POL3370 Final Study Set

Define POLYSEMY

POLYSEMY: multiple meanings within or interpretations of a text. This concept helps us understand that texts can mean different things to different people and do not have fixed and stable meanings.

Give an example of a mixed-methods study on obesity that would use both qualitative and quantitative approaches

In deciding on a research design for the study of obesity we would begin with our specific research questions: - How many students in elementary grades are overweight in a given school district? - How overweight are these students? - By grade, by age, and so forth? This set of questions asks for some numerical data—"How many?" and "How widespread?" A quantitative method that screens students measuring their BMI (body mass index) collects data to assess the extent of the obesity in school districts as a whole. This method provides the researcher with an overall picture within which to capture the extent of obesity among elementary school children. This component of the study is important and gives the school districts an overview of the extent of the problem and its severity. STEP 2: The next set of questions is more qualitatively driven, and its aim is to get at the impact of childhood obesity on the everyday lives of children inside and outside of school by asking questions such as these: - What is the lived experience of children who are obese compared with those who are not considered obese according to their score on the BMI measure? - To what extent do obese children, if any, experience obesity as a stigma? - To what extent, if any, do parents of obese children consider their weight a problem? These questions address issues of experience and understanding (interpretative data). As qualitative researchers, we will want to listen to the narratives of those who are obese: their attitudes, feelings, and concerns. We might consider a range of interpretative methods, such as, as mentioned previously, focus groups with parents of obese children. However, we might want to also add additional study components such as interviewing parents with obese children. How do you think interviewing some parents one-on-one might also be of value for our understanding of childhood obesity? What types of questions would you want to ask parents regarding this issue? What specific question do you think gathering this type of data would answer? One might also consider whether it would be a good idea to interview children about their BMI results, getting at their lived experiences—how they understand and interpret their BMI results and their attitudes and feelings about what being overweight means to them. What ethical issues would you need to consider before deciding whether this is a good idea? Children are considered a vulnerable population. To what extent would focusing on their obesity impact their body image and self-esteem in a negative way[...] BENEFITS: Using a mixed methods design allows the researcher to ask different questions and use a range of qualitative and quantitative tools to get at specific aspects of interest with regard to the problem of childhood obesity. Qualitative questions that ask about experience can address the specific needs and concerns of parents of obese children. These questions and tools capture nuances in their stories of obesity. Asking quantitative questions such as how many obese children there are in the school district by age, race or ethnicity, and so forth can capture the big picture of this issue at the school district, community, state, and national level. The results coming from both of these types of studies together provide information and shed light onto a complicated social problem, and together both can provide a complex understanding of obesity and also how to fight it

Explain the quantitative content analysis example of James Bond female character study

"For example, in their study of 195 female characters appearing in 20 James Bond films ranging from 1962 to 2002, Neuendorf, Gore, Dalessandro, Janstova, and Snyder-Suhy (2010) examined physical characteristics, sexual activity, and violence levels. Using eight coders, or people who group or categorize data, they coded manifest characteristics such as hair type, glasses, hair color, body type, and attractiveness, looking for how often these features appeared among the "female characters in those films. To report their findings, they used series of statistical tests and examinations and charts. Their investigation found that over this broad span of time, the women characters in Bond films had changed very little. They concluded that the women of Bond continue to be portrayed in a rather limited and sex-stereotyped manner. As a result, seasoned Bond fans and new viewers alike are exposed to homogenous portrayals of women within old or new Bond films (Neuendorf et al., 2010, p. 758). They supported these claims through statistical evidence from their coding of content." Excerpt From: Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber. "The Practice of Qualitative Research." iBooks.

What are some drawbacks to using a mixed methods research design?

"Research questions are rooted in both a qualitative and quantitative understanding of the nature of the social world (Lincoln & Guba, 2000). The mixing of methods also involves the mixing of philosophical paradigms. A paradigm is a way of knowing; it is our window into the social world. A mixed methods design combines qualitative and quantitative philosophical assumptions, especially as they pertain to issues concerning objectivity versus subjectivity, as well as the nature of the individual and society. - A researcher's philosophical position often affects his or her decisions concerning how to use a mixed method, if or when to use it, and for what reasons. Quantitative methods are often rooted in a positivistic paradigm that makes certain assumptions regarding the nature of the social world—that there is a singular social reality "out there" able to be discovered by a researcher who remains objective and does not allow feelings, values, or attitudes to enter into the research process (see Hesse-Biber, 2010; Hesse-Biber & Johnson, 2015; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998, for a fuller discussion of these issues). On the other hand, a qualitative method often draws on an interpretive paradigm where there are multiple truths regarding the social world; knowledge gathering is always partial and the researcher is encouraged to be on the same plane as the researched in an effort to promote a co-construction of meaning. - A die-hard positivist might find it difficult to mix methods that involve crossing over into a qualitative research approach "Those researchers who find it difficult or impossible to cross these philosophical and methods boundaries are known as purists who see these two methods as independent and philosophically unmixable. Those known as pragmatists often embrace a mixed methods design if it will enhance their understanding of their research problem with little regard for the philosophical underpinnings of either research perspective. Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998) note that pragmatists "consider the research question to be more important than either the method or the worldview that is supposed to underlie the method. Most good researchers prefer addressing their research questions with any methodological tool available, using the pragmatist credo of 'what works'" (p. 21). For example, some researchers may use both methods but keep them as separate studies (see Morse, 2003). Others may advocate using both but favoring one philosophical perspective over the other when it comes to interpretation of their research findings. A researcher's paradigmatic viewpoint may even shift over the course of any given research project. If I were a positivist by training but open to multiple methods, I would start out with a mixed methods design open to qualitative procedures. Still, I might favor my quantitative findings over the qualitative, if they were contradictory. As a pragmatic positivist, I might be open to moving in the direction of multiple interpretations in my mixed methods data, looking for a more nuanced interpretation of my quantitative results. In essence, I give up a little positivism to gain more in-depth and grounded understanding of my data. The change in any one researcher's point of view may often be incremental and not dramatic, but over time, a definite but subtle revolution in thinking and practice of social research on the part of the researcher will be evident. The change may take place at different stages in the research process (e.g., problem construction, data gathering, data analysis, data interpretation) as well. What is your research problem? Does this problem lend itself to a mixed methods design? Here you might look at what type of question or set of questions you are interested in asking. Do these questions stem from a qualitative subjective approach, one that is rooted in a more subjective understanding of the nature of the social world? Is your research question rooted in an objective approach of the social world where you are interested in, for example, testing out specific research hypotheses in order to make predictions about the nature of the social world? Knowing where your research question lies along a subjective-objective continuum can help you decide what method or set of methods to use; what method or methods may be primary, secondary, or equal; and whether you want to do a sequential (one study then the other) or concurrent (at the same time) study.

What are the conclusions from chapter 9?

- There exists nearly infinite texts and meanings - Goal of qualitative textual analysis is to provide in-depth insights into the ways in which texts make meaning - Content research impacts our understanding of the ways in which power is communicated through messages - Can also provide guidance for the creators of future media texts - Creative research endeavor with great flexibility

Explain research databases for mediated texts/ how do you define a delimit a research database?

- important for researchers to include a careful definition of the research object of analysis, which comprises all of the texts that will be examines together - it is up to the researcher to decide the criteria for narrowing the range of relevance so that the number of articles analyzed will be more manageable + limit the source (ex. New York Times only) + limit time-frame (ex. limit the search to a couple of key dates) + add search terms (add name or event to search parameters) - large enough to make results reliable and generalizable but small enough that the analysis can be performed in a reasonable time frame - Databases with extensive access can help construct the object of analysis •Ex: LexisNexis •Use criteria to yield enough data to be reliable and generalizable but not unwieldy and time-consuming •Consider print publication databases, DVD, streaming services, and video-on-demand site

Why should you conduct case study research?

- provides an opportunity to check their findings against the ongoing data collection process + this iterative process of comparing and contrasting and interrogating your research findings in an ongoing manner provides the researcher with a process of internally validating data - an important aspect of carrying out multiple case studies is that the researcher can investigate in detail causal mechanisms that may be at work within and between cases + the researcher can test out ides on the fly to see how the cases either confirm or call into question their initial ideas about what is going on in these cases + allows the possibility of disconfirmation/some cases may not confirm a hypothetical hunch - New ideas about the data collected can be fact-checked against new data collection •Iterative process allows the researcher to internally validate data

How would you compare and contrast a CASE STUDY to an EXPERIMENT to a SURVEY?

1. # of cases: EXPERIMENT: investigation of a relatively small number of cases CASE STUDY: investigation of a relatively small number of cases (maybe just one) SURVEY: investigation of a relatively large number of cases 2. # investigated features of case EXPERIMENT: information gathered and analyzed about a small number of features of each case CASE STUDY: information gathered and analyzed about a large number of features of each case SURVEY: information gathered and analyzed about a small number of features of each case 3. data priorities EXPERIMENT: quantification of data is a priority CASE STUDY: quantification of data is not a priority; indeed qualitative data may be treated as superior SURVEY: quantification of data is a priority 4. aims/goals EXPERIMENT: the aim is either theoretical inference - the development of testing a theory - or the practical evaluation of an intervention CASE STUDY: the main concern may be with understanding the cases studied itself, with no interest in theoretical inference or empirical generalization. However, there may also be attempts at one or the other or both of these. Alternatively, the wider relevance of the findings may be conceptualized in terms of the provision of vicarious experience, as a basis for naturalistic generalization or transferability. SURVEY: the aim is empirical generalization, from a sample to a finite population, although this is sometimes seen as a platform for theoretical inference

Types of Case Study Evidence: Explain 6 types of DATA COLLECTION strategies that will dictate the types of data you gather for your case study. List their strengths and weaknesses. Start with the first 3 FIGURE 8.1

1. DOCUMENTATION: Strengths: - stable: can be viewed repeatedly - unobtrusive: not created as a result of the case study - broad coverage: long span of time, many events and setting Weaknesses: - retrievability: can be difficult to find - biased: selectivity if collection is incomplete - reporting bias: reflects (unknown) bias of author - access: may be deliberately withheld 2. ARCHIVAL RECORDS Strengths: same as those for documentation Weaknesses: - same as those for documentation - accessibility due to privacy reasons 3. INTERVIEWS Strengths: - targeted: focuses directly on case study topics - insightful: provides perceived causal inferences and explanations Weaknesses: - bias due to poorly articulated questions - response bias - inaccuracies due to poor recall - reflexivity: interviewee gives what interviewer wants to hear

How do you conduct a case study? Explain Step 1

1. Determine your research question •Be sure that your type of question lends itself to a case study approach - question should be at the center of whatever method(s) you choose - research question is tied to your overall methodological approach Ex. Quantitative driven case study approach: - doesn't preclude the use of quantitative methods (ex. surveys to gather specific information in a more standardized manner in order to get more precise measures of particular factors that are part of the case study) - is subjectively driven and assumes that reality is multiple, and the goal is to understand the range of subjective meanings with regard to the given question you seek to answer - goal to understand meaning - another goal is to generate a theoretical approach or framework that you feel helps to understand the given case or set of cases you want to research - your given case study design might be more exploratory or descriptive Quantitatively driven methodology: - the goal is to begin to test out more formally some given theoretical approach and explore specific causal relationships in your given case or set of cases - here your goal would be more toward the explanatory end of a case study design - may also want to collect qualitative data in the service of their main quantitatively driven case study design STEPS: - Select case out of a population of possible cases, chosen for the ability to address research purposes + this may mean selecting a particularly anomalous case or a case that, on a surface level, appears congruent with other cases in the pool - contemplate your goals with respect to where your project goals stand on the continuum from: + generalizability to + transferability to + particularity - consider whether your project is primarily + theory based + problem based + descriptive + exploratory

What are the 3 different types of case study methodologies?

1. EXPLORATORY: this type of case study approach is selected because it contains rich data-gathering possibilities and also for what it may represent or reflect regarding other cases like it. Pursuing an exploratory design allows researchers to gain new insights into their research question with the goal of formulating specific ideas or theories they might want to later use to test out their ideas on similar cases. -Gains new insights to formulate theories for future testing on similar cases 2. DESCRIPTIVE - selected when a researcher seeks to portray in detail the specifics of a social phenomenon that is not understood and there has been little research conducted - researcher does not usually have a question stated as a specific hypothesis to test out on a given case, but rather the goal is to provide in rich detail the inner processes of the given case - entails using a variety of data-gathering qualitative and quantitative techniques that provide multiple ways of understanding the layers of meaning contained in specific bounded cases -Portray in rich detail the inner practices of a social phenomenon that is under-research 3. EXPLANATORY/CAUSAL: - usually associated with a more quantitatively driven case study design - sets out with a specific type of research agenda or set of hypotheses that the researcher wants to test out / can come up with a tentative hypotheses they can test out in their data by comparing and contrasting their hunches of what is going on with the collection of subsequent data - they can look for evidence of negative cases (things that do not fit their tentative hunches or theoretical ideas about what is going on in their data collection) as a way to build up validity for these more tentative research ideas and findings

Give the next 3 types of data collection methods for case studies/ types of case study evidence FIGURE 8.1

4. DIRECT OBSERVATION Strength: - reality: covers evens in real time - contextual: covers context of case Weaknesses: - time consuming - selectivity: broad coverage difficult without a team of observers - cost: hours needed by human observers - reflexivity: events may proceed differently because they are being observed 5. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION Strengths: - same as for direct observation - insightful into interpersonal behaviour and motives Weaknesses: - same as for direct observation - bias due to participants observer's manipulation of events 6. PHYSICAL ARTIFACTS Strengths: - insightful into cultural features - insightful into technical operations Weaknesses: - selectivity - availability COMBINATIONS: * interview with observations

What are the advantages of using a mixed methods research design? (5)

ADVANTAGES OF MIXED METHODS: 1. triangulation - this strategy involves using more than one method to study the same research question - the researcher is looking for a convergence of research findings to enhance credibility - methods triangulation^ diff types of triangulation also include theoretical triangulation, data triangulation - ex. quantitative steps can serve as a validity check on the in-depth psychological findings gathered from intensive interviews 2. complementarity - research seeks to gain a fuller understanding of the research problem and/or to clarify a given research result - mixed methods are employed in the service of assisting the researcher's total understanding of the research problem ex. when a researcher uses a qualitative study of the obesity project to ascertain the lived experiences and in-depth feelings of children and their parents, whereas the quantitative component involves using a survey research study to assess how those impacted perceive the effectiveness of administrators at the school level regarding social policies undertaken to deal with childhood obesity 3. development: results from one method help develop or inform the other method - ex. in the obsity project, the researcher will be able to use the findings from an exploratory qualitative study in order to develop a survey questionnaire for the quantitative larger school study 4. initiation: a given research studies findings raise questions or contain contradictions that require clarification - a new study is then initiated to add insights to understanding the phenomenon under investigation - ex. childhood obesity - there may be contradictory qualitative findings concerning how children view their body images and how parents see their child's weight issues + we might also find some stark differences among parents and children with regard to social class, race and ethnicity + some divergent findings may lead to a more nuanced interpretation of research results by race, ethnicity and social status + such findings may serve to launch a whole new investigation 5. expansion - initiated to extend the breadth and range of the study - in the case of childhood obesity, perhaps the researcher wants to expand the study to include comparisons of gender differences - ex. researcher might decide to expand the study to include interviews with teachers and school admin to examine similarities and faculty across a range of diff. schools - here the goal is not to increase the validity of one's specific study but to broaden the study to encompass a broader range of purposes

CH.9 Define Analytics

ANALYTICS: data representations that show the usage of patterns of websites, social networks, hashtag campaigns, and other online applications

Describe the Applied Case Study example for the Case of St. Malachy Elementary School

CASE STUDY 1: Toward Social Justice in a Private Elementary School: The Case of St. Malachy BACKGROUND: This case study conducting by Martin Scalan (2010) focuses on St. Malachy elementary school. It is a Catholic private urban elementary school whose mission it to serve marginalized children from diverse races. It serves primarily poor children, some of whom are disabled and some who are learning English as a second language. St. Malachy school, compared to the other four Catholic urban elementary schools located nearby, is a bit of an anomaly in that it has managed to gain the resources it needs to carry out its mission of serving its diverse marginalized population when other similar schools nearby are still struggling to find the resources required to carry out their social justice mandate of promoting inclusivity. 2. RESEARCH QUESTION: How does a private school community promote inclusivity as it experiences accelerating degrees of diversity across multiple dimensions? 3. RESEACH DESIGN: - Sample: unit of analysis is one instrumental case study - Rationale: "St. Malachy had the most heterogenous study body across multiple dimensions of diversity. I chose St. Malachy as an instrumental case study... to provide insight into how formal and informal school leaders promote inclusivity as their school community experiences accelerating degrees of diversity across multiple dimensions 4. DATA COLLECTION METHODS - semi-structured interviews with key school leaders + administrators + faculty + staff + volunteers + board members - observations of meetings, classes, and school events - gathered archival school documents (2004-2005) school year - continued dialogue with school leaders via email or subsequent phone conversations during the course of his one-year project 5.DATA ANALAYSIS: - sought evidence to support or challenge initial theoretical framework what he termed the praxis of Catholic Social Teachings (CST) - framework taken from Freire's (1973) concept of conscientization, which the author describes as a process in which individuals "achieve a deepening awareness both of sociocultural reality that shapes their lives and of their capacity to transform that reality - sought to gain credibility by using: + HyperRESEARCH software to cade and analyze data (interview, observational, archival) though a constant comparative process 6. FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION - inner workings of St. Malachy was a confirmation of his initial conceptual framework - school environment was characterized by deep reflection and action in its overall mission and governance: inclusivity; school never wavered from inclusivity goals - school's leaders reflected and acted on this mission through providing its staff with professional development around this mission + school's mission was enacted successfully by its key leaders and community members who were able to obtain a range of community resources to meet the needs of St. Malachy's diverse population - dimensions of mission, professional development, governance and resource management emerged as central and enmeshed with each other in the pursuit of providing education to students across accelerating dimensions of diversity

Define CASE STUDY

CASE STUDY: the detailed and in-depth study of a bounded entity or phenomenon. In a qualitatively driven case study approach, the goal is to provide in-depth insights and understanding of the overall case with the goal of generating theoretical insights. - Deploy a broad range of theoretical perspectives - Privilege social justice issues and deep understanding of the complexity of lived experiences - Gain insight, discover, and tes

CH. 10 Define COMPLEMENTARITY

COMPLEMENTARITY: a reason for employing a mixed methods design is that of complementarity, whereby the researcher seeks to gain a fuller understanding of the research problem and/or to clarify a given research result

Define CONCURRENTLY

CONCURRENTLY: when methods are used at the same time but maintain a primary/secondary distinction

What are some research strategies for gaining trustworthiness in a case study approach? Table 8.3

CRITERION FOR TRUSTWORTHINESS: 1. Confirmability Case Study Tactic: - conduct literature review, identify key concepts - use multiple sources of evidence - establish chain of evidence - ask key informants to review draft research report (member checking) Phase of Research - research design - data collection - write-up of analysis 2. DEPENDIBILITY Case Study Tactic - develop case study protocol (so that others can see the decisions made in developing the study and why you made them) - develop case study databases (complet set of data that others could review) Phase of Research: - data collection 3. CREDIBILITY: Case Study Tactic: - look for patterns in data and across cases (pattern matching) - consider explanations for experiences analyzed (explanation building) - consider rival explanations (alternative explanations for the patterns identified) - use logic models to think through causal mechanisms - triangulation: compare and contrast data respondents, data sources, data types and cases - consider negative cases (explicitly seek out experiences that contradict your main line of argument to test that argument and refine it) Phase of Research: - data analysis 4. TRANSFERABILITY: - use theory in single case studies - use replication logic in multiple case studies (test ideas from one case against subsequent cases) Phase of Research: - research design

Define CROWDFUNDING

CROWDFUNDING: an online activity that invites people's donations to a range of projects from film productions to potato salad. Popular sites include Kickstarter, Indiegogo, and Gofundme.

How would you compare case studies to ethnographies?

Case Study v. Ethnography •Case studies are more limited in time and specific in scope •Ethnography is focused on understanding cultural practices and belief systems by long-term immersion •Both may employ very similar and multiple methods of data collect

How do you go about computer-assisted qualitative data analysis?

Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis - Both specialized programs and standard office suite applications can be used for content analysis - Specialized for purchase: HyperRESEARCH - Specialized freeware: FreeQDA - Cloud-based: CATMA - Conventional: Word, Excel - Particularly useful for large quantities of data - Offers a means of organizing data and maintaining it within a central location - Promote annotation and connection DISADVANTAGES - Cost for the license or purchase of the commercial programs -Places hindering distance between researcher and data - Questionable flexibility -Domination of coding - Oversimplification CAQDAS (Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis) applications engage in multiple tasks, and it is the researcher's job to decide the software's role - Does not replace the researcher

Define DATA OR WEB SCRAPING

DATA OR WEB SCRAPING: the process of using a computer program to collect data from social networking and other sites. Also called data extraction.

Define DATA TRIANGULATION

DATA TRIANGULATION: different data sources or types, using the same method ex. you might look at the same data longitudinally or compare data on a specific issue from a single state to the nation as a whole

Define DESCRIPTIVE CASE STUDY

DESCRIPTIVE CASE STUDY: the goal is to provide a rich and detailed description of the case to promote an in-depth understanding and the theoretical insight

Define DEVELOPMENT

DEVELOPMENT: a reason given for using mixed methods occurring when results from on method help to develop or inform the other method

Define iRONY

IRONY: the use of humour through exaggeration of key elements. Irony is very common in mainstream mass media, although its use can be understood in divergent ways. Whereas irony is often used to provide a critical perspective on some aspect problematic of society (such as stereotypes), by using exaggeration to do so, it relies of rearticulation of the very thing it is mocking. There is debate over whether irony is more supportive or more critical of the ideas that are the object of its humour.

How did the Case Study approach emerge?

Debated. "Cases" are used in many fields, including medicine, law and social work, and case study has been influenced by all of these fields. - Becker (1967) links development of case study to medical model - Stenhouse (1975) links it to education by arguing for a curriculum that includes partnership between student and teacher in making learning meaningful - Platt (1992) links it to social work - Van Wynsberghe and Khan (2007) argue that case study is a heuristic device because "at its most general, its an approach that focuses one's attention during learning, construction, discovery, or problem solving" - Graebner Eisenhardt (2004) refer to case study as a research strategy - we agree and further suggest that case study is not a method or methodology but rather an expansive field within the qualitative paradigm - case study is both the way we proceed in research and the result of the research - Stake (2005) we concur: "a case study is both a process of inquiry about the case and the product of that inquiry" - Combined influence from many fields - Case study as "research strategy" (Graebner and Eisenhardt, 2004) - Not a method or methodology, but expansive field within qualitative paradigm - Both the way we proceed in research and the result of the research - Provides researcher with unique, holistic understanding of a systems in context - Relies on one or few cases of individuals, events, programs, institutions, and a society - Often performed with social justice intent in mind - Allows for highly complex and nuanced understanding - Stake's (2005) 5 Requirements: 1. issue choice, 2. triangulation 3. experiential knowledge, 4. contexts 5. activities - researchers conducting case studies may use more than one method to collect extensive data about the case - First decision must be unit of analysis + An individual, a group, an institution, a whole community, or a nonliving entity - Establish clear boundaries of inclusion and exclusion: + Spatially delimited - Methods vary depending on the case and question + Interviews, oral history, ethnography, document analysis, quantitative statistics + More data not necessarily bette

What are the 3 different types of case study designs?

Deciding on the type of case study you employ also involves asking the question of what you case is. 1. SINGLE INSTRUMENTAL: - in-depth inquiry that focuses on an issue or concern and then selects one bounded case to illustrate these issues - can be used in theory building -In-depth inquiry focused illustrating an issue in one bounded case 2. SINGLE INTRINSIC - focuses on the case itself because it represents an unusual or unique situation 3. COLLECTIVE OR MULTIPLE - allows researcher to compare and contrast diff. cases - analyze multiple diverse cases

What are the challenges of developing a research database from online texts and materials?

Developing a research database from online materials proves more challenging to accomplish. 1. Part of the problem is one of definition as it connects to your research question: - should your research databases came from one site such as Twitter or Facebook, or should the data draw from multiple sites? - how might you link these data such such as through a theme, keyword, or hashtag? 2. another part of the problem is one of gathering - social networking sites are updated quickly and frequently, resulting in massive numbers of posts - many of these sites also prohibit extensive digging into their older posts - even those a few days old - making it difficult to gather extensive data - even though its difficult, it's still valuable and worthwhile to spend some time problem solving to overcome or manage some of these challenges in order to pursue content analysis projects of these texts SOLUTIONS: - choose a limited number of social networking accounts and archive materials as they appear on the sites + process requires careful consideration beforehand of what accounts to follow and archive and careful cultivation of content on a regular, frequent basis - follow hashtag campaigns through analytics sites that track conversations across social networking sites + ex. Hashtag.org, tint.com + both sides provide analytics or summary data, but they also point to accounts that engage the hashtags more frequently than others + some sites provide real-time analytics data, meaning that they track the hashtag campaign as it happens, or they provide a more archival approach in tracking it after it has waned or passed - When exploring the accounts that participate in hashtag campaigns, be sure to watch for accounts that "hijack" the campaign, or offer posts that have nothing to do with the campaign but just want to take advantage of the opportunity for some publicity or to generate traffic. - Also watch for accounts that contribute to the campaign without understanding its purpose, unless that is the purpose driving your research question. For example, the Twitter account for DiGiorno Pizza wrote, "#WhyIStayed You had pizza," when the hashtag campaign was attempting to call attention to why women stayed in abusive relationships (Petri, 2014) - hash tag analytics sites are examples of data or web scraping/ means of gathering data from the web + ex. kimonolabs, for example, allows you to create a focused search across millions of webpages to generate - outwit offers a similar option - both can't get info that appears behind passwords, logins or firewalls/some companies close off their systems to prevent this kind of scraping because it potentially affects their bottom lines - Real-time data v. archival approach - Beware of accounts which "hijack" or misuse the campaign - Use company-offered services (with cost or limits) or harvest the data with your own tools - When harvesting personally, passwords, logins, or firewalls may cause obstacles - Ex: Kimonolabs and Outwi

How do you generalize your findings from a single case study?

Do not aim for statistical generalization Aim is instead to gain complex and richer understanding of data though in-depth exploration •Such findings from one case may provide transferable information to a wider set of case Focus on gaining dimensional trustworthiness and credibility - EX. in order to increase the credibility of your single case study, it would be important to use different types of data collection methods that may provide you with a range of ways of getting at meaning, such as combining interviews with observations - Create audit trail of in-depth memos

Define EQUAL FOOTING

EQUAL FOOTING: both methods are placed on an equal footing when a researcher does not distinguish between a primary and a secondary method

Define EXPANSION

EXPANSION: expansion is initiated to extend the range of study and can be a motive to employ mixed methods

Define HASHTAG CAMPAIGN

HASHTAG CAMPAIGN: the use of a hashtag toward the promotion of an idea, product, or brand

Define HASHTAG

HASHTAG: a combination of a pound sign (#) and a series of words used to mark an online conversation. Users can click on the hashtag and see other social media posts that use it.

What is the historical background of content analysis?

Historical Background - Ideas of content analysis existed long before its naming and formal application +17th/18th c. church texts analysis, 19th c. newspaper analysis + Gained traction within social sciences in 1930s exploring symbols and stereotypes + Arrived as a methodology by 1941, when scholars began critical reflection on its use/applications - began with quantitative deductive procedure + in this approach the researcher looks for absence or presence of preset coded representations (often from previous inductive study) + the preset code list is often generated by diving deeper into prior data in a more inductive fashion, looking to generate codes from the ground up - Researcher is confident that the categories of representation are valid and reliable because they've already been subject to a range of validity and reliability checks using multiple coders - Aims to find extent to which the categories are represented in the current research data + Ex: James Bond female character study, pp. 252

Define IDEOLOGY

IDEOLOGY: a collection of interrelated ideas accepted by a group of people. Mainstream or dominant ideology refers to sets of interrelated ideas that are accepted as common-sense by most people in a society. Textual analysis work often aims to identify dominant or mainstream ideologies within a text, either in the form of stereotypes or of common patterns of behaviours and roles.

Define INITIATION

INITIATION: one reason for using mixed methods is that of initiation whereby a research study's findings raise questions or contain contradictions that require clarification

Define INSTRUMENTAL CASE STUDY

INSTRUMENTAL CASE STUDY: a case is studied to generalize or provide insight into a larger topic

Why is it important to determine your unit of analysis?

It is critical in conducting a case study to know the boundaries of the case you are selecting. Determining the unit of analysis of your case means that you will target your analysis and conclusions with regard to that particular unit. EX. you could select a case study unit of analysis to be one or more individuals, a given community or several communities, a specific social group, an organization or institution, a specific event, or types of social interaction (e.g., behaviour of marries couples)

What do you do when you're defining or delimiting the text for analysis ?

It's important to develop a research question that can inform and direct the delimiting of text - ex. do you want to analyze all episode of an entire television series, or just one season, or a sample of episodes from several seasons - with qualitative analysis there is no single right answer to these questions; however the research question should guide the selection - it's very important to include rationale for selecting your particular object of analysis, as well as your rationale for selecting specific episodes that make up the text for the purposes of your study - Develop a research question that can inform and direct the delimiting of the text - Include your rationale for selecting your particular object of analysis and the specific texts that make it up STEP 2: once the text has been defined and collected, you are in a position to begin actual analysis - many researchers start with the identification of key subtopics that will guide analysis - the identification of subtopics can come through a review of previous literature on the text type or subject area with which you are concerned + you can do this even if there is no prior research on the specific campaign under examination in your study - previous literature will give you some ideas about what has been important and interesting in news coverage of prior campaigns, and you can select those that have the most relevance for your study - subtopics for analysis can also be derived from your own assessment of the text; the analysis can be organized accordingly with discussion of your observations within each category Moving from collection to analysis - Many researchers start with the identification of key subtopics - Gain from literature review or personal assessment - May be performed by software or hand

define METHODS TRIANGULATION

METHODS TRIANGULATION: the use of multiple (different) methods of collecting data in order to see how consistent the research findings are in studying the same phenomenon

define MIXING OF PHILOSOPHICAL PARADIGMS

MIXING OF PHILOSOPHICAL PARADIGMS: a mixed methods design mixes qualitative and quantitative philosophical assumptions, especially as they pertain to issues concerning the nature of the individual and society and the problem of objectivity versus subjectivity

Define MULTIPLE CASE STUDIES

MULTIPLE CASE STUDIES: when multiple cases are investigated in one case study project

CH. 10 What is Mixed Methods Research?

Mixed methods refers to the use of both qualitative and quantitative approaches and methods concurrently in one study or sequentially in two or more studies. An important logic behind the application of this design is that "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts: - Greene and Caracelli (1997) note that having a "conversation" between different methods and the paradigms that they represent promotes "more comprehensive, insightful and logical results than either paradigm [interpretivist or postpositivist] could obtain alone The combination of qualitative and quantitative methods has the potential to create a synergistic research project in which one method enables the other to be more effective. Together, both methods hold the promise of providing a fuller understanding of the research problem. Mixed methods designs can also help to get at subjugated knowledge and give voice to those whose viewpoints are often left out of traditional research (Greene & Caracelli, 1997). Combining methods can often assist the researcher in tackling highly complex problems that involve several layers of understanding that may require different analytical techniques. The selection of a particular research method is tightly linked to the research problem. Some methods are more effective at answering certain types of questions and specific dimensions of a research question QUALITATIVE - Qualitative approaches and methods are useful for getting at the lived experiences of the individual, by asking such questions as, "To what extent, if any, are children's lived experiences impacted by obesity in terms of their home and school lives?" - Qualitative approaches and qualitative data collection methods require an analytical design that often deals with the analysis of textual data for meaning and are not particularly strong in obtaining an overall more macro picture. QUANTITATIVE: Quantitative approaches and methods, such as surveys, answer questions such as, "How many? How often?" Quantitative methods allow the researcher to test hypotheses and draw out generalizations from the data. As discussed later, the use of mixed methods is also subject to some practical constraints, including the cost of conducting research, the training of researchers, and the type of funding available for the particular research design (Brannen, 1992, p. 17).

Define NATURALISTIC

NATURALISTIC: a term coined by Stake that denotes non-positivist generalizations formed through the analysis of thick descriptions. This requires two simultaneous forms of analysis: analyzing particulars and aggregating the particulars or instances so that something can be said about them as a group.

define NESTED

NESTED: a form of mixed methods design. A nested design consists of one method (qualitative or quantitative) nested or embedded in the other, with the nested method being given a lower priority - the nested method may even answer a different research question, yet both methods are used to analyze data

What is a Case Study?

Not defined as simply method, methodology, research design, or paradigm Case study is a decision about what is to be studied - Not methodology, though does guide inquiry - Results in ongoing production of exemplars - No specific disciplinary or paradigmatic orientation - Can be conducted both qualitatively and quantitatively - Qualitative case study approaches: + Intensive, naturalistic description and analysis of a single instance, phenomenon, or social unit

How does polysemy factor into qualitative content analysis?

POLYSEMY: the existence of multiple meanings for a given word or expression - recognized and understood since ancient times - though meanings aren't fixed, they are also constrained by context, history and social norms Irony provides a clear example of polysemy in that, through exaggeration, it both pokes fun at a common practice or element but also at the same time reinscribes the very thing it is designed to critique - does this type of humour do more to break down and eliminate stereotypes or does it function instead to remind us of them and further entrench them into our thoughts? + conversely the existence of critical commentary on problematic or limiting ideas (racial/class-based stereotypes) can advance the cause of social progress and help us become aware of negative thought patterns

Define PREFERRED READING

PREFERRED READING: the preferred reading is the interpretation of a text that is arguably the most common, or the most common-sense. It is the interpretation that is the most available and will be shared by most people.

Define Qualitative Case Study Approaches

QUALITATIVE CASE STUDY APPROACHES: "an intensive, holistic description and analysis of a single instance, phenomenon, or social unit" OR "naturalistic, holistic, ethnographic, phenomenological, and biographic research methods" - can use both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods - leaning towards certain qualitative methods of collecting and analyzing case studies that is characterized by a holistic, interpretative, and subjectivist approach - no agreed-on definition - researchers who use case study research often refer to their work by methods employed within the case study, such as ethnography or oral history, and thus, a great deal of case study research is not defined as such - when talking about a case study, we are not referring to the writing up, for example, of particular case studies of patients or clients

What are the Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative content analysis?

Qualitative Content Analysis Strengths: - offers a means of systematically analyzing the meanings occurring within data sets - better able to account for subtleties of meaning as well as variations in interpretation of textual elements - focuses on latent meanings (what could be indicated) instead of manifest ones + data within a qualitative content analysis require more contexts to enable understanding of their meanings - data analysis process involves a more organic approach that varies from study to study than a highly prescriptive one - has more of a subjective component than quantitative analysis, because the researcher is interested in interpretation of meaning WEAKNESSES: - may not be as systematic as quantitative analysis and may not be able to examine as large a database or group of texts

What are the Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative content analysis?

Quantitative analysis •Often criticized for its descriptive approach to the data it examines because quantitative analysis can tend to deliver numerical findings and conclusions without offering solid explanations about why it is important to collect those data and what they ultimately mean + good quantitative analysis is able to provide answers to these important "so what" questions, but many studies aren't able to do so - often reduce meaning to single, visible units taken without context + though this approach makes meaning within data simpler to quantify and analyze, meaning is actually more complicated than it is superficial + multiple meanings exist within a single phenomenon, and contexts shape those meanings - sometimes single incidence of meaning within a media text bears more meaning than more frequent incidents ex. a single appearance of a female character within a film bears significant meaning for its singularity and even its absence + often important information is gained or lost through the choice of items to count and the definitions provided for those items - ex. quantitative analysis of film or television characters often requires that characters be coded as central (main characters) or peripheral (supporting characters) - it might not always be obvious whether a character is central or peripheral, and some supporting characters play a much larger role and have many more lines than others = quantitative analysis is often unable to account for these subtleties and is limited to the identification of elements into specific codable terms - Reduces meaning to single, visible units taken without context - Important information is gained or lost through choice of items to count and definitions provided - Unable to account for subtleties - Can tend to deliver numerical findings and conclusions without offering solid explanations about why they are important or what they mean - Often criticized for its descriptive approach

How does content analyses interact with qualitative and quantitative approaches?

Quantitative content analysis (also sometimes referred to as "formal" content analysis_ uses numerical or statistical assessments and descriptions of texts ex. might be used to examine a collection of news articles about a political campaign that featured one male and one female candidate, counting the number of references to elements such as positions on issues, physical appearance, and personal life for each candidate - to discover whether there are significant differences in coverage of the candidates based on their gender - ULTIMATE GOAL: whether there are statistical relationships that are generalizable QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS could be used to study the same group of news articles, but instead of mainly counting up items in different categories within the news coverage, a qualitative approach would focus more on the ways in which the texts generate meaning. - such an analysis might examine elements such as + the terminology used to describe candidates + the metaphors used in the coverage + the wording of quotes attributed to each candidate - qualitative data are quite rich in their meanings and offer numerous opportunities for multiple interpretations SO to narrow down: + uses categories that allow you to set limits in your exploration and reach depth in your explanations for them ex. categories: labels (terminology), metaphors, quotes - you can also decide on specific categories to examine within each of these content features (ex. gender, power and value) + in this case, you would look at candidate labels and unpack them for meanings related to gender, power and/or relative value placed on candidate - qualitative content analysts know the media texts are POLYSEMIC: contain multitude of potential meanings and can be interpreted in different ways by different people + patterns of interpretation allow researchers to make assertions about which understandings are most likely or most common-sense + common-sense or obvious reading of a text = PREFERRED READING + important that researchers acknowledge that their interpretation is not the only way to understand a text + good qualitative textual analysis will include some discussion of alternative readings other than the preferred reading that is advanced and critiqued by the analysis

Define SEQUENTIAL (time ordered) STUDIES

SEQUENTIAL (time ordered) STUDIES: studies that occur back to back such that one follows the other

How do you analyze texts without software?

STEP 1: Begin with literature review and looking at the text to determine possible categories - Process as a back-and-forth between text and the support of other researchers STEP 2: Document elements to form descriptive argument - Collect as many examples as you can to illustrate the patterns you have identified - Select one or two examples that provide the best and clearest illustration of the phenomenon STEP 3: Think about why your observations are important or significant - The pattern is different from, or contradicts, a generally accepted understanding - Shows how ideologies are conveyed and supported through the text - Identifies internal contradictions that may lead to different possible interpretations STEP 4: Return to existing theory to determine how your analysis contributes to the existing conversation - Be careful not to settle on a main idea too early in process

How do you conduct a case study? Explain Step 2

STEP 2: Review the Literature of Your Overall Research Interest - Examine what previous case study work has been carried out on this research topic - What conclusions have been reached? - what issues or contradictions are still in need of further work?

How do you conduct a case study? Explain Step 3

STEP 3. Select a case study research design Clearly delineate just what your case is - what is it that you seek to study? - are you interested in individuals or organizations as the object of your study? Determining unit of analysis: - what behaviours or patterns do you want to know more about - do you seek to describe individual or group organizational behaviours that have not been thus far researched? - behaviors, and patterns - Describing, testing, or extending knowledge - you are not looking for generalizations and thus are concerned about a statistically representative sample of cases - you are interested in those sets of cases that can serve to illustrate your overall problem

How do you conduct a case study? Explain Step 4

STEP 4: determining the methods of data collection - Case study always necessitates the use of multiple methods and data sources - Triangulated validity: by adopting a triangulated approach, researchers are using multiple techniques to clarify meaning - when mixed-methods are used synergistically, findings can be substantiated - consider validity with respect to: + descriptions + interpretation + theories + generalizations + evaluative judgements - Methods selection is problem- centric + Choice is based on method effectiveness in gathering data about key dimensions of the case - May want to examine how other similar studies used methods - Constantly negotiate the relationship of the parts to the whole and the whole to the larger population + Also negotiate roles as teacher, advocate, evaluator, biographer, and interpreter

How do you conduct a case study? Explain Step 5

STEP 5: Analyzing and Interpreting you case study data - Qualitative and quantitative data will require different analytic attention •Ex: Parsing interview transcripts vs. reading surveys

How do you conduct a case study? Explain Step 6

STEP 6: Reporting your Findings - How you will you write up your overall research findings? - To what extent you will inform current research and make policy recommendations? - how do your findings inform current research?

define SYNERGISTIC

SYNERGISTIC: the combination of two diff. methods can create a synergistic research project whereby one method enables the other to be more effective, and together, both methods provide a fuller understanding of the research problem (Greene and Caracelli, 1997; see Sieber, 1973, for an early example of the synergy in mixing the methods of fieldwork and survey research)

How do you decide between different methods of data collection?

Step 1: decide what you will use as the unit of analysis for your case study UNIT OF ANALYSIS: consists of an individual, a group (such as students in your college dorm), an institution (such as your college), or more broadly a whole community and even a larger social entity (such as a state or nation). - a case can also consist of a nonliving entity, such as a program or a specific social policy 2. establish clear boundaries to your case (what is included, what is excluded) - you may need to adjust later on what you consider to be the case but you still need to be clear about what it is you are studying and making statements about - spatially delimited - reflect on what you want to know (research question) to help determine what case to select - holistic, deep, contextually grounded understanding of a given case or set of cases selected

define THEORETICAL TRIANGULATION

THEORETICAL TRIANGULATION: this has come to mean using diff. theoretical perspectives in one study ex. you might apply both a feminist and postmodern perspective to study a single problem. One of the advantages in doing so is that the researcher can examine the efficacy of several theoretical perspectives in one study

define TRIANGULATION?

TRIANGULATION: this strategy involves using more than one method to study the same research question. The researcher is looking for a convergence of research findings to enhance the credibility of the research findings.

How do you consider data for media content analysis?

The data range from a sample from a sample of ex. 25 representative move scenes, to a more encompassing set of options, such as all the episodes of one television series ex. study of online news media coverage and reader comments about weight loss surgery - started with potential articles for their analysis after completing online searches for key terms - they then applied 4 criteria to the set: + story type + comment availability + subject focus + language use in order to narrow their choices to 19 articles. Because the authors also focused on reader comments, they included in accompaniment to these 19 articles their 665 attached comments. - by using your research question as a guide, you determine the angles through which you conduct your analysis (develop categories according to research question) - through data analysis, break down categories further - the research question and narratives help them draw conclusions about the relationships within the programs - media convergence is of particular importance in considering online environs because it brings all previous physical media into a digital environment, thus making it portable and accessible from multiple devices and locations

What are the reasons for adopting a case study approach?

The main aim of case study is to understand, in a meaningful and nuanced way, the view of those within the case. Although case study can be conducting from any theoretical grounding, Stake's perspective is closely aligned with an INTERPRETIVE APPROACH that emphasizes creating thick descriptions of social life from the viewpoints of participants to understanding meaning from their perspectives. - thick descriptions: even descriptions of physical environments become critical as the researcher aims to create vicarious experiences for the case study reader - Emphasizes thick description in understanding perspectives and creating vicarious experiences - requires extensive data collection, which is built into in-depth descriptions of all aspects of the case necessary to convey the particularity of the case to the research - Identifying and describing contexts is vital in generating meaning and creating understanding

CH. 9 What is Content Analysis?

The main task of content analysis is to identify a text or group of texts and closely study them to better understand the characteristics of what is included and not included in the textual object of analysis. Until recently the main goal of qualitative content analysis has been to identify and unpack the play of dominant ideologies within mainstream texts. IDEOLOGY: a collection of interrelated ideas that are accepted by a group of people. + mainstream or dominant ideology refers to sets of interrelated ideas that are accepted as common-sense by most people in a society EX. neoliberalism, a dominant ideology in the United States, holds that free markets and trade are generally beneficial and that free choice is exercised by people in the United States. Accordingly, then, neoliberalism tends to blame problems on individuals and their choices, rather than on structural inequalities or restrictions, and it fails to examine how specific choices become available and attractive to individuals in a given context. TEXTUAL ANALYSIS aims to: - identify dominant or mainstream ideologies within a text, either in the form of: + stereotypes + common patterns of behaviour and roles - provide insights into how our thought patterns and assumptions might be influenced by the patterns of meaning that commonly occur - Often grounded in + critical race theory + feminist theory + other social justice-oriented paradigms - at the most basic level, the idea is that negative and stereotypical representations of certain groups indicate that those groups lack social power, including the power to create their own mass media images and representations - IMPORTANT GOAL: reveal our common habits of thought and examine them closely, with the further goal of helping to improve representations in ways that allow us to expand our repertoire of thoughts and assumptions - break down stereotypes - often looks for what's missing from texts as well as what's present Prevalence of stereotyping in mass media - considered "unobtrusive" because it involves getting data from sources other than people - data used in content analysis is considered "natural" in that they exist outside the researcher and the research; in other words, the data exists whether the researcher gathers them or not

How do you conduct qualitative content analysis of online texts? Explain media convergence

The proliferation of websites, wireless access, and mobile devices has resulted in a rapid expansion of opportunities for online qualitative content analyses when thinking about texts and their analyses through qualitative methods. Markham and Baym (2009) identify four considerations within online environs: 1. media convergence 2. mediated identities 3. redefinitions of social boundaries 4. transcendence of geographical boundaries - media convergence is of particular importance because it brings out all previous physical media into a digital environment, thus making it portable and accessible from multiple devices and locations + traditional media terms still apply, such as with television shows still being broadcast and available on DVD, but at the same time multiple online sites use digital forms to make those same shows available on phones, tablets, and computers + previously words and still images on a page, newspapers online now include audio and video as part of their reportage + a post on a social media site like facebook or twitter might include words, still images, audio, and videos - convergence, then, complicates the definition of text and content and thus determines the boundary of the text and content and thus determines the boundary of the text and even its context - Context is blurred as content jumps site

Explain the challenges with interactivity of online materials

While interactivity itself remains a highly theorized and debated term, Miller (2011) offers a concise way of thinking about it: "the user has the potential- and can be invited- to have some sort of influence on the presentation of the media or feedback on it" On social media sites such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram, users have the opportunity to personalize their profiles and create their own content that appears on their experiences within sites, such as on Facebook with adding friends, liking pages, and hiding unwanted posts. What changes even more is that other people can comment within the site and even share the content outside the site. This simplified portrait demonstrates some of the rudimentary ways of thinking about interactivity, but it suggests other considerations when engaging content analysis online. Within this environment, the sheer quantity of potential data for analysis increases exponentially. The texts available can change very quickly, with materials added, deleted, or modified. It is more difficult to know what contexts shape the data outside the site on which they appear, as much content appearing on sites started somewhere else. Either way, in online environments, researchers need to engage in careful definitions of their texts for study. - User potential to influence media presentation and feedback - Personalization, curation of sites like Instagram - Increases quantity of potential data exponentially - Available texts can be added, deleted, or modified very quickly

How do you make a theoretical contribution with content analysis?

You need to go back o one or more of the research studies cited in your literature review or in your discussion of prior research and show how your work helps to support, clarify, adapt or extend some important concepts or finding in that work - try to come up with a label for the type of insight that is most important or most interesting in your analysis (that hasn't been already labelled before) - findings a name for the phenomenon you have discovered may also help you to clarify and define the contribution that you have made to the broader conversation about texts and their importance