucleus B.Ribosomes C.Endomembrane system D.Cytoplasm

The answer to this question is C because secreted proteins such as insulin are cleaved into mature form within endomembrane system.

With respect to bonding and electrical conductivity, respectively, sulfur hexafluoride, SF6(g), would be described as:

The passage states that the vast majority of covalent compounds are comprised exclusively of nonmetallic elements, whereas binary ionic compounds are made up of a metal and a nonmetal. Because neither sulfur nor fluorine is a metallic element, sulfur hexafluoride is a covalent compound. The passage also states that aqueous solutions of covalent compounds do not conduct electricity. Sulfur hexafluoride is covalent and a nonconductor.

Vectors are physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction.

Vector quantities include displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force, among others.

Voltage drop across circuit elements (parallel)

Vp=V1=V2=V3=...=Vn

Voltage drop across circuit elements (series)

Vs=V1+V2+V3+...+Vn

Work function

W = h(fT)

In direct relationships

as one variable increases, the other increases in proportion.

positions of dark fringes in slit-lens setup equation

asin@=n(wavelength)

Pythagorean Theorem

a²+b²=c² or V=sqrt X^2+Y^2

Error may be in the form of

bias, confounding, or random error.

External magnetic fields exert forces on

charges moving in any direction except parallel or antiparallel to the field

Conductors allow the free and uniform passage of

electrons when charged

Ammeters are

inserted in series in a circuit to measure current; they have negligible resistance

Kinetic energy

is energy associated with the movement of objects. It depends on mass and speed squared (not velocity)

Resistance

is opposition to the movement of electrons through a material

Definition of tangent:

opp/adj

Longitudinal waves have

oscillations of war particles parallel to the direction of wave propagation (eg, sound waves)

Speed of sound equation

v=sq(B/density) B=resistance to compression (lowest for gas and highest for solid), p density of medium. Solids with low density are the fastest and gas with high density are the slowest.

Kinematics (no time)

v^2= v(o)^2 + 2ax

Average velocity equation

∆x=change in position ∆t= change in time it is x/t

A sparingly soluble metal hydroxide, M(OH)2 has a molar solubility of S mol/L at 25°C. Its Kspvalue is:

The Ksp for a substance, AaBb, equals [A]a[B]b. The Ksp for M(OH)2 = [M][OH-]2.If the solubility of M(OH)2 is S mol/L, then [M] = S mol/L and [OH-] = 2S mol/L. The Ksp = S(2S)2 = S(4S2) = 4S3.

hydroxyl group

-OH A chemical group consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to a hydrogen atom.

Poiseuille's law

-calculates rate of flow through a pipe of confined space (laminar flow) Q= (πr^4 ∆P)/8ηL η: viscosity of the fluid Q: flow rate (volume flowing per time) ΔP: pressure gradient r: radius of tube L: length of tube

angular frequency

-measured in radians/sec w=2πf or w= 2π/T

Which imaging technique is best suited for localizing brain areas, as described in the studies of neural activity (paragraph 3)? A.PET B.EEG C.MRI D.CT

The answer to this question is A because for studies focusing on activation (and thus brain function), a PET scan is the best imaging tool among those listed. The other choices are other techniques that are not specifically designed for measuring brain activation in particular regions.

Which of the following properties of a 2.3 MHz ultrasound wave remains unchanged as it passes into human tissues? A.Frequency B.Wave speed C.Amplitude D.Wavelength

The answer to this question is A because the frequency of a wave is not affected by the medium through which it propagates.

The initial filtration step in the glomerulus of the mammalian kidney occurs primarily by: A.passive flow due to a pressure difference. B.passive flow resulting from a countercurrent exchange system. C.active transport of water, followed by movement of electrolytes along a resulting concentration gradient. D.active transport of electrolytes, followed by passive flow of water along the resulting osmolarity gradient

The answer to this question is A because the initial filtration in the glomerulus occurs as blood pressure forces the fluid from the glomerulus into the lumen of Bowman's capsule.

kinetic energy equals

1/2mv^2

Equivalent capacitance (series)

1/Cs=1/C1+1/C2+1/C3+...+1/Cn

Equivalent resistance in parallel

1/Rp=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+...+1/Rn

Raising bases to negative exponents

1/X^A

The visible spectrum runs from

400nm(violet) to 700nm(red)

Taste aversion learning

A biological tendency in which an organism learns, after a single experience, to avoid a food with a certain taste, if eating it is followed by illness. Also phobias - like avoiding snakes but not cars. They are adaptive, so they helped our ancestors to survive.

Tautomerism

A mutation due to the changing of a base by the repositioning of a hydrogen atom. Basically a hydrogen leaves one place to go to another place.

Sound level equation

B=10logI/Io

raising bases to fractional exponents (X^(A/B))

Bsqrt(X^A)

The glucose meter measures the current produced during Reaction 2. If 0.67 μmol of electrons were measured, what mass of glucose was present in the sample? (Note: The molar mass of glucose is 180 g/mol = 180 μg/μmol.) A.20 μg B.60 μg C.90 μg D.270 μg

The answer to this question is B because the stoichiometry of the reaction is 2 mol e- per mole of glucose consumed. The device measured 0.67 (2/3) μmol of electrons, indicating that 0.33 (1/3) μmol of glucose was consumed. This weighs 60 μg, based on its molar mass of 180 g/mol.

carboyxl

COOH

Much of human studies research is observational.

Cohort studies record exposures throughout time and then assess the rate of a certain outcome. Cross-sectional studies assess both exposure and outcome at the same point in time. Case-control studies assess outcome status and then assess for exposure history. causality in observational studies is supported by HIll's criteria, which include temporality, strength, dose-response relationships, consistency, plausibility, consideration of alternative explanations, experiments, specificity, and coherence.

What are the structural features possessed by storage lipids? A.Two fatty acids ester-linked to a single glycerol plus a charged head group B.Three fatty acids ester-linked to a single glycerol C.Two fatty acids ester-linked to a single sphingosine plus a charged head group D.Three fatty acids ester-linked to a single sphingosine

The answer to this question is B because triacylglycerols are neutral storage lipids. They consist of three fatty acids ester-linked to a single glycerol.

Nerst Equation

E=Eo-(RT/nF)lnQ OR E = Eo- 0.0257V/n lnQ As the concentration of the products or a redox rxn increases, the voltage decreases; As the concentration of the reactants in the redox increases, the voltage increases

Efficiency equation

Efficiency= Useful energy output/total energy input= (loadxload distance)/(effortxeffort distance) -Measured in %

Pascal's principle equation

F1/A1=F2/A2=P

Force of gravity (weight on Earth)

Fg = mg

Newton's first law equation

Fnet = m a = 0

dramaturgical approach

Goffman. Front stage- social setting. Backstage- private area of our lives. Assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage, where people choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbal and nonverbally to others. Critics say this research may not be objective, ad that theory is focused too narrowly on symbolic interaction. Impression management is what we do to control how others see us on front stage.

Weak acids are

HF, HCLO, H2SO3, H3PO4

Two charges of opposite sign separated by a fixed distance, d, generate an electric dipole.

In an external electric field, an electric dipole will experience a net torque until it is aligned with the electric field vector. An electric field will not induce any translational motion in the dipole regardless of tis orientation with respect to the electric field vector.

Some studies have found that increases in dopamine activity are associated with increased reward-seeking motivation. This finding suggests an association between dopamine levels and which type of learning? A.Classical conditioning B.Operant conditioning C.Latent learning D.Observational learning

The answer to this question is B. The finding focuses on reward-seeking motivation, which is most closely associated with operant conditioning (change in behavior due to past outcomes).

What is the total mass of D-glucose dissolved in a 2-μL aliquot of the solution used for this experiment? A.3.6 × 10-7 g B.1.4 × 10-4 g C.3.6 × 10-4 g D.1.4 × 10-1 g

The answer to this question is B. The stock solution consisted of 72 g of glucose in 1.0 L of solution (72 μg/μL). Therefore, 2 μL contains 144 μg, or 1.4 × 10-4 g of the solute.

smooth muscle

Involuntary muscle found inside many internal organs of the body

Peristalsis

Involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system.

A thermodynamic system is the portion of the universe that we are interested in observing, whereas the surroundings include everything that is not part of the system

Isolated systems do not exchange matter or energy with the surroundings. Closed systems exchange energy but not matter with their surroundings. Open systems exchange both energy and matter with their surroundings.

Paramagnetic

It has one or more unpaired electrons (like in s, p, d orbitals). That means it gets pulled into an external magnetic field.

Mass and weight are not synonymous

Mass is a measure of inertia of an object- its amount of material. Weight is the force experienced by a given mass due to its gravitational attraction to the Earth

non-associative learning

Occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus. habituation is when the same stimulus elites a smaller response. There's also sensitization is when the response increases with every stimulus. It doesn't contain any reinforcement. Associative and operant conditioning are other types of learning.

Newton's first law

Or the law of inertia, states that an object will remain at rest or move with a constant velocity if there is no net force on the object.

Types of enzymes

Oxidoreductases Transferases Hydrolases Lyases Isomerases Ligases

Probability of two independent events co-occuring

P (A and B) = P(A) + P(B)

Probability of at least one event occurring

P (A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)

power of multiple lens system equation

P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ... + Pn must be in contact

Bernoulli's equation

P1 +1/2 ρv_1^2+ρgh_1= P_2+1/2 ρv_2^2+ρgh_2 P : absolute pressure of the fluid v: linear speed h: height of the fluid

Absolute pressure equation

P= Po + pgz P=absolute pressure Po= incident or ambient pressure (pressure at the surface); equal to 1 atm in open air and day-to-day situations p=density g=acceleration due to gravity z=depth of the object

potential difference (voltage) is the change in electric potential that accompanies the movement of a test charge form one position to another

Potential difference is path independent and depends only on the initial and final positions of the test charge. The units for both electric potential and voltage are volts.

Continuity equation

Q=v1A1=v2A2

Scientific notation is a method of writing numbers in a way that improves the ease of calculations and the comparability of significant digits.

Scientific notation takes the format (signifcand)X10^exponent. The significant must be greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10. The exponent must be an integer.

Bias is systematic and results form a problem during data collection.

Selection bias, in which the sample differs form the population, is most common in human subjects research. Detection bias arises from educated professionals using their knowledge in an inconsistent way by searching for an outcome disproportionately in certain populations. The Hawthorne effect results form changes in behavior- by the subject, experimenter, or both- that occur as a result of the knowledge that the subject is being observed.

Sound propagates through all forms of matter (but not a vacuum)

Sound propagates fastest through solids, followed by liquids, and sleets through gases. Within a medium, as density increases, the speed of sound decreases.

Heat is the process of energy transfer between two objects at different temperatures that occurs until the two objects come into thermal equilibrium (reach the same temperature)

Specific heat is the amount of energy necessary to raise one gram of a substance by one degree C or K. The specific heat of water is 1 cal/gxK. During a phase change, heat energy causes changes in the particles' potential energy and energy distribution (entropy), but not kinetic energy. Therefore, there is no change in temperature. This is the heat of transformation.

Friction is a force that opposes motion as a function of electrostatic interactions at the surfaces of two objects

Static friction exists between two objects that are not in motion relative to each other. Kinetic friction exists between two objects that are in motion relative to each other. Whereas static friction can take on many values depending on the magnitude of an applied force, kinetic friction is a constant value. The coefficient of friction depends on the two materials in contact. The coefficient of static friction is always higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction.

Period equation

T=1/f

A 60-Ω resistor is connected in parallel with a 20-Ω resistor. What is the equivalent resistance of the combination? A.80 Ω B.40 Ω C.15 Ω D.3 Ω

The answer to this question is C because the equivalent resistance is given by the expression (1/(60) + 1/(20))-1 = 15

What is the work generated by a healthy adult who circulates 9 L of blood through the brachial artery in 10 min? A.2 kJ B.12 kJ C.20 kJ D.120 kJ

The answer to this question is D because a flow of 9 liters in 10 minutes means a flow rate of 900 mL/min, and according to the graph, it corresponds to a power of 200 W. The work is then 200 W x 600 s = 120 kJ.

Which series shows the order in which filtrate passes through the tubular regions of a nephron? A.Bowman's capsule → loop of Henle → proximal tubule → distal tubule → collecting duct B.Proximal tubule → collecting duct → loop of Henle → Bowman's capsule → distal tubule C.Collecting duct → Bowman's capsule → loop of Henle → proximal tubule → distal tubule D.Bowman's capsule → proximal tubule → loop of Henle → distal tubule → collecting duct

The answer to this question is D because blood is filtered into Bowman's space within Bowman's capsule and then moves sequentially through the proximal tubule, the loop of Henle, the distal tubule, and the collecting duct.

Which of the following types of orbitals of the central atom are involved in bonding in octahedral compounds? A.sp B.sp3 C.p D.d2 sp3

The answer to this question is D because octahedral compounds have six σ bonds and no lone pairs. According to valence bond theory, the central atom requires the hybridization of six atomic orbitals, d2sp3.

After a section of a DNA strand containing a UVR-induced lesion is removed and resynthesized, the newly synthesized strand is rejoined to the remainder of the DNA strand by what type of bond? A.Disulfide B.Hydrogen C.Peptide D.Phosphodiester

The answer to this question is D because phosphodiester bonds link the 3ʹ carbon atom of one deoxyribose and the 5ʹ carbon atom of another deoxyribose within the DNA molecules.

After initially learning to ride a bike, riding a bike becomes easy for an individual. Each time the individual rides a bike thereafter, what type of memory is being used? A. Semantic B.Episodic C.Explicit D.Procedural

The answer to this question is D because procedural memory refers to memory for the performance of particular types of action.

What is the average power consumed by a 64-year-old woman during the ascent of the 15-cm-high steps, if her mass is 54 kg? A.10 W B.20 W C.40 W D.90 W

The answer to this question is D because the power consumed is P=PE /time = mgh/t. From Table 1, there are 30 steps and t = 27 s. Then P = (54 kg × 10 m/s2 × 30 steps × 0.15 m/step) / (27s) = 90 W.

The relative thermodynamic stability of isomeric organic compounds can be inferred from which of the following types of experimental data? A.Boiling points B.UV-visible absorption spectra C.Mass spectroscopic fragmentation patterns D.Heats of combustion

The answer to this question is D because the relative thermodynamic stability of isomers can be determined based on the amount of heat produced when the compounds are combusted; less heat, greater stability.

Self concept (how you think about yourself)

There is the existential self (most basic, sense that you are separate from others, and you are constant). Then you can formulate a categorical self. You have different properties, like age, gender, skills, and size. As we grow older we start to categorize ourselves by our traits or careers. Carl rogers believe that the self concept had 3 parts, self image, self esteem, and the ideal self (who we think we are, how much we love ourselves, and who we want to be). We also have social identity, there are personal component and a social component.

Elastic potential energy formula

U= (1/2)kx^2 k=spring constant x=the magnitude of displacement from equilibrium

Gravitational potential energy formula

U=mgh m=mass of object g=acceleration due to gravity h= height of the object

Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation

Upsurge in prejudice when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to. Creates increase in prejudice.

Ohm's law

V=IR

Deviance

When a norm is violated, it is deviance. Theory of differential association- deviance happens from others, monkey see monkey do. He believes something else is right because there are other people who believe something else is right. Another is labeling theory, context is everything when determining what is deviant, like primary deviance is whenever you do something deviant because it's not bad based on the context. 2ndary deviance is whenever it is bad for context and it hurts the reputations person. Another is Strain tTheory, people are only deviant to reach a goal that they can't otherwise reach.

nuclear decay equation

a chemical equation where the reactant is a radioactive isotope and the products are a radioactive particle and a second radioisotope

Multiplying like bases with exponents

add the exponents

Raising fractions to exponents

both levels get the exponent

Speed of light from frequency and wavelength equation:

c=f x wavelength

The mode is the

data point that appears most often; there may be multiple (or zero)modes in a data set.

The median is the value that lies in the middle of the

data set. Fifty percent of data point are above and below the median.

Initial energy is equal to

energy wasted from friction plus the final energy.

The angular frequency (w)

is another way of expressing frequency and is expressed in radians per second

A force

is any push or pull that as the potential to result in an acceleration

The maximum point of a wave (point of most positive displacement)

is called a crest

Absolute pressure

is the sum of all pressures at a certain point within a fluid; it is equal to the pressure at the surface of the fluid (usually atmospheric pressure) plus the pressure due to the fluid itself.

Acceleration

is the vector representation of the change in velocity over time. Average or instantaneous acceleration may both be considered,d similar to velocity.

Trigonometric relationships can be calculated based on the

lengths of the sides of right triangles

The amount of refraction ndpends on the wavelength of the

light involved; this behavior causes dispersion of light through a prism

electric field lines

lines that represent both the magnitude and the direction of the electric field

Magnification of multiple lens system

m = m1 x m2 x m3...

Work equals

m x v^2 / 2 OR force x distance

Raising and exponent to another exponent

multiple the exponents

Measures of central tendency

provide a single value representation for the middle of a group of data

Head gained or lost (with temperature change)

q=mcAt

Torque equation

r=rxF=rFsin0 r=length of the lever arm F=magnitude of the force Ѳ= angel between the lever arm and force vectors

The EM spectrum includes, from lowest to highest energy:

radiowaves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma rays.

Cosine is the

ratio of the length of side adjacent to an angle to the length of the hypotenuse

Tangent is the

ratio of the side opposite an angle to the side adjacent to it.

Isomerase

rearranges bonds within a molecule to form an isomer

Reistence is calculated using the

resistivity, length, and cross-sectional area the of material in question

Young's double slit experiment

shows the constructive and destructive interference of waves that occur as light passes through parallel slits, resulting in minima (dark fringes) and maxima (bright fringes) of intensity

Mutually exclusive outcomes cannot occur

simultaneously

Fusion occurs when

small nuclei combine into larger nuclei.

Strings and open pipes (open at both ends) support

standing waves, and the length of the string or pipe is equal to some multiple of half-wavelengths

Pascal's principle

states that a pressure applied to an incompressible fluid will be distributed undiminished throughout the entire volume of the fluid.

Newton's second law

states that any acceleration is the result of the sum of the forces action on the object and its mass

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Electric potential is

the electric potential energy per unit charge.

Displacement is the

vector representation of a change in position. It is path independent and is equivalent to the straight line distance between the start and end locations

Controls are used to correct for any influences of an intervention that are not part of the model. Controls may be:

1. Positive -ensure that a change in the dependent variable occurs when expected. 2. Negative controls ensure that no change int he dependent variable occurs when non is expected.

Social theories

1. fundamentalizm - society constantly trying to find equilibrium in progression and conservatism 2. Social constructionism which is the rich v poor power v helpless. thesis vs. antithesis. constant struggle. 3. constructionism is that everything is made of society like monies 4. symbolic interaction is that different parts of the world are perceived differently based on how we see it. Like tree is nice for some but not for others.

Possible sterioisomer configurations equation

2^n (n is the chiral centers. this is how many you'd be able to draw).

Critical angle equation

@c = sin^-1 ( n2 / n1 )

Standing waves are produced by the constructive and destructive interference of two waves of the same frequency traveling in opposite directions in the same space

Antinodes are points of maximum oscillation. Nodes are points where there is no oscillation.

If a solution containing the compounds shown in Figure 4, is injected into a gas-liquid chromatograph, the first peak observed in the gc trace is attributable to which compound? A.2-Methyl-2-butanol B.2-Methyl-2-butene C.2-Chloro-2-methylbutane D.2-Bromo-2-methylbutane

B. The answer to this question is B because 2-methyl-2-butene will exhibit the lowest molecular weight and also the weakest intermolecular forces of attraction. This substance will therefore migrate the fastest and be the first peak in the gas chromatograph (gc) trace.

Protons have a positive charge and electrons have a negative charge

Both proteins and electrons possess the fundamental unit of charge (e=1.60X10^-19 C). Protons and electrons have different masses

Capacitance with a dielectric material

C'=kC

incentive theory

Conditioning for motivation. Skinner. A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli.

Which of the following statements does NOT correctly describe the dehydration of malic acid to fumaric acid and maleic acid? A The reaction occurs most readily with tertiary alcohols. B. The reaction involves the loss of a water molecule. C. The reaction has a carbocation intermediate. D. The reaction is stereospecific.

Correct: D. The answer to this question is D because the fact that both fumaric and maleic acid are produced means that the dehydration of malic acid is NOT stereospecific.

wtf is deuterium

Deuterium is simply Hydrogen with one extra neutron (i.e., 1 proton, but the same atomic weight as He). Its natural abundance (which is virtually nothing) is factored into the average atomic weight of H which as you notice is NOT exactly 1 amu).

Newton's third law equation

Fab = -Fba

Kinetic energy equation

KE=1/2mv^2

Maximum kinetic energy of an electron in the photoelectric effect

Kmax=hf-W

Myoglobin

Myoglobin is the substance that holds oxygen in the muscles and organs. An oxygen-storing, pigmented protein in muscle cells.

weak bases are

NH3, NH4OH,

Capacitance

Q=CV (q is charges on two plates, v is voltage difference and C is capacitance. determines how much of a charge difference the capacitor holds when a certain voltage is applied. the ability of a conductor to store energy in the form of electrically separated charges Energy of a capacitor = 1/2QV. Potential energy (electrical)- QV. Also E=1/2CV^2

Definition of resistance

R = pL/A

Resistor equation

R=Resistivity(L/A). So resistance relies on how resistant a material is, length of wire and area. elms times meters is the units. increased length is more resistance, increased area is decreased reseistance.

Resistors in circuits can be combined to calculate the equivalent resistance of a full of partial circuit

Resistors in series are additive and sum together to create the total resistance fo a circuit. Resistors in parallel cause a decrease in equivalent resistance of a circuit.

Ba2+(aq) is an ion that is very toxic to mammals when taken internally. Which of the following compounds, mixed in water, would be the safest if accidentally swallowed?

The lower the value of Ksp is, the lower the concentrations of the cation and anion in an aqueous solution and the lower the solubility of the compound in water. If mixed with water and accidentally swallowed, the Ba salt with the lowest value of Ksp would be the safest.

Macronucleus and micronucleus

The macronucleus does not go through the process of meiosis. Genes involved in meiosis are therefore superfluous in this genome. On the other hand the primary use of the macronucleus is to provide the proteins for the cell's day-to-day functioning. these organisms are atypical among eukaryotes in that they have two nuclei.However, the micronucleus does most of the work.

Fluids can move with either laminar flow or turbulent flow.

The rate of laminar flow is determined by the relationship in Poiseuille's law. On the MCAT, incompressible fluids are assumed to have laminar flow and very low viscosity while flowing, allowing us to assume conservation of energy.

Apparently, the velocity of blood flower is slower in capillaries than in arteries because

The total cross-sectional area of capillaries exceeds that of arteries. The answer to this question is C because the high number of capillaries in the body means that the total cross-sectional area of these vessels is larger than any other vessel type in the circulatory system. This causes the velocity of the blood to decrease

Voltage and cell emf:

V = Ecell - ir(internal)

Electric potential (from source charge):

V = kQ/r

Electric potential near a dipole

V=(kqd/r^2)cos(theta)

Voltage equation

V=IR also changeV=Vb-Va= Wab/q

Definition of work (isobaric gas-piston system)

W=PΔV

Nonconservative forces are path dependent and cause dissipation of mechanical energy from a system

While total energy is conserved, some mechanical energy is lost as thermal or chemical energy. Examples of nonconservative forces include friction, air resistance and viscous drag.

Conversions between units of different scales require multiplication or division, and may require

addition or subtraction

Inclined planes

are another example of two-dimensional movement. It is often easiest to consider the dimensions as being parallel and perpendicular to the surface of the plane.

Electromagnetic waves

are transverse waves that consist of an oscillating electric field an dan oscillating magnetic field

In inverse relationships

as one variable increases, the other decreases in proportion

The FINER method

assesses the value of a research question on the basis of whether or not it is feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant

The circulatory system

behaves as a closed system with non constant flow

Medical ethics generally refers to the four principles of

beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for patient autonomy, and justice

Unit analysis (dimensional analysis)

can determine the appropriate computation based on given information

isotopic labeling

can use things like D or O-18. O-18 is used when labeling a group which does not exchange with other groups present prior to reaction and will therefore give information about the true identity of the groups, which are exchanged during the reaction. tracks the passage of an isotope through a reaction, metabolic pathway, or cell.

Oxidoreductases

catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions

Diffraction may produce a large

central light fringe surrounded by alternating light and dark fringes with the addition of a lens

instantaneous acceleration equation

change velocity/ change in time

Capacitors in series cause a decrease in the equivalent capacitance in a

circuit

Definition of Cosine

cos(θ) = Adjacent / Hypotenuse

The SI unit of charge is the

coulomb

Inspiration and expiration

create a pressure gradient not only for the respiratory system, but for the circulatory system as well.

Plan polarized light is

created by passing unpolarized light through a polarizer

Damping is a

decrease in amplitude caused by an appleid or nonconservative force

Free energy equation for cell potential

deltaG = - nFE (E is cell potential which is volts, n is moles of electrons that are transferred in the reaction, F is faradays constant, for one e it is 96,500) (also, when you try to figure out voltage for a cell you just add the potentials or something, okay it's cell potential BUT you are going to have to reverse the anode one before adding). ALSO whatever makes up the anode is the "reducing agent" and whatever makes up the cathode is the "oxidizing agent". The higher the reduction potential the more chance they will be reduced or an oxidizing agent or the cathode.

Second law of thermodynamics equation

deltaS(universe) = deltaS(systm) + deltaS(surround) > 0

Volume expansion equation

deltaV=BV(delta)T, B is coefficient of volume expansion

Specific gravity

density of object/density of water. Density of water is 1000 kg/m^3. This tells you how much of an object will be submerged in water. wood specific gravity is 0.2, so 20% of it will be submerged in water. If greater than 1, 100% of object will be submerged in water.

Process functions

describe the pathway from one equilibrium state to another. Work and heat are process functions.

Thermal expansion

describes how a substance changes in length or volume as a function of the change in temperature.

Capacitance in parallel plate capacitors is

determined by the area of the plates and the distance between the plates

Deleterious genes are

generally rare because they tend to be eliminated through natural selection. Only when an organism is homozygous (has two copies of a gene, one from each parent) does a recessive gene reveal its presence. Because recessive genes can be masked by dominant genes, they are less exposed to natural selection. So most organisms carry many deleterious recessive genes. The chances of having offspring that are homozygous for a given recessive gene are rare when a mate is chosen randomly from the population. The chances of getting a pair of deleterious recessive genes increase enormously when the mate is a relative, because relatives are likely to have a similar genotype. The answer is therefore choice D. Inbreeding decreases rather than increases genetic diversity (choice A), its effect on aggression is hard to determine (Choice B) and it has no effect on spontaneous mutations (choice C), so these are incorrect choices.

Basal Ganglia

has substanta nigra, which loss is linked to Parkinson's. Basal ganglia has motor function roles. It receives multiple info and then does a lot of the processing, then sends to the motor cortex.

Different points the space of an electric field surrounding a source charge will

have different electric potential values

The second law of thermodynamics states that

in a closed system (up to and including the entire universe), energy will spontaneously and irreversibly go from being localized to being spread out (dispersed).

The six simple machines are the

inclined plane, wedge, wheel and axle, lever, pulley, and screw. Simple machines provide the benefit of mechanical advantage.

Linear motion

includes free fall and motion which the velocity and acceleration vectors are parallel or antiparallel.

Resonance is the

increase in amplitude that occurs when a periodic force is applied at the natural (resonant) frequency of an object

The speed of light changes depending on

index of refraction of the medium. This speed change causes refraction

median position formula

indicates where the median will lie in a set that has been arranged in increasing order. n+1/2

Voltmeters are

inserted in parallel in a circuit to measure a voltage drop they have very large resistances

Dielecric materials are

insulators placed between the plates of a capacitor that increase capacitance by a factor equal to the material's dielectric constant, k

The ejected electrons create a current; the magnitude of this current is proportion to the

intensity of the incident beam of light

Fluid dynamics

is a set of principles regarding actively flowing fluids

Acceleration

is a vector quantity. It is equal to change in velocity over change in time. The units are d/t^2. When we plot velocity over time, the slope is acceleration. area under this curve is distance traveled. To calculate this use how to calculate a triangle, which is 1/2XbXh

Gauge pressure

is the name for the difference between absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure. In liquids, gauge pressure is caused by the weight of the liquid above the point of measurement.

Reflection

is the rebounding of incident light waves at the boundary of a medium.

Current-carrying wires create

magnetic fields that are concentric circles surrounding the wire.

Magnetic fields are created by

magnets and moving charges.

Mesoderm

middle germ layer; develops into muscles, and much of the circulatory, reproductive, and excretory systems

The threshold frequency is the

minimum light frequency necessary to eject an electron form a given metal. The work function is the minus energy necessary to eject an electron from a given metal. Its value depends the metal used and can be calculated by multiplying the threshold frequency by Planck's constant. The greater the energy fo the incident photon above the work function, the more kinetic energy the ejected electron can possess.

Conversions between metric prefixes require

multiplications of division by corresponding powers of ten

Snell's Law

n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2 (n is the refraction index), theta is the degree. The larger n, the more it will bend or "refract", dispersion is when colors separate during this. Smaller wavelength light (blue) will have higher index of refraction, and will bend more.

index of refraction equation

n=c/v

Diamagnetic materials posses

no unpaired electrons and are slightly repelled by a magnet.

Magnets have a

north and a south pole, field lines point form the north to the south pole

The frequency (f) of a wave is the

number od cycles it makes per second. IT is expressed in hertz (Hz)

Histograms and box plots (box and whisker plots) are both sued to compare

numerical data

Hydraulic machines

operate based on the application of Pascal's principle to generate mechanical advantage.

Transverse waves have

oscillations of wave particles perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation (Ie, the "the wave" electromagnetic waves)

The probability of a depending event changes depending on the outcomes of

other events

Fluids experience cohesive forces with

other molecules of the same fluid and adhesive forces with other materials; cohesive forces give rise to surface tension.

The probability of independent events doe snot change based on the

outcomes of other events

Bimodal distributions have multiple

peaks, although not necessarily multiple modes, strictly speaking. It may be useful to perform data analysis on the two groups separately.

Inverse trigonometric functions use

the calculated value form a ratio of side lengths to calculate the angle of interest

Instaneous velocity is

the slope at a certain time on a graph (change Y over change X). It is the certain speed at a certain time. IF acceleration is constant, you can Use V(instantaneous velocity)=Vi + a(acceleration)t(time)

The lorentz force is

the sum of electrostatic and magnetic forces acting on a body.

arithmetic mean (average)

the sum of the numerical observations divided by the total number of observations

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

The SI unit fo r magnetic field is

the tesla (T; 1 T = 10,000 gauss).

Interference supports

the wave theory of light

When set of outcomes is exhaustive,

there are not other possible outcomes

Capacitors in parallel sum

together to create large equivalent capacitance

torque on a dipole in an electric field equation

torque = p E sin theta

average velocity formula

total displacement/total time

Transferases

transfer functional groups from one substrate to another

The minimum point of a wave (point of most negative displacement) is called a

trough

Sampels are a subset of a population that are

used to estimate population data. Sample data are called statistics.

Kinematics (no displacement)

v = v0 + at

instantaneous velocity equation

v= lim as t→0 ∆x/∆t

critical speed equation

v=Nrn/pD N= Reynold's number D= diameter

Conservation of mechanical energy formula

ΔE=ΔU+ΔK=0

Entropy and heat

ΔS = Qrev/T

Determination of direction from component vectors

θ = tan-¹(Y/X)

Law of reflection equation

θ1=θ2 θ1 = incident angle measured from the normal θ2 = reflected angle measured from the normal normal = perpendicular to the boundary of the medium

binary fission

A form of asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms by which one cell divides into two cells of the same size

Dot product

A form of vector multiplication, where two vectors are multiplied to produce a scalar. The dot product of two vectors, A and B, is expressed by the equation A · B = |A||B| cos0

Resitance decreases as the total cross-sectional area increases

Arterial circulation is primarily motivated by the heart. Venous circulation has three times the volume of arterial circulation and is motivated by the skeletal musculature and expansion of the heart.

Mass defect and energy:

E=mc^2

The electric field is the ratio off the force that is exerted on a test charge to the magnitude of that charge

Electric field vectors can be represented as field lines that radiate outward form positive source charges and radiate inward to negative source phages. Positive test charges will movie the direction of the field lines; negative test charges will move in the direction oppistive of the field lines.

Newton's second law equation

F=ma

Components of gravity on an inclined plane

Fg parallel = mgsin(theta) Fg perpendicular = mgcos(theta)

Potential energy is energy stored within a system. It exists in gravitational, elastic, electrical, and chemical forms.

Gravitational potential energy is related to the mass of an object and its height above a zero-point, called datum. Elastic potential energy is related to the spring constant (a measure of the stiffness of a spring) and the degree of stretch or compression of a spring squared. Electrical potential energy exists between charged particles. Chemical potential energy is the energy stored in the bonds of compounds.

Pressure is defined as a measure of force per unit area; it is exerted by a fluid on the walls of its container and on objects placed in the fluid

It is a scalar quantity; its value has magnitude only, and no direction. The pressure exerted by a gas against the walls of its container will always be perpendicular (normal) to the container walls.

Kirchoff's laws (2) express conservation of charge and energy

Kirchhoff's junction rule states that the sum of currents directed into a point within a circuit equals the sum of the currents directed away form that point. Kirchoff's loop rule states that in a closed loop, the sum of voltage sources is always equal to the sum of voltage drops.

Mechanical advantage

Makes it easier to accomplish a given amount of work because the input force necessary to accomplish the work is reduced; the distance through which the reduced input force must be applied, however, is increased by the same factor (assuming 100% efficiency).

Vygotsky sociocultural development

More knowledgable other, babies have elementary functions, language is main means by which aduilts transmit info to children, private speech. Interested in the social interactions between children and their cognition. Babies have four elementary functions - 1. attention 2. sensation 3. perception 4. memory. higher mental functions are indepedence. A more knowledgeable other plus yourself creates learning. There's also the zone of proximal development. Where most of the instruction should be given bc the learner is able to best handle it here. Beyond this is what we can't do, and what we can do is within the zone of proximal development. ALSO language is an accelerator of learning. Thought is a result of language bc inner monologue.

In mammals, which of the following events occurs during mitosis but does NOT occur during meiosis I?

One of the key differences between mitosis and meiosis occurs during their respective anaphases. During anaphase of mitosis, sister chromatids are pulled apart at the centromeres, each becoming an independent chromosome in the two diploid daughter cells. During anaphase I of meiosis I, homologous pairs of chromosomes are separated into the two daughter cells. However, each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids joined to each other at the centromere. It is not until anaphase II of meiosis II that the centromere is split and the sister chromatids separate. Thus, B is the best answer.

Power equation

P=1/f

Pressure

P=F/A

operant conditioning

Positive and negative reinforcement and punishment. Shaping is done when you successively or gradually reinforce behaviors that approximate the target behavior. So like teaching a dog to track or something. The reinforcement schedules are with this. "partial reinforcements" There are fixed ratio, which is when you get something after every fixed amount of tasks done. Creates high rate of behavior. Fixed interval, which is when after a certain amount of time you get something. There is variable ratio, when is when you don't know how many things you do you get something, but it generally does have an average across all of them, this like a slot machine. and then variable interval when is when there isn't an exact amount of time that goes before before you get something. ALSO, innate vs. learned behaviors. In innate, there are simple (reflexes, taxis (bugs moving towards light), kinesis (random movement)) and complex(fixed action patterns (mating dance), migration, circadian rhythms). LEARNED behaviors - are habituation, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and insight learning (using skills to find a solution to something, an aha moment). ALSO adverse control- asituations when a behavior is motivated by the threat of something unpleasant. Escape learning is when you preform a behavior to terminate a behavior. like leaving a fire through an exit. Avoidance learning is when escape learning is converted into a signal. Like a fire alarm. You can avoid the fire.

Rf value equation

Rf = distance travelled by compound / distance travelled by solvent

How much work did an 83-year-old female do while stretching the rubber band to the limit of her strength? A.4 J B.5 J C.6 J D.7 J

The answer to this question is A because the work done is W = 0.5 × kx2 where x = 0.20 m. So W = 0.5 × 200 (N/m) × (0.2 m)2 = 4.0 J.

A synthetic peptide with the amino acid sequence KTFCGPEYLA was generated as a mimic of the T-loop. This synthetic T-loop (sT-loop) was incubated with 32P-labeled ATP in the presence of PDK1 for different time periods at 37 ° C and pH 7.2, and the amount of radioactivity incorporated into sT-loop was measured by detection of β- decay. What is the net charge of sT-loop at pH 7.2? A.-2 B.-1 C.0 D.+1

The answer to this question is C because at pH 7.2, the N-terminus will be positively charged and the C-terminus will be negatively charged. In addition, the lysine side chain will carry one positive charge and the glutamic acid side chain will carry one negative charge.

One characteristic common to arteries, veins, and capillaries is the:

The question asks the examinee to identify one characteristic common to arteries, capillaries, and veins. A is correct because all three types of vessels possess an inner layer of endothelial cells. B is incorrect because only veins have valves. C is incorrect because only certain types of arteries dilate or constrict to regulate blood flow. D is incorrect because the exchange of nutrients with the surrounding tissues occurs only in capillaries. Thus, A is the best answer.

How many sodium ions are in the initial 50.00-mL solution of Na2CO3?

The solution contains 7.15 g Na2CO3×10H2O. Dividing by the molar mass will give the number of moles: (7.15 g)/(286.14 g/mol) = 0.0250 mol.Because each mole of Na2CO3×10H2O contains 2 mol Na+, there is 0.0500 mol Na+. Using Avogadro's number, the number of sodium ions is (0.0500 mol)(6.02 × 1023 ions/mol) = 3.01 × 1022 ions.

Cytochalasins and Phalloidin

are drugs that inhibit the growth of microfilaments. Drugs that affect actin polymerization. Cytochalasins bind to barbed ends to prevent elongation Phalloidin binds to filaments to prevent dissociation

Ohmmeters

are inserted around a resistive element to measure resistance; they are self-powered and have negligible resistance.

Procedures for handling outliers should be formulated

before the beginning of a study

Vector addition may be accomplished using the tip-to-tail method or by

breaking a vector into its components and using the pythagorean theorem.

Thermal expansion equation

changeL=aLchangeT deltaL = (alpha) L deltaT deltaL: change length L: original length deltaT: change temp (temp change, length changes A LOT)

First law of thermodynamics equation

deltaU = Q - W

Ionization energy

energy required to remove na electron from one mole of gaseous atoms to produce one mole of gaseous ions. As you go down the periodic table, the ionization energy increases (and also to the left). And also the higher to the right you are the msmaller the radius will be, and same with the electron affinity.

Circular motion

is best though of as having radial and tangential dimensions. In uniform circular motion, the only force is the centripetal force, pointing radially inward. The instantaneous velocity vector always points tangentially.

Electric potential energy

is the amount fo work required to bring the test charge form infinitely far away to a given position in the vicinity of a source charge.

Nuclear binding energy

is the amount of energy that is released when nucleons (protons and neutrons) bind together. The more binding energy per nucleon released, the more stable the nucleus. The four fundamental forces of natural are the strongest and weak nuclear force, which contribute to the stability of the nucleus, electrostatic forces, and gravitation.

logarithm of 1 identity

logA(1) = 0

logarithm of base identity

logA(A) = 1

Logarithm of a Quotient

logb (X/Y) = logb X - logb Y

Logarithm of product

logb(xy) = logb(x) + logb(y)

Magnification equation

m = -i/o; real images are INVERTED, virtual images are UPRIGHT • For mirrors: real images are on same side as object, virtual images are behind the mirrors • For lenses: real images are on the other side of the lens, virtual images are on the same side of lens as object

Multiplying a vector by a scalar changes the

magnitude and may reverse the direction

The amplitude (A) of a wave is the

magnitude of its maximal displacement

slope formula

rise/run (y₂- y₁) / (x₂- x₁)

Wave speed

v=fλ

If something is getting pulled at an angle, a formula to calculate force, work, or distance is

w=Fxdxcostheta. Also as a reminder velocityfinal^2 = velocity initial^2 + 2ad. Net work done on an object is equal to the change in kinetic energy (or 1/2mvf^2 - 1/2mvi^2). If Wnet +then object will speed up, if negative

Conformity

"peer pressure" . Informative influence is whenever you look to a group for what to do because you don't know what to do. Normative influence is when you do what group wants because you want to go with the group even if you know better. Those are 2 ways you can conform. You can conform publicly or privately as well. Publicly temporary "outwardly", but privately "inwardly". Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Aldosterone

"salt-retaining hormone" which promotes the retention of Na+ by the kidneys. na+ retention promotes water retention, which promotes a higher blood volume and pressure

The following table summarizes image creation in converging and diverging ystmes for both mirror and lenses

(see phone)

intermolecular forces

-dipole dipole interactions- when there is a dipole on two molecules and the postivie/negative sides of other molecules attract. -hydrogen bonding- like with water, this is kind of like a dipole dipole, because the opposites attract. this is a stronger version of dipole dipole bc it's with hydrogens. If hydrogen is bonded to very electronegative interaction, then it's hydrogen bonding. FON are the ones that can participant. -London dispersion forces - weakest. it's when for a brief moment of time the electron clouds are positive on one and negative on the other and it attracts. The higher the number of molecules participating in this the higher the bond dispersion forces are because there are more possibilities to connect.

Static friction equation

0 <= fs <= us N

Interference describes the ways in which waves intreat in space to form a resultant wave. (3)

1. Constructive interference occurs when waves are exactly in phase with each other. The amplitude of the resultant wave is equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the two interfering waves. 2. Destructive interference occurs when waves are exactly out of phase with each other. The amplitude of the resultant wave is equal to the difference in amplitude between the two interfering waves. 3. Partially constructive and partially destructive interference occur when two waves are not quite perfectly in or out of phase with each other. The displacement of the resultant wave is equal to the sum of the displacements of th two interfering waves.

There are four special types of thermodynamics systems in which a given variable is held constant

1. For isothermal processes, the temperature is constant, and the change in internal energy is therefore 0. 2. For adiabatic processes, no heat is exchanged. 3. For isobaric processes, the pressure is held constant. 4. The isovolumetric (isochoric) processes, the volume is held constant and the work done by or on the system is 0.

Theories of development

1. Freud (personality) and the psychosexual model of development. 5 stages. If not met, fixation occurs. 2. Erikson (personality) and the psychosocial theory. Personality development occurs throughout life. Overcoming conflict. 8 stages. 3. Lev Vycovski. (cognition) Socio-cultural. children learn actively through hands on active experiences. A child internalizes via interactions with others. Social interaction is important. 4. Laurence Kohlbuerg. (cognition) Moral reasoning - right vs. wrong. He believed that moral reason is created through 3 stages (6 levels) of right vs. wrong stuff.

lens formula (oh for thin lens)

1/f (length) = 1/o (distance of the object) +1/i (distance of the image). For convex f is always positive. IF concave, it's going to be negative for f distance. object distance (u) is always positive). image distance will be positive if it's on the opposite side of the lens, it will be negative if it is on the same side as the lens. Negative image distance means it needs to be right side up. You can then use M= i/o to solve for magnification. if you got +1/4, then the image is 1/4 the size of the object. small focal length is a powerful lens (or focal power) for convex. Also if it's a flat class or something, then it will show up the same size on the other side but inverted (virtual image inverted)

lensmaker's equation

1/f = (n-1)(1/r1 - 1/r2)

motor development

2-4 months, heads up on their own, hold chest up with arm support. 2-5 month is ability roll over. 5-8 sit up without support. 5-10 months is ability to stand. 6-11 infants can pull up into standing position on own. 7-12 children can crawl. 7-13 months can walk while holding on to something. 10-14 stand on their own. 11-15 month is walking alone.

Avagadro's number

6.02 x 10^23, the number of atoms or molecules in 1 mol. A mol is like a dozen. it's how many atoms. ON the periodic table, the number are g/mol. Avagadro's number is 6.02 x 10^23 atoms per 1 mol.

What describes the bond that would form between tow nucleotides (Thymine and adenine) if they were located adjacent to each other as shown in a single strand of DNA?

A baond between the phosphate of the adenine and the sugar of the thymine The answer to this question is D because nucleotides are linked to one another by phosphodiester bonds between the sugar base of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of the adjacent nucleotide in a way that the 5' end bears a phosphate, and the 3' end a hydroxyl group.

Electronegativity

A measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract electrons. Generally goes up and to the right of the periodic table. Whenever a pull between two atoms is more than 1, it is considered to be polar, and when it is less than 1, it is non polar (covalent for both). if polar, the more electronegative atom gets a partial negative charge. Generally greater than .5 is polar, less than .5 is non polar. Ionic bonds are a step above. It is when the more electronegative atom steals the atom from the other, and it now has a negative charge (instead of partially negative) and the Na has a positive charge. If above 1.7 it's normally an ionic bond.

hydrogen deficiency index (HDI)

A measure of the number of degrees of unsaturation in a compound. For example, for C6H6, for 6 carbons you would expect 6 (ends) + 8 (middles) = 14 hydrogens, but you have 6 so it's 14-6 = 8, or four pairs of hydrogen so HDI = 4. Equation is 1/2 (2xC + 2 + N -H - #halogen). For solving, figure out HDI. Then divide lowest integration value by lowest #, this will tell you ratio of H. After 2 on the scale is next to a carbonyl region. which means the C next to a O double to a C. aromatic protons are past 7. past 4 carbon is probably bonded to O. between 9 and 10 O=C bond.

standard deviation

A measure of variability that indicates the average difference between the scores and their mean. sqrt( (xi-x)^2/n-1)

Interquartile Range (IQR)

A measure of variability, defined to be the difference between the third and first quartiles.

Gallbladder

A muscular sac attached to the liver that secretes bile and stores it until needed for digestion. Bile is a fluid that is made and released by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Bile helps with digestion. It breaks down fats into fatty acids, which can be taken into the body by the digestive tract. The gall bladder is an organ that stores bile produced by the liver. The major dissolved components of bile are breakdown products of hemoglobin such as bilirubin and bile salts. The bile salts are amphipathic; that is, they have a hydophobic portion that is soluble only in fats and oils and a hydrophilic portion that is soluble in water. Bile salts allow dietary fats (and oils), which do not dissolve in the watery digestive juices, to form an emulsion of tiny droplets dispersed in the digestive juices. One end of a bile salt molecule associates with the fats and the other with the aqueous solution in the gut. The dispersion of fats in the aqueous digestive juices and aids digestion by making them available to digestive enzymes

Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)

A type of chromatography that uses silica gel or alumina on a card as the medium for the stationary phase. The stronger a compound is bound to the adsorbent , the slower it moves up the TLC plate. Non-polar compounds move up the plate most rapidly (higher Rf value), whereas polarsubstances travel up the TLC plate slowly or not at all (lower Rf value).

Radioactive decay is the loss of small particles form the nucleus.

Alpha (a) decay is the emission of an alpha particle (helium). Beta-negative (B-) decay is the decay of a neutron into a proton, which emission of an electron (e-,B-) and an antineutrino v. Beta positive (B+) decay, also called positron emission, is the decay of a proton into a neutron, with emission of a positron (e+, B+) and a neutrino (v). Gamma decay is the emission of a gamma ray, which converts a high energy nucleus into a more stable nucleus. Electron capture is the absorption of an electron from the inner shell that combines with a proton in the nucleus to form a neutron.

Will it redox?

Alright. So if you want to see if a Ecell will happen then you need to compare the cathode (the one oxidizing, the one getting reduced) cell potential (which is it's face value), and the anode cell potential (which will need to have it's sign switched). then what you do is you add these two values. Keep in mind if you create an reaction equation you need to make sure the electrons are the right number and you'll multiple the half reaction by this BUT not the Ered/ox. Then you will add the two numbers. If the Ecell is positive, it is spontaneous and it can work, if it is negative than it is not spontaneous and cannot work. Spontaneous equals a negative delta G and positive is a nonspontanoues

Aluminum belongs to what block of elements in the periodic table?

Aluminum is found in group 13 (3A) of the periodic table; it is a p-block element.

The Bohr model of the atom states that electron energy levels are stable and discrete, corresponding to specific orbits

An electron can jump form a lower-energy to a higher energy orbit by absorbing a photon of light of the same frequency as the energy difference between the orbits. The nan electron falls form a higher-energy to a lower-energy orbit, it emits a photon of light of the same frequency as the energy difference between the orbits.

Like oxygen atoms in methanogens, which of the following elements can act as an electron acceptor?

An element which can act as an electron acceptor should have a high electron affinity. This is true of oxygen and sulfur, both group VI elements, but not of helium and iron. As a noble gas, He is not likely to accept or donate electrons, and as a metal, Fe is most likely to donate electrons in order to form the stable Fe2+ or Fe3+ ions. H2 is a stable molecule and again is unlikely to accept electrons. Therefore choice A, sulfur, is correct.

Ligase

An enzyme that connects two fragments of DNA to make a single fragment

adaptive radiation

An evolutionary pattern in which many species evolve from a single ancestral species

What is the geometry of the hexafluoroaluminate ion (AlF63-)?

An ion consisting of a central metal ion and six ligands is expected to have an octahedral geometry.

According to trends in electronegativity, which of the following pairs of atoms is most likely to form an ionic bond?

An ionic bond is most likely to form between elements of very high and very low electronegativity. In practice this generally means elements at the far right and far left of the periodic table respectively. Of the pairs of elements offered as choices, only calcium and iodine are found at opposite sides of the periodic table. An ionic compound of formula CaI2 is likely to form between them.

Doppler effect

An observed change in the frequency of a wave when the source or observer is moving

Free body diagrams

Are representations of the forces acting on an object. They are useful for equilibrium and dynamic problems.

Velocity is the vector representation of the change in displacement with respect to time

Average velocity is the total displacement divided by the total time. Average speed is the total distance traveled divided by the total time. Instantaneous velocity is the limit of the change in displacement over time as the change in time approaches zero. Instantaneous speed is the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity vector.

Which of the following recombinant processes depends on the F factor plasmid?

Bacteria can exchange genes by three processes: conjugation, transformation and transduction. The process of conjugation involves production of a special conjugation pilus (sex pilus) by one bacterium and transfer through it of DNA to another bacterium. It requires special genes for the pilus and these are usually present on a plasmid, a separate extragenomic strand of DNA not incorporated into the bacterium's own DNA. This plasmid is referred to as the fertility or F factor. Conjugation is a feature of Gram-negative bacteria. It confers the advantages of sexual reproduction on the bacterium. The plasmid benefits by being able to move from one host bacterium to another through the conjugation pilus. Conjugation is the process described in the stem, so choice C is correct. Choice A and B are the other two processes that do not require a plasmid. In transformation bacteria take up DNA from their surroundings, the media in which they are immersed. Transduction is the process whereby genes are transferred by a virus. Choice D is also incorrect; translocation, is a general term used in biology to describe movement from one place to another (genes on a chromosome, proteins in a cell, sap in a tree).

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

Based on individuals' interacting and learning about their world. 8 crisis parts goodness. Very big on culture and society throughout lifespan. 1. first year of life, idea of trust vs. distrust. Virtue- hope, negative outcome if failing to develop hope is fear or suspicioun. 2. 2nd year - autonomy vs. doubt. virtue is independence/will. negative outcome is lacking self esteem or shame. 3. 3-5 years. initiative v. guilt. learning play. virtue is purpose. negative outcome is guilt or inadequacy. 4. 6-12 years. industry vs. inferiority. greater self esteem and approval from others. virtue is competence. negative outcome is inferiority. 5. 12-18 - identity vs. role confusion. virtue is fidelity, or feel integrated as a person. negative outcome is rebellion or confusion of who you are. 6. 18-40- intimacy vs. isolation. can I form close relationships? virtue is love, neg is isolation/unhappiness. 7. 40-65 - generatively vs. stagnation. virtue - care for others neg- unproductive. 8. 65+- integrity vs. disparity. start to feel unproductive/regret. virtue is wisdom, but neg is disativiaction or fear of death.

role playing

Behavior influencing attitude- kind of faking it until you make it.

the old brain

Brainstem, medulla, bons = heart beat, breathing, crossover point. Reticular formation- filter, arousal, and thalamus relay station. And finally cerebellum is coordinating movement

Current is the movement of charge that occurs between two points that have different electric potentials

By convention, current is defined as the movement of positive charge from the high potential end of a voltage source to the low potential end. In reality, it is negatively charged particles (electrons) that move in a circuit, from low potential to high potential

Phenyl

C6H5

Definition of capacitance

C=Q/V

classical conditioning

Classical conditioning is when you pair a unconditioned stimulus with a stimulus. A stimulus produces a response. Carrot is unconditioned stimulus. It makes a Unconditioned response. The sound of the refrigerator opening is a neutral stimulus. the neutral stimulus then becomes the conditioned stimulus. The unconditioned response now becomes the unconditioned response. Similar conditioned stimulus that still elect the conditioned response is called generalization. like a desk sounding like the refrigerator. Deiscrimination is when there are similar sounds but they don't sound perfectly the same, and they don't elect a conditioned response. Extinction is when the conditioned stimulus isn't paired with the unconditioned response enough and it fades out. ontaneous recovery is when the conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus is extinct but then it comes back one day. It's normally not as strong but it just randomly pops up.

Spherical mirror have centers and radii of curvature, as well as focal points.

Concave mirror are converging system and can produce real, inverted images or virtual, upright images, depending on the placement of the objects relative to the focal point. Conves mirror are diverging systems and will only produce virtual, upright images. Plan mirror also produce virtual, upright images; these images are always the same size as the object. They may be thought of as spherical mirror with infinite radii of curvature.

What is the conjugate base of chlorobenzoic acid? HC7H4ClO2

Conjugate acids and bases differ only by the presence or absence of a proton (H+). The conjugate base of an acid is formed from the acid by the loss of a proton (H+). Table 1 gives the formula of chlorobenzoic acid as HC7H4ClO2, and the loss of H+ gives C7H4ClO2-.

Density equation

D=m/v

George Herbert Mead

Developed Symbolic Interactionism. Believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things. There are 3 stages: 1. predatory stage (center of own universe, can't understand other's perspectives, imitation). 2. play stage (pretend play)3. game stage (generalized other, take on multiple roles). After stage 3 the need to have others have good perspective of you leads to development of I and Me. The Me is how other's see us our "social selves" and the I is the response to our social selfs, the individual identity stepping in keeping me in check and saying what we really think.

endocrine system

Different kinds of chemical messages. 1. Proteins/polypeptides (small and large) 2. Steroids (from cholesterol and 3. tyrosine derivates (thyroid, catecholemines like adrenalin). Autocrine is cells right next to each other, paracrine signaling are regional area, and endocrine are far away responses. Hypothalamus, pituitary is the "master gland", pituitary stimulates thyroid gland (metabolism) through T3 and T4. on the back of the thyroid is the parathyroid gland like calcium. Adrenal glands have cortex and the medulla of the inside, which is where steroids and catecholamine respectively. Gonads are the sex hormones. they are stimulated by FSH and Lh. and finally pancreas releases insulin and glucagon.

E-Z system

E- opposite (higher priority parts on opposite sides) Z- together -ze came zide-(higher priority parts on the same side). -used when there are nonidentical groups around double bond 1) assign priority to the groups directly bonded to each carbon in double bond (use atomic #) ***if the two groups directly bonded to the carbon in double bond have the same atomic number, write the things attached directly and compare looking for the first point of difference (then look at atomic # of that element that is different) 2) compare the groups attached to each carbon (look at the 2 highest priority groups --> labeled 1 on each side) 3) determine if the 2 highest priority groups are on opposite sides (E) or if they are on the same side (Z)

Equipotential lines designate the set of points around a source charge of multiple source charges that have the same electric potential

Equipotential lines are lawyers perpendicular to electric field lines. Work will be done when na charge is moved from one equipotential line to another; the work is independent of the pathway taken between the lines. No work is done when a charge moves from a point on an equipotential line to another point on the same equipotential line.

Freud's psychosexual development

Everything is based around libido. If not conflict overcome, can create in fixation. He believed first 5 years of life were most important. OLD AGE PARROTS LOVE GRAPES 1. Oral Stage (0-1 Year)- Libidinal energy is focused on the mouth and gratification is obtained through putting objects into the mouth, biting, and sucking. Feeding, conflict is weaning. could later develop dependences or addiction or nail bite. 2. Anal Stage (1-3 Years)- Libidinal energy is centered on the anus and gratification comes from the elimination and retention of waste materials. Toilet training occurs during this stage. Toilet training. Orderliness and messiness is fixated. 3. Phallic/ Oedipal Stage (3-5 Years)- genital Male children envies the father's intimate relationship with the mother and therefor wished to eliminate his father and possess his mother. However he feels guilty about these feelings and suppresses them by identifying with the father, internalizing moral values, and using his energy to focus on schoolwork or other tasks rather than libido. Electra conflict is more or less the same for female children. Discover difference between male and females. Cause sexual dysfunction like homo if not overcome. 4. Latency- nothing Begins once the libido has been sublimated in the phallic stage and lets until puberty is reached. 6-12. communication and social skills. no adult fixation. 5. Genital Stage- Begins in puberty and last through adulthood, and is the point where, if all previous stages progressed correctly, then the person should enter healthy heterosexual relationships. However, if there are lingering unresolved sexual traumas then homosexuality, asexuality, or fetishism may occur. 12+ is maturation. mentally healthy if overcome well.

Weight of a volume of fluid equation

F= pVg p=density V=volume g=acceleration due to gravity

Newtons second law is

F=ma

Cerebral cortex

FPOT frontal is motor and prefrontal, like planning. Broca's area. Parietal lobe is somatosensory (like temperature) and spatial orientation. Occipital lobe - vision and striate cortex. Temporal cortex - sound and wernike's area.

Fluids are substances that have the ability to flow and conform to the shape of their containers

Fluids can exert perpendicular forces, but cannot exert shear forces. Liquids and gases are the two phases of matter that are fluids

Estimation of multiplication and division should be done logically.

In multiplication, if one number is rounded up, the other should be rounded down in proportion. I division, if one number is rounded up, the other should also be rounded up in proportion

Loudness or volume of a sound (sound level) is related to its intensity.

Intensity is related to a wave's amplitude. Intensity decreases over distance and some energy is lost to attenuation (damping) from frictional forces.

attribution theory

Interal/disposition and external/situational. the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition. Covariation model - when there is high consistencey of someone flaking on us, we attribute it to internal factors bc they're always making shit up. When something is distinctive and unusual, we attribute it to the environment (out of character). a third factor- consensus is when there are a lot of people doing a behavior, it's more likely to be situational than if one person does it it's probably internal. ALSO attribution error which is when we think our issues are external and other's are internal. individuals cultures is what I just described, but it's actually opposite for collectivist societies.

Gravity

Is the attractive force between two objects as sa result of their masses

social cognitive theory

Learn through seeing a behavior done. boho doll experiment. Learning - performance distinction- you can learn the behavior but not perform it. "bandora's social cognitive theory" is the theory of this. The four components of it are attention, memory, imitation and motivation (so attention to learn the behavior, memory of the behavior, you have to be able to imitate the behavior, and then the motivation to do the behavior). referring to the use of cognitive processes in relation to understanding the social world

message characteristics

Message characteristics (was the message well written? Grammar? too long?) source characteristics (environment around us. do they seem knowledgeable and trust worthy? what is the setting?) Target characteristics. (are you in a good mood? do you have high esteem?). Elaboration likelihood model. We process information on two possible routes. The two possible paths are the central and peripheral paths. The information is passed through 3 different stages after a route is selected. Information is first filtered through our perceptions (target), it filters before you're able to processes it. the second stage is processing stage. quality of message delivered, deep processing of the infirormation. people who aren't interest in the message (peripheral) they pay attention to how attractive the person is or how powerpoint looks. Or how many times they got the audience to laugh. no deep procession or shallow processing. Then the third is an attitude change. This e who are very interested in central, they will have a lasting change. Those who weren't very interested will have a temporary change in the peripheral.

What is the approximate molarity of the solution prepared by the instructor? The instructor prepared a solution of NaOH(aq) by dissolving 8 g of NaOH(s) (MM = 40.00) in 2 L of H2O, as shown in Equation 1. The temperature of the solution rose during the mixing process.

Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. The passage gives the mass (8 g) and molar mass (40.00) for NaOH and also gives the volume (2 L) of solution. The instructor dissolved (8 g)/(40 g/mol) = 0.2 mol NaOH in 2 L of H2O, or 0.1 mol in 1 L of H2O.

Side-effect discrimination

One institution can unintentionally influence another institution negatively.

Electric power equation

P=IV=I^2R=V^2/R

frequency = 1/time period

Period T = number of seconds per oscillation. Frequency f= number of oscillations per second. Hertz is how many times a molecule moves back and forth per second. So 440 hertz is a molecule moving back and forth 440 times. Stiffer materials = faster sound wave. The denser a medium, slower the sound wave. V = sqrt (B/q). B= bulk modulus, which is how you measure how stiff a material is. q is density. Intensity of sound is equal to 1/r^2. so if you're 2 times as far away it will be four time as loud. Attenuation is when some of the air gets lost in the medium. (sound gets lost in the air or whatever)

Charles cooley looking glass self

Persons self grows out of societies interpersonal interactions and perceptions of others. our view of ourselves comes from our own contemplation on ourselves and also from how we feel others see us. 3 Components How we must appear Imagine and react to what we feel their judgment is Develop our self through judgment So what we image others must think of us.

Gauge pressure equation

Pg = P - Patm = (P0 + pgz) - Patm

Research ethics were established by the Belmont Report

Respect for persons includes autonomy, informed consent and confidentiality. Justice dictates which study questions are worth pursuing and which subjects to use. Beneficence requires us to do the most good with the least harm. We cannot perform an intervention without equipoise- a lack of knowledge about which arm of the research study is better for the subject.

In order to be supported, an intervention must display both statical and clinical significance

Statistical significance refers to the low likelihood of the experimental findings being due to chance. Clinical significance refers to the usefulness or importance of experimental findings to patient care of patient outcomes.

MCAT will test the SI units which are related to the metric system.

THE SI units include meter, kilogram, second, ampere, mole, kelvin, and candela.

Ka

The acid dissociation constant (Ka) is used to distinguish strong acids from weak acids. Strong acids have exceptionally high Ka values. The Ka value is found by looking at the equilibrium constant for the dissociation of the acid. Similarly, Kb is the base dissociation constant, while pKb is the -log of the constant. The acid and base dissociation constants are usually expressed in terms of moles per liter (mol/L).

Pellagra also results from a deficiency of nicotinamide, which is synthesized from tryptophan. Nicotinamide nucleotides are neither oxidized nor reduced during which step of cellular respiration? A. Glycolysis B. Chemiosmosis C. Citric acid cycle D. Electron transport chain

The answer is B because NAD+ is the oxidized form, and NADH is the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. NAD+ is neither reduced to form NADH, nor is NADH oxidized to form NAD+ specifically during chemiosmosis.

When concentrated urine is being produced, in which of the following regions of the kidney will the glomerular filtrate reach its highest concentration? A.Proximal convoluted tubule B. Distal convoluted tubule C. Cortical portion of the collecting duct D. Medullary portion of the collecting duct

The answer is D because glomerular filtrate is most concentrated in the medullary portion of the collecting duct, compared to the other kidney structures listed.

Which of the following is a second period element that is a covalent network solid in its standard state? A.Carbon B.Phosphorous C.Oxygen D.Iodine

The answer to this question is A because Carbon is a second period element that is a covalent network solid (graphite) in its standard state. It is a Knowledge of Scientific Concepts and Principles question because you must identify the relationship between the position of an element in the Periodic Table of the Elements and its elemental behavior.

The average osmotic pressure of ocean water is 28 atm corresponding to a concentration of 0.50 M solutes (approximated as NaCl). What is the approximate concentration of solutes (also approximated as NaCl) present in blood with an osmotic pressure of 7 atm? A.0.12 M B.0.25 M C.2.0 M D.3.5 M

The answer to this question is A because osmotic pressure is directly proportional to solute concentration. Since the osmotic pressure of blood is one-fourth that of ocean water, the solute concentration is also one-fourth that of ocean water, or 0.25 × 0.50 M = 0.12 M.

Protein secondary structure is characterized by the pattern of hydrogen bonds between: A.backbone amide protons and carbonyl oxygens. B.backbone amide protons and side chain carbonyl oxygens. C.side chain hydroxyl groups and backbone carbonyl oxygens. D.side chain amide protons and backbone carbonyl oxygens.

The answer to this question is A because secondary structure is represented by repeated patterns of hydrogen bonds between the backbone amide protons and carbonyl oxygen atoms.

When a 0.1 M H2SO4 solution is added to pulverized blackboard chalk, the following reaction takes place. CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) At 25°C, the reaction is spontaneous and has: A.negative ΔG° and positive ΔS°. B.negative ΔG° and negative ΔS°. C.positive ΔG° and negative ΔS°. D.positive ΔG° and positive ΔS°.

The answer to this question is A because spontaneous reactions must have a negative ΔG°, and reaction that create gaseous products from solids and liquids must have a positive ΔS°. It is a Knowledge of Scientific Concepts and Principles question since you are asked to recognize the relationship between ΔG° and spontaneity, as well as ΔS° for reactions involving gaseous product formation.

In its lowest-energy electron configuration, zinc has a: A.filled 3d energy level and a filled 4s energy level. B.half-filled 3d energy level and a filled 4s energy level. C.filled 3d energy level and a half-filled 4s energy level. D.half-filled 3d energy level and a half-filled 4s energy level.

The answer to this question is A, based on subshell filling rules, the 12 valence electrons occupy 4s and 3d subshells, which are completely filled. Zn is element number 30 and in Group 12 of the Periodic Table.

If the reaction shown in Equation 1 is spontaneous, the value of K must be: A.greater than 1. B.equal to ΔG. C.less than 1. D.equal to zero.

The answer to this question is A, because a spontaneous reaction is one that exhibits ΔG < 0. Since ΔG = -RTln(Keq), this means that Keq must be > 1. It is a Knowledge of Scientific Concepts and Principles question because you must identify the relationship between the closely related concepts of free energy and equilibrium constant for a reaction.

Which single bond present in nitroglycerin is most likely the shortest? A.C-H B.C-O C.C-C D.O-N

The answer to this question is A. All of the bonds listed are single bonds. Since hydrogen has a much smaller atomic radius than second period elements, the covalent bond between C and H is shorter than any of the other bonds listed.

The concentration of enzyme for each experiment was 5.0 μM. What is kcat for the reaction at pH 4.5 with NO chloride added when Compound 3 is the substrate? A.2.5 × 10-2 s-1 B.1.3 × 102 s-1 C.5.3 × 103 s-1 D.7.0 × 105 s-1

The answer to this question is A. The fact that the rate of product formation did not vary over time for the first 5 minutes implies that the enzyme was saturated with substrate. Under these conditions, kcat = Vmax/[E] = (125 nM/s)/5.0 μM = 2.5 × 10-2 s-1.

Four organic compounds: 2-butanone, n-pentane, propanoic acid, and n-butanol, present as a mixture, are separated by column chromatography using silica gel with benzene as the eluent. What is the expected order of elution of these four organic compounds from first to last? A.n-Pentane → 2-butanone → n-butanol → propanoic acid B.n-Pentane → n-butanol → 2-butanone → propanoic acid C.Propanoic acid → n-butanol → 2-butanone → n-pentane D.Propanoic acid → 2-butanone → n-butanol → n-pentane

The answer to this question is A. The four compounds have comparable molecular weights, so the order of elution will depend on the polarity of the molecule. Since silica gel serves as the stationary phase for the experiment, increasing the polarity of the eluting molecule will increase its affinity for the stationary phase and increase the elution time (decreased Rf).

Normally, a hypothalamic factor stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary gland. In a patient with Addison's disease, the secretion of the hypothalamic factor will: A.be lower than normal. B.be higher than normal. C.be unchanged. D.increase before disease onset and decrease thereafter.

The answer to this question is B because ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids. According to the passage, Addison's disease occurs when cells of the adrenal cortex are destroyed, rendering them unable to secrete glucocorticoids. As part of a hormone cascade pathway, ACTH secretion is expected to be higher than normal in a patient with Addison's disease to attempt to stimulate the adrenal cortex.

A certain bacterium was cultured for several generations in medium containing 15N, transferred to medium containing 14N, and allowed to complete two rounds of cell division. Given that the bacterium's genome mass is 5.4 fg when grown in 14N media and 5.5 fg when grown in 15N medium, individual bacteria with which of the following genome masses would most likely be isolated from this culture? A.5.4 fg only B.5.4 fg and 5.45 fg C.5.4 fg and 5.5 fg D.5.45 fg only

The answer to this question is B because DNA replication is semi-conservative. Therefore, after the first round of cell division the genome mass in each bacterium will be 5.45 fg (one DNA strand will contain 15N and the other strand 14N). Following the second round of cell division, half of the bacteria will have a genome mass of 5.4 fg (14N exclusively) and the other half a mass genome of 5.45 fg (14N in one DNA strand and 15N in the other).

light and heavy chains

The answer to this question is B because regions 1 and 3 correspond to the variable portion of the light and heavy chains, respectively, of an antibody. The variable region of an antibody will enable recognition of a particular antigen, such as HER2, which typically has elevated expression in breast cancer tumors.An antibody is a 'Y'-shaped molecule that consists of four polypeptide chains; two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains connected by disulfide bonds.

Pairs of research participants interacted for 10 min. They rated themselves and their partners on personality traits and then rated the accuracy of their partners' ratings of them. The partners' ratings were rated as more accurate if they were close to participants' own self-ratings. This finding illustrates: A.the self-fulfilling prophecy. B.self-verification. C.the self-serving bias. D.self-efficacy.

The answer to this question is B because self-verification refers to the tendency to seek out (and agree with) information that is consistent with one's self-concept.

Knowing that the speed of light in the vitreous humor is 2.1 × 108 m/s, what is the index of refraction of the vitreous humor? (Note: The speed of light in a vacuum is 3.0 × 108 m/s.) A.0.7 B.1.4 C.2.1 D.3.0

The answer to this question is B because the index of refraction of a medium is equal to the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the medium, thus it is equal to (3.0 x 108 m/s)/(2.1 x 108 m/s) = 1.4.

What percentage of standard atmospheric pressure is the pulse pressure of a healthy adult? A.10% B. 6% C. 2% D. 1%

The answer to this question is B because the pulse pressure in a healthy adult is (120 − 75) mmHg = 45 mmHg, and so the percentage is 45 mmHg/760 mmHg = 6%.

An inflatable cuff was used to temporarily stop blood flow in an upper arm artery. While releasing the pressure to deflate the cuff, a stethoscope was used to listen to blood flow in the forearm. The blood pressure reading was 130/85. Given this information, which of the following statements is LEAST likely to be true? A.85 mmHg was the diastolic pressure. B.Blood flow was heard when the pressure of the cuff was greater than 130 mmHg. C.130 mmHg was the systolic pressure. D.Blood flow was heard when the pressure of the cuff was 90 mmHg.

The answer to this question is B because the question indicates that the cuff was inflated to temporarily stop blood flow in the artery. The systolic pressure is determined from the first sound of blood flow that can be heard once the pressure exerted by the inflatable cuff falls below the pressure in the artery. The blood pressure reading was 130/85, which indicates that blood flow started again when the pressure was 130 mmHg. Therefore, blood flow was not heard when the pressure of the cuff was greater than 130 mmHg. A is not the correct response because the lower number of the blood pressure reading represents the diastolic pressure. C is not the correct response because the higher number of the blood pressure reading represents the systolic pressure. D is not the correct response because blood flow would be heard when the pressure of the cuff is 90 mmHg, as this pressure is higher than the diastolic pressure.

What are the hybridization states of the carbon atoms involved in the conversion of trans to cis retinal? A.sp B.sp2 C.sp3 D.sp3d

The answer to this question is B because the reacting carbon atoms are both central to AX3 systems with 3 bonded atoms and no lone pairs. The preferred geometry for such a system is trigonal planar and the hybridization scheme that facilitates this geometry is sp2.

Which term is used to refer to the type of memory phenomenon examined in studies 1 and 2? A.Reproductive memory B.Flashbulb memory C.Prospective memory D.Eidetic memory

The answer to this question is B because the subjectively vivid, compelling memories of details associated with reception of news about emotionally arousing events were referred to as flashbulb memories (Brown & Kulik, 1977).

Each of the following equations shows the dissociation of an acid in water. Which of the reactions occurs to the LEAST extent? A. HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl− B. HPO42− + H2O → H3O+ + PO43− C. H2SO4 + H2O → H3O+ + HSO4− D. H3PO4 + H2O → H3O+ + H2PO4−

The answer to this question is B. HPO42− has a high negative charge and so dissociation of it will occur to the least extent. It is a Scientific Reasoning and Problem Solving question because you are asked to use a scientific principle and theory to draw a conclusion.

A researcher conducts observational research on the study habits of college students. When students are aware of the researcher's presence, they are more attentive, focused, and structured. When students are not aware of the researcher's presence, they are inattentive, unfocused, and distracted. Which concept best describes this phenomenon? A.Impression management B.The Hawthorne effect C.Self-fulfilling prophecy D.The Thomas theorem

The answer to this question is B. The Hawthorne effect describes changes in research participants as a result of their awareness that they are being observed. The changes to the students' study habits are best explained by the Hawthorne effect, which was first observed among workers. The incorrect options refer to related but distinct concepts. A self-fulfilling prophecy is an individual's internalization of a label that leads to a fulfillment of that label. Impression management refers to individuals actively managing how they are perceived by others. The Thomas theorem states that if an individual believes something to be real, then it is real in its consequences.

Inhibition of phosphofructokinase-1 by ATP is an example of: allosteric regulation. feedback inhibition. competitive inhibition. A.I only B.III only C.I and II only D.II and III only

The answer to this question is C because ATP, the end product of glycolysis, downregulates through feedback inhibition the activity of phosphofructokinase-1 by binding to a regulatory site other than the active site of the enzyme (allosteric regulation). In contrast, competitive inhibition involves competition for binding to the active site.

Which of the following will decrease the percentage ionization of 1.0 M acetic acid, CH3CO2H(aq)? A. Chlorinating the CH3 group B. Diluting the solution C. Adding concentrated HCl(aq) D. Adding a drop of basic indicator

The answer to this question is C because HCl is a strong acid that will increase the amount of H+ in solution and thus decrease the percentage of CH3CO2H that ionizes. It is a Scientific Reasoning and Problem Solving question because you are asked to reason using a scientific principle (Le Châtelier's principle) to identify that adding a strong acid to a solution of weak acid will decrease the amount of ionization of the latter.

Which type of membrane transport is directly affected by cardiac glycosides? A.Simple diffusion B.Facilitated diffusion C.Primary active transport D.Secondary active transport

The answer to this question is C because The Na+K+ ATPase is an example of primary active transport.

Large amounts of protein are found in the urine of a patient. Based on this information, which portion of the nephron is most likely malfunctioning? A.Collecting duct B.Distal tubule C.Glomerulus D.Loop of Henle

The answer to this question is C because in healthy individuals, the structure of the glomerular capillaries prevents the entry of large molecules, such as proteins, into the filtrate.

Where in the human male reproductive system do the gametes become motile and capable of fertilization? A.Testis B.Urethra C.Epididymis D.Prostate gland

The answer to this question is C because sperm, produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes, completes maturation and becomes motile in the epididymis.

What expression gives the amount of light energy (in J per photon) that is converted to other forms between the fluorescence excitation and emission events? A.(6.62 × 10-34) × (3.0 × 108) B.(6.62 × 10-34) × (3.0 × 108) × (360 × 10-9) C.(6.62 × 10-34) × (3.0 × 108) × [1 / (360 × 10-9) - 1 / (440 × 10-9)] D.(6.62 × 10-34) × (3.0 × 108) / (440 × 10-9)

The answer to this question is C because the equation of interest is E = hf = hc/λ, where h = 6.62 × 10 −34 J ∙ s and c = 3 × 10 8 m/s. Excitation occurs at λe = 360 nm, but fluorescence is observed at λf = 440 nm. This implies that an energy of E = (6.62 × 10 −34) × (3 × 10 8) × [1 / (360 × 10 −9) − 1 / (440 × 10 −9)] J per photon is converted to other forms between the excitation and fluorescence events.

What type of functional group is formed when aspartic acid reacts with another amino acid to form a peptide bond? (future me: research the other groups when answering this question) A. An amine group B. An aldehyde group C. An amide group D. A carboxyl group

The answer to this question is C because the functional group that forms during peptide bond formation is known as an amide group.

A person, whose eye has a lens-to-retina distance of 2.0 cm, can only clearly see objects that are closer than 1.0 m away. What is the strength S of the person's eye lens? (Note: Use the thin lens formula ​​.) A -50 D B.-10 D C. 51 D D. 55 D

The answer to this question is C because the strength of the eye lens is equal to the inverse of the focal length of the eye lens. Its numerical value is given by ​​-1+(0.02 m)-1=1 D+50 D=51 D.

A large carbohydrate is tagged with a fluorescent marker and placed in the extracellular environment around a macrophage. The macrophage ingests the carbohydrate via phagocytosis. Which cellular structure is most likely to be fluorescently labeled upon viewing with a light microscope soon after phagocytosis? A.Nucleus B.Golgi apparatus C.Lysosome D.Endoplasmic reticulum

The answer to this question is C because when a macrophage ingests foreign material, the material initially becomes trapped in a phagosome. The phagosome then fuses with a lysosome to form a phagolysosome. Inside the phagolysosome, enzymes digest the foreign object. Of the cell structures listed, the labeled carbohydrate is most likely to be microscopically visualized within a lysosome (phagolysosome).

What is the concentration of hydroxide ion for the solutions with the highest pH that was studied? the highest pH tested (10) A.10-10 B.10-6 C.10- 4 D.10-2

The answer to this question is C because, at the highest pH tested (10) the [H3O+] is 10-10 M. This means that [OH-] is 10-4 M, because [H3O+] × [OH-] = 10-14 for aqueous solutions at 25°C.

The pH of a 1 L phosphate buffer solution was measured as 7.6, but the experimental procedure calls for a pH 7.2 buffer. Which method will adjust the solution to the proper pH? (Note: The pKa values for phosphoric acid are 2.2, 7.2, and 12.3.) A.Add enough 1 M Na2HPO3 to increase the phosphate anion concentration ten-fold. B.Add 1 M NaOH to neutralize a portion of the hydronium ions found in the solution. C.Alter the ratio of monosodium/disodium phosphate added to favor the monosodium species. D.Add 100 mL distilled, deionized water to dilute the basicity of the buffer.

The answer to this question is C because, in order to lower the pH of a buffer, the proportion of acidic buffer component must be increased. Adding strong base, diluting with water, or adding a different basic salt will not lower the pH.

What type of reaction is occurring between I2 and Zn? A.Acid-base (neutralization) B.Precipitate formation C.Oxidation-reduction D.Chelate formation

The answer to this question is C, because both zinc and iodine change oxidation states during the reaction.

Calcium and magnesium belong to what group on the periodic table? A.The alkali metals B.The metalloids C.The alkaline earth metals D.The halogens

The answer to this question is C, because magnesium and calcium both appear in Group 2 of the Periodic Table of the Elements. This family of elements is commonly known as the alkaline earth metals.

What causes duplex DNA with a certain (A + T):(G + C) ratio to melt at a higher temperature than comparable length duplex DNA with a greater (A + T):(G + C) ratio? A.Stronger van der Waals forces of pyrimidines B.Stronger van der Waals forces of purines C.Increased π- stacking strength D.Reduced electrostatic repulsion of phosphates

The answer to this question is C. G-C base pairs form stronger π-stacking interactions than A-T base pairs, thereby creating the most thermal stability. This disparity has often been used to explain the increased melting temperature of DNA rich in GC content.

Which nucleotide pairing(s) would be recognized by the MMR system during DNA replication? dTMP and dCMP dGMP and dAMP dAMP and dTMP A. I only B. III only C. I and II only D. I, II, and III

The answer to this question is C. The MMR system recognizes and repairs nucleotide mismatches during DNA replication. The nucleotide pairs dTMP and dCMP (I) and dGMP and dAMP (II) are mismatches. dAMP and dTMP (III) is a correct pairing.

What is the concentration of Ca2+(aq) in a saturated solution of CaCO3? (Note: The solubility product constant Ksp for CaCO3 is 4.9 × 10-9.) A.2.4 × 10-4 M B.4.9 × 10-5 M C.7.0 × 10-5 M D.4.9 × 10-9 M

The answer to this question is C. The solubility product constant expression for CaCO3 is Ksp = [Ca2+][CO32-]. Since equal quantities of Ca2+(aq) and CO32-(aq) are produced when CaCO3 dissolves, this expression reduces to 4.9 × 10-9 = x2, or 49 × 10-10 = x2. This can be solved directly by taking the square root of each side.

Which action(s) could contribute to the positive inotropic effect of digoxin on cardiac myocytes? Decrease transport of Ca2+ to the extracellular environment. Increase availability of intracellular Ca2+ to bind to troponin. Increase overall Ca2+ stores in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. A.II only B.III only C.I and II only D.I, II, and III

The answer to this question is D because all of these actions will lead to an increase in intracellular calcium levels, resulting in enhancement of the contractile force of the heart.

Assume that S. typhi immediately enters the bloodstream from the small intestine. Of the following, which would be the first major organ that bloodborne S. typhi would encounter? A.Stomach B.Pancreas C.Large intestine D.Liver

The answer to this question is D because blood from the small intestine is transported first to the liver, which regulates nutrient distribution and removes toxins from the blood.

How would a structural functionalist interpret the efficacy of yoga as part of a smoking cessation therapy? A.Yoga provides an alternate understanding of healthful practices that enables the individual to better understand his or her personal needs and motives. B.Yoga provides an inexpensive therapy option for those lacking the financial resources necessary for more expensive medical interventions. C.The utility of yoga as an effective smoking cessation therapy stems from the transformation of the individual's self-concept as a nonsmoker. D.The utility of yoga as an effective smoking cessation therapy is an unintended, though beneficial, outcome of a yoga practice.

The answer to this question is D because it describes a latent, or unintended, function. Becuase the expected function of yoga is not specifically smoking cessation, its utility as a cessation therapy is a latent function of the social activity. The sociological paradigm of functionalism makes a distinction between manifest, or intended, and latent, or unintended, functions of social activities. From the functionalist perspective, almost all social actions have both manifest functions and latent functions, both of which are connected to overall social stability. The other response options with the question are better linked to the conflict or symbolic interactionist perspectives in sociology.

Which of the following best describes the bonds between Cu2+ and the nitrogen atoms of the ammonia molecules in [Cu(NH3)4]2+? A.Ionic B.Covalent C.Coordinate ionic D.Coordinate covalent

The answer to this question is D because the Lewis acid-base interaction between a metal cation and an electron pair donor is known as a coordinate covalent bond.

What is the maximum energy of the UV photons generated by this plasma pencil? (Note: Speed of light is c = 3.0 × 108 m/s;Planck's constant is h = 6.63 × 10-34 J•s.) A.7 × 10-16 J B.5 × 10-17 J C.3 × 10-17 J D.1 × 10-18 J

The answer to this question is D because the energy of a photon is given by E = hf. The passage gives the wavelength of the UV radiation. Inserting this into the formula for photon energy yields E = hc/λ = 6.6 × 10-34 J × (3 × 108 m/s)/(200 × 10-9 m) ≅ 1 × 10-18 J.

What is the energy of the photons emitted by the LED at a frequency of 610 THz? (Note: h = 6.6 × 10-34 J·s) A. 9.2 × 10-12 J B. 1.6 × 10-16 J C. 1.1 × 10-18 J D. 4.0 × 10-19 J

The answer to this question is D because the energy of a photon of frequency 610 THz is equal to 6.6 x 10-34 J•s x 610 x 1012 Hz = 4 x 10-19 J.

A glass rod is rubbed with a silk scarf producing a charge of +3.2 × 10-9 C on the rod. (Recall that the magnitude of the proton and electron charges is 1.6 × 10-19 C.) The glass rod has: A.5.1 × 10^11 protons added to it. B.5.1 × 10^11 electrons removed from it. C.2.0 × 10^10 protons added to it. D.2.0 × 10^10 electrons removed from it.

The answer to this question is D because the number of charges in excess can be computed as +3.2 × 10 -9 C/1.6 × 10 -19 C = +2.0 × 10 10. This means that the rod has an excess of positive charge, created by removing a number of +2.0 × 10 10 electrons from the material, as it is not possible to add protons in a manner described in this question.

Assume that K and M are two unlinked genes that affect hearing. The dominant K allele is necessary for hearing, and the dominant M allele causes deafness regardless of the other genes present. Given this, what fraction of the offspring of parents with the genotypes KkMmand Kkmm will most likely be deaf? A.1/4 B.3/8 C.1/2 D.5/8

The answer to this question is D, because among the offspring of KkMm and Kkmm parents, the ones who lack a dominant K allele (necessary for hearing), or carry a dominant M allele (causes deafness) are deaf. Based on the Punnett square analysis, 10 out of 16 or 5/8 of all offspring are likely to be deaf.

At STP, the volume of N2(g) produced by the complete decomposition of 1 mole of nitroglycerin would be closest to which of the following? A.5 L B.10 L C.20 L D.30 L

The answer to this question is D. Based on the balanced equation provided, 4 moles of nitroglycerin produce 6 moles of N2(g). Therefore, 1 mole of nitroglycerin will produce 1.5 moles of N2(g). At STP 1.5 moles of N2(g) will occupy 33.6 L since the molar volume of an ideal gas at STP is 22.4 L/mol.

If a leak develops in the vacuum distillation apparatus, the boiling points of the two components of caraway seed oil will:

The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the surface pressure. The normal boiling point is measured at 1 atm pressure. The vapor pressure of a liquid increases with increasing temperature. Hence, the boiling point of a liquid decreases as the pressure on the surface of the liquid is decreased. If a leak develops in the apparatus, the surface pressure will increase, as will the boiling points of both liquids.

When the caraway seed oil is heated, which of the two components will most likely distill first?

The carbonyl group (C=O) in carvone makes carvone more polar and has a higher boiling point than the hydrocarbon limonene. Distill = evaporation. The relative strength of the four intermolecular forces is: Ionic > Hydrogen bonding > dipole dipole > Van der Waals dispersion forces. The influence of each of these attractive forces will depend on the functional groups present. Boiling points increase as the number of carbons is increased. Branching decreases boiling point.

Multiplying two vectors using the cross product results in a vector quantity.

The cross product is the product of the vectors' magnitudes and the sine of the angle between them. The right hand rule is used to determine the resultant vector's direction.

social facilitation

The dominant outcome is more likely in the presence of people. stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

Columb's Law

The higher the charges, the more force. F=K(q1q2/d2) (D=Distance, Q= Charge of 2 objects, K= Proportionality constant)

The scientific method is a series of eight steps for the generation of new knowledge

The initial steps (generate a testable question, gather data and resources, form a hypothesis) focus on generating a hypothesis. The intermediate steps (collect new data, analyze the data, interpret the data and existing hypothesis) focus on testing that hypothesis. The final steps (publish and verify results) relate to providing the results for further testing of the hypothesis.

In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrion. The analogous structure used by bacteria to carry out oxidative phosphorylation is the:

The inner membrane of a mitochondrion is analogous to the plasma membrane of a prokaryote. The enzymes for oxidative phosphorylation are embedded in the inner membrane. The endosymbiotic theory suggests that mitochondria are descendents of prokaryotes that were engulfed by endocytosis into a vesicle lined with a membrane derived from the cell membrane of the eukaryote host. This is the outer membrane. The inner membrane is the plasma membrane of the endosymbiotic prokaryote, so answer choice D is correct. Answer choice A is incorrect because the cell wall of bacteria does not resemble a plasma membrane. Ribosomes have nothing to do with oxidative phosphorylation, so answer choice B is incorrect. Bacteria lack a nuclear membrane, thus answer choice C is also incorrect.

If an archaebacterial species lives in a pool that is 0.01 M HCl(aq), what is the pH of the water?

The pH of a solution is defined as -log[H+]. The strong acid HCl completely dissociates in water, so an HCl concentration of 0.01 M means that the H+ concentration is 0.01 M (10-2 M), and the pH is 2.

Pancreas

The pancreas produces several proteolytic enzymes, which are released into the small intestine where they are converted to their active forms of trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase. Thus, D is the best answer.An organs in the abdominal cavity with two roles. The first is an exocrine role: to produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. The second is an endocrine role: to secrete insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream to help regulate blood glucose levels.

a sharp rise in the serum level of albumin (the major osmoregulatory protein in the blood)

The question asks about the effect of an increase in the level of albumin, one of the major plasma proteins. Because albumin has nothing to do with the immune response, answer choice A is incorrect. The plasma proteins can not cross the walls of blood vessels, but water molecules can. The wall of the artery acts as a semipermeable membrane setting up the conditions needed for osmosis to occur. An increase in plasma albumin will upset the osmotic balance because the blood will become hypertonic with respect to the tissue. Water will have to flow into the bloodstream to reestablish equilibrium. One of the causes of edema, increased fluid in body tissues, is a decrease in the plasma protein level. This occurs, for instance, in starvation when the body is forced to use its albumin as an energy source. An increase in the plasma protein level would have the opposite effect: fluid would enter the bloodstream (answer D).

Muscles with striated fibers are the primary muscle type in:

The question asks the examinee to identify the body organ or structure from the options listed in which the primary muscle type contains striated muscle fibers. Skeletal and cardiac muscles contain striated muscle fibers. Smooth muscles do not. Of the options listed, only A, the heart, is made of cardiac muscle and therefore has striated muscle fibers. The primary muscle type of the uterus (B), arteries and veins (C), and the small intestine (D) is smooth muscle.

Which organ is involved in regulation of all of the following: acid-base balance, blood pressure, water balance, and removal of nitrogen wastes?

The question asks the examinee to identify the organ involved in the regulation of acid-base balance, blood pressure, water balance, and the removal of nitrogenous wastes. The only organ involved in all of these processes is the kidney (C). Within the nephron, the reabsorption of protons and bicarbonate from the filtrate contributes to acid-base balance within the body; secretion of renin from the juxtaglomerular cells helps regulate the secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex (which plays a role in regulating blood pressure, through its effects on Na+ reabsorption in the nephron); Na+ and urea reabsorption in the nephron creates osmotic pressure within the medullary interstitium of the kidney and draws water from the filtrate into surrounding tissues; and excretion of nitrogenous wastes takes place due to the urea transporter, which removes urea from the interstitium and transports it back into the ascending loop of Henle.

In human females, mitotic divisions of oogonia that lead to formation of presumptive egg cells (primary oocytes) occur between:

The question asks the examinee to identify the stages in the human female life cycle between which all the mitotic divisions that lead to primary oocytes occur. These stages occur in the following order: fertilization, birth, puberty, menopause. All of the mitotic divisions that form primary oocytes occur prior to birth. Thus, A is the best answer.

pregnancy hormones

The question requires the examinee to identify that luteinizing hormone (D) is the hormone responsible for triggering ovulation. While the sex hormones progesterone (A) and estrogen (B) are either secreted in response to the luteinizing hormone surge or actually trigger the luteinizing hormone surge, respectively, they are not directly involved in triggering ovulation. HCG (C) is the pregnancy hormone, but it doesn't have a role in the typical ovulatory cycle. Thus, Dis the best answer. 1. hCG = LH 2. hPL = Similar to GH, up regulate mom's metabolism 3. Relaxin = Decrease contractility, relax pelvic ligaments, 4. 17-GH-P intermediate of progresterone used as diagnostic tool for pregnancy 5. Estrogen = Development mammory glands, induce labor, promote uterine contraction +oxy 6. Cortisol = Increase but no cushings symptoms, maintains high blood glucose for fetus 7. Oxytocin = contractions

The normal distribution is symmetrical. The mean, median, and mode are all the same in the normal distribution.

The standard distribution is a normal distribution with a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one; it is used for most calculations. 68% of data points occur within one standard deviation of the mean, 95% within two, and 99% within three.

World Systems Theory

Theory developed by Immanuel Wallerstein that explains the emergence of a core, periphery, and semi periphery in terms of economic and political connections first established at the beginning of exploration in the late 15th century and maintained through increased economic access up until the present.

Things that affect thermodynamic stability

Thermodynamic stability occurs when a system is in its lowest energy state, or in chemical equilibrium with its environment. For a thermodynamic mixture of isomeric products, the relative mole ratio of products is directly related to the relative stability of these products. So basically the higher percent of one compound is the more thermodynamically stable one.

Kohlberg's Moral Development

These are the three different stages of moral reasoning. level 1)Pre-moral - preconventional a) obedience v punishment and b) individualism and exchange 4-10yrs, children obey because adults tell them to, fear of being punished for bad actions. 2) 10-13 yrs "good boy and good girl" Conventional, most concerned with the opinions of peers. Want tp please and help others while developing their own idea of what it means to be a good person. Conformity, want to be viewed as a good girl/boy and law and order. 3) 13-adult, postconventioal, morality is judged by abstract principles and not by existing rules that govern society. ethical choices rise above the laws of society, individuals look within themselves. social contract indivudla judgement is based on own moral reasoning. Even though laws are made for good, sometimes there are situations where there are not. 6th step, is universal ethical principle. Develop their own set of moral guidelines. prepared to go against society if necessary.

Total internal reflection occurs when light cannot be refracted out of a medium and is instead reflected back inside the medium

This happens hone light moves from a medium with ah giver index of refraction to a medium with a lower index of refraction with a high incident angle. The minimum incident angle at which total internal reflection occurs is called the critical angle.

Potential energy of a capacitor

U=1/2CV^2

Electric potential energy

U=kQq/r Dependent on he relative position of once charge with respect to another. It is the work necessary to move a test charge from one infinity to a point in space in an electric field surrounding the charge. U=Work Stationary negative charge and positive test charge. U will decrease as they get closer because they are becoming more stable. This situation U is negative and becomes more negative as they get closer. For to positive charges, like charges will become more stable as they move away from one another. U will become a smaller and smaller positive number the further away they get.

Under anaerobic conditions, how many net molecules of ATP are produced by the consumption of 5 moles of glucose? A.3 × 1024 B.6 × 1024 C.9 × 1024 D.1.2 × 1025

Under anaerobic conditions, 2 moles of ATP are produced from each mole of glucose. Thus, 10 moles of ATP would be generated from 5 moles of glucose. Since there are 6 × 1023molecules per mole, 10 moles of ATP is equal to 6 × 1024 molecules. It is a Scientific Reasoning and Problem Solving question because you must use knowledge about the production of ATP under anaerobic conditions and Avogadro's number relating molecules to moles to scale the answer to the correct value and units.

organization types (utilitarian, Normative, coercive)

Utilitarian is when you do something for something back - like work for money or go to school for a degree. Normative organizations are when people come together for shared believes. Coercive organizations like prizon or military are when followers don't have much say. Bureaucracy structure of organizatino that keeps them running day to day. Bureaucratization, Iron rule of oligarchy, adn mcdonaldization.

electric potential (from electric potential energy)

V=U/q

Work done by nonconservative forces

W=E=U+K W = work done by nonconservative forces ΔE = change in energy ΔU = change in potential energy ΔK = change in kinetic energy

Definition of work (mechanical)

W=Fxd=Fdcos0 W = work F = applied force d = displacement θ = angle between applied force vector and displacement vector

Venturi effect

What phenomenon causes static air to be drawn into the mask when oxygen flows? Reduction in pressure of a fluid resulting from the speed increase as fluids are forced to flow faster through narrow spaces.

Convex lenses.

When you have a light ray that goes from the top of the image, through the focus point, will come through on the next side at the same length it was but will be an inverted, real image. if it's 2 f, it will show up 2f on the other side. but if it's less than 2 f, it will show up behind the 2 f on the other side, and it will be large. it will still be inverted. If at f, no image. if less than f, magnified image (virtual image).

work-energy theorem

Wnet = deltaK=Kf-Ki The work done on an object equals the change in kinetic energy of the object

Works is a processes by which energy is transferred from one system to another

Work may be expressed as the dot product of force and displacement, or the product of force and distance traveled with the cosine of the angle between the two. Work may also be expressed as the area under a pressure-volume (P-V) curve.

strange situation

a behavioral test developed by Mary Ainsworth that is used to determine a child's attachment style. Attachment types are secure - child felt comfortable to explore the room. When parent left, child became distressed, but distress became better when mother returned. insecure children would not explore room and would cling, when mother left they would be upset, when mother returned they weren't soothed. Secure, Anxious-attachment/preoccupied, Dismissive/avoidant, and Fearful-avoidant.

Bipolar disorder

a period of depression, but also a period of mania. Fo r hypomania they get a lot done and feel good. But hyper mania is too much and kind of insane, like racking up credit card debt or driving really fast. Delusions of grandeur. Often crash into a depressive disorder. When hypomanic develops into full mania, it is bipolar 1. when they cycle through hypomania without full mania it is bipolar 2. A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania.

culture lag

a period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to adapt to new material conditions

Confidence intervals are

a range of values about a sample mean that are used to estimate the population mean. A wider interval is associated with a higher confidence level (95% is common).

Fluorescence occurs when

a species absorbs high-frequency light and then returns to its ground state in multiple steps. Each step has less energy than the absorbed light and is within the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

mass spectrometry

a technique that separates particles according to their mass. Do this by knocking off an electron to make a positive charge. there's a force on the atoms to get them to move (magnetic).

Diamagnetic

all are paired. the charges cancelled out on the paired electrons. Is not attracted to an external magnetic field.

In circularly polarized light

all of the light rays have electric fields with equal intensity but constant rotating direction

Resistors

are conductive materials with a moderate amount of resistance that slow down electrons without stopping them.

If no braking occurs, a total of how much power would be required to keep the railcar moving at 40 m/s? Engaging the generator to the wheels puts a decelerating force of 5000 N at 40 m/s, and the force declines linearly with speed. This generator transfers about 80% of the kinetic energy dissipated by this braking force to the battery. The second system allows the person to slow the railcar by the friction of its wheels against a stationary surface in a manner similar to that of the brakes on an automobile. This system can generate a maximum braking force of 14,000 N. The rolling friction of the wheels and the internal friction between the wheels and axles contribute a continuous 1000 N decelerating force any time that the railcar is in motion.

because the power required must match the work done by the friction force that tends to slow down the railcar, which is equal to the decelerating force multiplied by the constant speed, so 1000 N × 40 m/s = 40 kW.

charge by induction

bring a big negative near something, it will make positive on one side and neg on other. and then ground the one side, and all neg leaves and positive stays. process of rearranging electrons on a neutral object by bringing a charged object closed to it

Pie charts and bar charts are both used to compare

categorical data

Internal validity refers to the identification of

causality in a study between the independent and dependent variables. External validity refers to the ability of a study to be generalized to the population that it describes.

Vector subtraction is accomplished by

changing the direction of the subtracted vector and then following the procedures for vector addition.

Distributions have

characteristic features that are exemplified by their shape. Distributions can be classified by measures of central tendency and measures of distribution.

Hemispheric differences and hemispheric dominance

contralateral control - left side of brain controls right side of body. Dominant is normally language and analytic generally. Nondominant is more emotional or if people are happy or sad. Creativity and art and stuff. communicate through corpus collosm

The direction of the magnetic force on a moving charge or current-carrying wire is

determined using the right hand rule

Range is the

difference between the largest and smallest values in a data set

Across each resister in a circuit, a certain amount of power is

dissipated, which is dependent on the current though the resistor and the voltage drop across the resistor.

The wavelength of a wave is the

distance between two crests or two troughs

Solids

do not flow and they retain their shape regardless of their containers.

positions of dark fridges in double-slit setup

dsin@=(n+1/2)wavelength

The photoelectric effect is the

ejection of an electron form the surface of a metal in response to light

Air at the alveoli has

essentially zero speed.

Opposite charges

exert attractive forces, and like charges exert repulsive forces

Circularly polarized light is created by

exposing unpolarized light to special pigments or filters

Doppler effect

f=f₀(v±Vd)/(v±Vs), Vd is speed of detector, Vs is speed of source. + top - bottom for moving towards, - top + bottom for moving away

Frequency of a standing wave (strings and open pipes)

f=nv/2L

Frequency of a standing wave (closed pipes)

f=nv/4L

Beat frequency

f=|f₁-f₂|

The pitch of a sound is related to its

frequency

The doppler effect is a shift in the perceived

frequency of sound compared to the actual frequency of the emitted sound when the source of the sound an its detector are moving relative to one another. The apparent frequency will be higher than the emitted frequency when the source and detector are moving toward each other. The apparent frequency will be lower than the emitted frequency when the source and detector are moving away from each other. The apparent frequency can be higher, lower or equal to the emitted frequency the the two objects are moving n the same direction, depending on their relative speeds. When the source is moving at or above the speed of sound, shock waves (sonic booms) can form.

The difference between galvanic/voltaic cells and electrolytic cells

g/v- is a spontaneous redox reaction used to produce a current. e cell is an electric current used to drive a gnonspontaneous redox reaction .

Coulomb's law

gives the magnitude of the electrostatic force vector between two charges. The force vector always points along the line connecting the centers of the two charges.

Archimedes' principles

governs the buoyant force against the object that is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. The direction fo the buoyant force is always opposite to the direction of gravity. If the maximum buoyant force is larger than the force of gravity on the object, the object will float. This will be true if the object is less dense than the fluid it is in. IF the maximum buoyant force is smaller than the force of gravity on the object, the object will sink. This will be true if the object is more dense than the fluid it is in.

Transition metals

group 3-12 (they are the smol big ones) or "d" block they are in d orbitals. An element that has an incomplete d subshell. or which can give rise to cations with an incomplete d subshell.

Classification of elements

groups- columns. periods - rows. Alkali metals - group 1A, except for H. They are soft, silvery metals. Extremely reactive. All of them will react with water. So reactive that you don't really find them in their pure state in nature. Hydrogen is a nonmetal. Alkaline earth metals - group 2. reactive, non as reactive as group 1, also do not find in pure state. Group 3-12 (non A group, aka non 1-8 atom group), are all metals. Solid at room temperature except mercury. Very malleable. Good conductors. Non metals on the other hand, solids are brittle. Poor conductors. Hallogens are non metals. They are in 7A. Very reactive non metals. Very colorful, very corrosive. Salt formers. Noble gases are 8A. Full valence shell. colorless gases. generally very un reactive. There is a zig zag line separating metals and non metals, and the elements on the zig zag have some properties of both. Called "metalloids" Po and Al are not generally considered a metalloid. These can be semiconductors,

Skewed distributions

have differences in their mean, median, and mode; the skew direction is the direction of the tail of the distribution

Pascal's principle

if pressure is applied to a fluid in a container, the pressure will be distributed evenly.

Class Consciousness (Marx)

if you belong to class of bourgeoisie or proletariat, you are conscious of that; class is not hidden 1. concentration and communication 2. deprivation 3. alienation at work -polarization -homogenization -organization and struggle (goal of proletariat)

Sound is used medically in ultrasound machines for

imaging (diagnositic) and treatment (therapeutic) purposes.

State functions are pathway

independent and are not themselves defined by a process. Pressure, density, temperature, volume, enthalpy, internal energy, Gibbs free energy, and entropy are all state functions.

Vi+deltatxa = vf

initial velocity plus change in time times acceleration equals the final velocity. You can calculate how far the distance is by calculating area under the graph of acceleration velocity graphed over change in time. For the people who don't want to calculate area under curve every time, change in time (1/2initial velocity plus 1/2 final velocity) or it could also be change in time X 1/2 X (vi plus vf) aka average velocity.

Entropy

is a measure of how much energy has spread out or how spread out energy has become. On a statistical level, as the number of available micro states increases, the potential energy of a molecule is distributed over the larger number of microstates, increasing entropy. Every natural process is ultimately irreversible; under highly controlled conditions, certain equilibrium processes such as a phase change can be treated as essentially reversible.

Standard deviation

is a measurement of variability about the mean; standard deviation can also be used to determine outliers.

The first law of thermodynamics

is a statement of conservation of energy: the total energy in the universe can never decrease or increase. For a closed system, the total internal energy is equal to the heat flow into the system minus the work done by the system.

Bernoulli's equation

is a statement of the conservation of energy for a flowing fluid. This equation states that sum of the static pressure and the dynamic pressure will be constant between any two points in a closed system.

The continuity equation

is a statement of the conservation of mass as applied to fluid dynamics

Diffraction

is the bending and spreading out of light waves as they pass through a narrow slit

Refraction

is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another.

Mechanical advantage

is the factor by which a simple machine multiplies the input force to accomplish work.

Density

is the mass per unit volume of a substance (fluid or solid)

The load

is the output force a simple machine, which acts over a given land distance to determine the work output of a simple machine. The effort is the input force of a simple machine, which acts over a given effort distance to determine the work input of the simple machine.

Energy

is the property of a system that enables it to do something or make something happen, including the capacity to do work. The SI units for all forms of energy are joules (J)

The electromagnetic spectrum

is the range of frequencies and wavelengths found in EM waves

Power

is the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. The SI unit for power is the watt (W).

Efficiency

is the ratio of the machine's work output to the work input when nonconservative forces are taken into account.

depression

lack of joy, helplessness, less enjoyment. fluctiation of weight. Biological factors, show decrease activity in prefrontal cortex and decrease in reward circuit in brain. Might have fewer receptors for serotonin and neuroepinephrine. Having a person in your life depression can make you more depressed.

Sine is the ratio of the

length of the opposite an angle to the length of the hypotenuse.

conversion of natural to common logarithm

log(x) = approximately ln(x)/2.303

Potential energy equals

mass times gravity times height

Outliers

may be a result of true population variability, measurement error, or a non normal distribution

Absorption spectra

may be impacted by small changes in molecular structure

Significant figures include all nonzero digits and any trailing zeroes in a number with a decimal point

measurements are an exception, in that the last digit provided is not significant. In addition and subtraction, reduce the answer to have the same number of decimal places ad the number with the fewest number of decimal places. In multiplication and division, reduce the answer to have the same number of significant digits as the number with the fewest number of significant digits. The entire number should be maintained throughout calculations to minimize rounding error.

Multiplicity in NMR

n+1 rule (for peaks, how many you expect to see). neighbors are those that are on other carbons. if there are two H on a double bond, they are not equal and do not make one signal. you will see a duplet. "two peaks". you will see the same separation for both of them. For both you will see two double peaks.

rate of nuclear decay equation

n/t=wavelgnth (n) n: radioactive nuclei not yet decayed wavelength: decay constant really

Translational Equilibrium

occurs in the absence of any net forces acting on an object. An object in translational equilibrium has a constant velocity, and may or may not be in rotational equilibrium.

Rotational equilibrium

occurs in the absence of any net torques acting on an object. Rotational motion may consider any pivot point, but the center of mass is most common. An object in rotational equilibrium has a constant angular velocity; on the MCAT, the angular velocity is usually zero.

The total mechanical energy

of a system is the sum of its kinetic and potential energies.

Ka to pH

pH= -log (H+) pKa = - log Ka. Ka=(H+)^2/HA (aka M) ->H+=sqrtKAxHA (molarity)

The two field are

perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation of the wave

Sound is

produced by mechanical disturbance of a material that creates an oscillation of the molecules in the material

slow twitch muscle fibers

red muscle fibers that are fatigue resistant but have a slow contraction speed and a lower capacity for tension; usually recruited for endurance activities

Insulators

resists the movement of charge and will have localized areas of charge that do not distribute over the surface of the material.

Multiplying tow vectors using the dot product results in a

scalar quantity. The dot product is the product is the product of the vectors magnitudes and the cosine of the angle between them.

Populations are all fo the individuals who

share a set of characteristics. Population data are called parameters.

Definition of sine

sinθ = opposite/hypotenuse

Muscle Fiber Types

slow twitch and fast twitch

Newton's third law

states that any two objects interacting with one another experience equal and opposite forces as a result of their interaction.

Ohm's law

states that for a given resistance, the magnitude of the current through a restore is proportional to the voltage drop across the resistor.

The work-energy theorem

states that when net work is done on or by a system, the system's kinetic energy will change by the same amount. In more general applications, the work done on or by a system can be transferred to other forms of energy as well.

steric number

steric number = # sigma bonds + #lone pairs. number of atoms bonded to central atom + number of lone pairs on central atom

Counterculture vs. Subculture vs Microculture

sub is a culture that is not the same as the dominant (like orthodox jew) and a micro culture is a smaller culture of your life (like PHidE) counter culture is when there's a culture that strongly disagrees with the dominant culture (like polygamy).

first ionization energy

the energy required to remove the first electron from an atom

The law of reflection states that

the incident angle will equal the angle of reflection, as measured from the normal

Endoderm

the inner germ layer that develops into the lining of the digestive and respiratory systems

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment. Whenever there is a behavior, cognition and environment that can all influence each other (like liking soccer kids so joining a team and developing an interest in soccer, or vice versa).

Logarithms are

the inverse of exponents are are subject to similar mathematical manipulations

concave lens.

the light rays will all look like they are coming from the f on the other side. So like they're all spreading out. will see virtual image. If object is behind f, then the virtual image will be smol and not inverted.

Energy is released in both fusion and fission because

the nuclei formed in both processes are more stable than the starting nuclei

The period (T) of a wave is

the number of seconds it takes to complete a cycle. It is the inverses of frequency

Distance is a scalar quantity that reflects

the path traveled

Component Vectors

the perpendicular vectors whose sum is the resultant vector X=Vcos0 Y=Vsin0

cultural relativism

the practice of judging a culture by its own standards

frustration-aggression hypothesis

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression. It is related to scape goating.

In exponential decay

the rate at which radioactive nuclei decay is proportional to the number of nuclei that remain.

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

The electric potential energy of a system will increase when

two like charge move towards each other or when two opposite charges move further apart.

The electric potential energy of a system will decrease when

two opposite charges move towards each other or when two like charge move further apart.

Hypothesis tests

use a known distribution to determine whether a hypothesis of no difference (null hypothesis) can be rejected

Interquartile range is the difference between the

value of the third quartile and the first quartile; interquartile range can be used to determine outliers.

Wavelength of a standing wave (closed pipes)

wavelength =4L/n

Wavelength of a standing wave (strings and open pipes)

wavlenth=1L/n

The negative electrode of a battery is

where the electrons are coming from (anode). The positive end is where they are going (cathode). remember that anode is oxidized bc electrons leaving and cathode is reduced bc electrons coming. At the cathode, more mass being build bc the e are combining with the ions in water. over at anode, less mass bc e leaving and ions going into water. Also the salt bridge is there for things to not get too negative (cathode) or positive (the anode water) bc it will attract the electrons back down there. The anions from the salt bridge will go to the anode side (these are negative) and the cations will go to the cathode side (these are positive).

fast twitch muscle fibers

white muscle fibers that contract rapidly and forcefully but fatigue quickly; usually recruited for actions requiring strength, power, or speed

Power equals

work/time

Center of mass equation

x= (m₁x₁+m₂x₂+m₃x₃...)/(m₁+m₂+m₃...) y= (m₁y₁+m₂y₂+m₃y₃...)/(m₁+m₂+m₃...) z= (m₁z₁+m₂z₂+m₃y₃...)/(m₁+m₂+m₃...)

kinematics (no final velocity)

x= v(o)t + (at^2)/2

Exponential Decay Formula

y=a(1-r)^t