POLI 271 quotes

"But if you are a ruler and you put your trust in the populace, if you can give commands and are capable of bold action, if you are not nonplussed by adversity, if you take other necessary precautions, and if through your own courage and your policies you keep up the morale of the populace, then you will never be let down by them, and you will discover you have built on a solid foundation."

- Machiavelli (Prince) - relationship between ruler and subject is that of trust of the populous, follow through on goals and they will keep you in power.

"We have seen that kings hold the place of God, who is the true father of the human race. We have also seen that the first idea of power that there was among men, is that of paternal power, and that kings were fashioned on the model of fathers"

Bossuet (Politics) - King is a father to the nation, firm and strict for discipline - absolute rule, keep safe and protect subjects/children

"It is in this way that we have seen that the royal throne is not the throne of a man, but the throne of God himself" "Their power coming from on high, as has been said, they must not believe that they are owners of it, to use it as they please; rather they must use it with fear and restraint, as something which comes to them from God, and for which God will ask an accounting of them"

Bossuet (Politics) - King is a tool of God, not about a reward, no independent voice or will - God fives authority to all rulers, even seemingly evil ones

"Horribly and speedily will he appear to you; for a must severe judgement shall be for them that bear rule. For to him that is little, mercy is granted: but the mighty shall be mightily tormented. For God will not except any man's person, neither will he stand in awe of any man's greatness, for he made the little and the great, and he hath equally care of all. But a greater punishment is ready for the more mighty"

Bossuet (Politics) - Kings are not powerful in themselves. they are merely stewards of God - God gives legitimacy to all kings and political actors - higher standards on kings because they are chosen by God

"(Moses) spent the little life remaining to him in teaching the people, and in giving them the instructions which comprise the book of Deuteronomy. And then he died without the slightest earthly reward, at a time when God was giving them so liberally" "No one was ever so ungrateful to Moses as the Jewish people. No one was ever so good to the Jewish people as Moses. Throughout Exodus and Numbers one hears only the insolent murmurings of this people against him: all their complaints are seditious, and never does he hear from their mouths any quiet remonstrations... but during this fury he pleaded their cause before God, who wanted to abandon them"

Bossuet (Politics) - Paternal power is a way a king should rule Paternal reward is sacrifice, there is no reward, children are ungrateful - Rule for God, not for recognition

"There are errors into which we fall by reasoning, for man often entangles himself by dint of reasoning... What have the philosophers gained with their pompous discourses, with their sublime style, with their 'reasonings' so artfully arranged? Plato, with that eloquence which he believed divine - did he overturn a single altar at which monstrous divinities had been adored?"

Bossuet (Politics) - Priest, not much backlash, especially from religious people - appeals to moral code and God, reason - direction of reason should be to god - can easily fall into temptation

"It appears from all this that the person of kings is sacred , and that to attempt anything against them is a sacrilege. God anoints them through his prophets"

Bossuet (Politics) - Ruler holds god's power and authority, chosen by God. holy

"As soon as there is a king, the people has only to remain at rest under his authority. If an impatient people stirs, and does not want to keep itself tranquil under royal authority, the fire of division will flare up in the state, and consume the bramble-bush together with all the other trees, that is to say the King and the nations" "...for every weak prince is unjust... these weaknesses (of princes) are pernicious to individuals, to the state, and to the prince himself, against whom one dares everything once he lets it start"

Bossuet (Politics) - absolute government is just, unlike arbitrary government - guide: take care of the people - maximize power that is handed down to you - the King's power must be absolute because he needs strength to keep people dutiful - Weakness is unjust: giving liscense to disobey

"There is thus something religious in the respect one gives to the prince. The service of God and respect for kings are inseparable things, and St. Peter places these two duties together." "...This is why 'one must serve, not to the eye, as it were pleasing men, but, as the servants of christ doing the will of God, from the heart." "...the Holy Spirit teaches us that (violent kings) do not deserve to live, and that they have everything to fear - as much from their peoples, pushed to the limit by their acts of violence, as from God"

Bossuet (Politics) - subjects owe the paternal power loyalty, absolute obedience, respect - Serve when people aren't watching, motivations pure - It doesn't matter what people can see, only what God can see - Violent kings don't deserve to live, no right to rebellion or revolution, must still fear the people

"Eloquence dazzles the simple dialectic hurls her lances at them; an exaggerated metaphysics flings minds into unknown lands; many no longer know what they believe, and holding everything in indifference, without understanding, without discerning, they join a party by whim. These are the times that I call those of temptation, if one is searching for obfuscation; and one must await with faith the later time in which truth will triumph and manifestly gain the upper hand"

Bossuet (Politics) - temptation is easy to fall into, must focus on following God to be able to reason - Can be misled by reason - Must turn to God in politics and life to be strong

"Let him become convinced of this, that what Christ teaches applies to no one more than to the prince"

Erasmus (Education of a Christian Prince) - A Good prince must have good morals and lead a life according to God

"When he has had a good laugh, then the teacher should spell it out; the fable applies to the prince, telling him never to look down on anybody but o try assiduously to win over by kindness the heart of even the humblest of the common people, for no one is so weak but that he may at some time be a friend who can help you or an enemy who can harm

Erasmus (Education) - A ruler most be honest above else, have a sense of justice, responsibility, humility, kindness and respect - Christian symbol to all of the people - Teacher is supposed to guide him in the right direction and teach all of the qualities of a good prince

"But if it turns out that he has already been somewhat contaminated by popular opinions, then we shall have to take the greatest care to release him from them gradually and to implant wholesome ones in place of the diseased ones that have been eradicated"

Erasmus (Education) - Ruler must humble himself, but be vastly superior and held to a higher standard. - Supposed to be an example to all of the people

" So long as you follow what is right, do violence to no one, extort from no one, sell no pubic office, and are corrupted by no bribes, then, to be sure, your treasury will have far less in it than otherwise. But disregard the impoverishment of the treasury, so long as you are showing a profit in justice" " There is no other quicker and more effective way of improving public morals than for the prince to lead a blameless life

Erasmus (Education) - Virtue, internal makeup and disposition - Good ruler based on how moral and christian you are - Blameless life excludes revenge, war, etc.

"...every man, ought to endeavour peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all helps, and advantages of war"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - 1st law of nature, if you can seek and create peace, do it - Part of self-preservation that drives the reason of people

"...that a man be willing, when others are so too, as far-forth, as for peace and defense of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down his right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against himself"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - 2nd law of nature, give up the right to all things in nature in order to establish peace, if others do it as well - self preservation and working with others to create peace and order

"From this equality of ability, ariseth equality of hope in the attaining of our ends" "And from hence it comes to pass, that where an invader hath no more to fear, than another man's single power; if one plant, sow, build, or possess a convenient seat, others may probably be expected to come prepared with forces united, to dispossess, and deprive him, not only of the fruit of his labour, but also his life, or liberty. And the invader again is in like danger of another"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - Born with basic envy and ambition and we can act upon that - equality of hope - there will always be a sense of threat, never relief from insecurity

"...every particular man is author of all the sovereign doth; and consequently he that complaineth of injury from his sovereign complaineth of that whereof he himself is the author"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - By entering the social contract, the sovereign gains everything - All areas of governance are under the sovereign - Authority: all of us are responsible for the actions of the Leviathan - Whatever the sovereign does cannot be unjust or punishable

"And law was brought into the world for nothing else, but to limit the natural liberty of particular men, in such manner, as they might not hurt, but assist one another, and join together against a common enemy"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - Civil laws are made by the sovereign that all are subject to - God makes natural law- then gives us reason - Sovereign has to translate natural law to civil law - All laws are just if created by the sovereign

"Fear and liberty are consistent; as when a man throweth his goods into the sea for fear the ship should sink, he doth it nevertheless very willingly... And generally all actions which men do in commonwealths, for fear of the law, are actions, which the doers had liberty to omit" "Liberty and necessity are consistent:as in the water, that hath not only liberty, but a necessity of descending by the channel; so likewise in the actions which men voluntarily do" "But it is an easy thing, for men to be deceived, by the specious name of liberty, and for want of judgement to distinguish, mistake that for their private inheritance, and birthright, which is the right of the public only"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - Defines liberty as physical; unrestricted, free to move, go as it will - Liberty can be controlled by fear - Consistent in that they will always go together, can coexist, even though fear can control actions of liberty - Creating a social contract is still a Free Act - Liberty and necessity are consistent, choose to do the things you must do to survive - The role of liberty is what you can and can't do under the Leviathan - Liberty does not mean guaranteed rights, - The only guarantee is the liberty of the commonwealth against outside enemies, right to protection and security.

"For as to the strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest, either by secret machination, or by confederacy with others, that are in the same danger with himself"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - Fundamentally, we are all equal - equal in power over others, close in physical strength and intelligence - equality to kill, everyone has this ability

"The best counsel, in those things that concern not other nations, but only the ease, and benefit the subjects may enjoy, by laws that look only inward, is to be taken from the general informations, and complaints of the people of each province, who are best acquainted with their own wants, and ought therefore, when they demand nothing in derogation of the essential rights of sovereignty, to be diligently taken notice of" "...it is against his duty, to let the people be ignorant, or misinformed of the grounds, and reasons of those his essential rights; because thereby men are easy to be seduced, and drawn to resist him, when the commonwealth shall require their use and exercise"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - People have a notion of good self-governance - Not formally guaranteed because of the sovereigns power - Sovereign should oblige to the people -Trust the people, they know what is good for them - Must keep them informed to keep them obedient - Makes it reasonable to obey, must trust them to understand the reason of your rule

"...men have no pleasure, (but on the contrary a great deal of grief) in keeping company, where there is no power able to over-awe them all" This is the condition that Hobbes calls War: "... during the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe" "...the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - Reasons to form a political community: -there is no power we share above us that will keep us in fear - War is when there is no common power above us, always the possibility of conflict - No industry, culture, trade, cooperation, knowledge, art, society. Instead, constant fear - Outcome of war is solidarity etc. and the short life of man

"And whereas sense and memory are but knowledge of fact, which is a thing past and irrevocable, Science is the knowledge of consequences, and the dependence of one fact upon another"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - Scientific view of philosophy and political claims - A deductive science. Lay out general principles and definitions, from which you reason your way to a conclusion - writing to defend authority without relying on "divine right"

" From whence we may collect, that the propriety which a subject hath in his hands, consisteth in a right to exclude all other subjects from the use of them; and not to exclude their sovereign, be it an assembly, or a monarch"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - Status of property; everything belongs to the commonwealth, no private right - Purpose of property is to enhance the commonwealth - Use property at the willingness of the sovereign

"...every one to own, and acknowledge himself to be author of whatsoever he that so beareth their person, shall act, or cause to be acted, in those things which concern the common peace and safety; and therin to submit their wills, everyone to his will and their judgements, to his judgement"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - The outcome of the social contract is the Leviathan - is a mortal god (man made, can die by rebellion or bigger power), and the sovereign - We give up everything by entering the social contract, and cannot go backwards

"The liberty of a subject, lieth therefore only in those things, which in regulating their actions, the sovereign hath praetermitted"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - The private liberties that remain after we join the social contract are those that the sovereign has permitted - No guarantees, but probably: trade and make contracts; build and live where we like; raise our children on our own without interference, "and the like" - You can only disobey if the sovereign asks you to harm yourself or commit yourself, in the name of self preservation

"To this war of every man against every man, this also is consequent; that nothing can be unjust. the notions of right and wrong, justice and injustice have there no place. Where there is no common power, there is no law; where no law, no injustice."

Hobbes (Leviathan) - There is no good, bad, just, or unjust in nature, fact of the world in his view - Faith in the fear of humans and their actions - without common government, who is to say what is rights and wrong - justice comes after institutions are established - can only change reason if you change your surroundings

"...a precept, or general rule, found out by reason, which a man is forbidden to do that, which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of preserving the same"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - escape the state of nature by reason, the right of nature (preservation) and the - Law of Nature: man can't do anything to harm himself

"For the laws of nature (as justice, equity, modesty, mercy, and (in sum) doing to others, as we would be done to,) of themselves, without the terror of some power, to cause them to be observed, are contrary to our natural passions, that carry us to partiality, pride, revenge, and the like"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - foundation is the actions of the individual - Passions vs. Reason - both rule our actions, but reason makes us fight and seek peace while pride leeds to feeling of pride and revenge - We are divisive because of critical thinking and the idea of the individual good vs the collective good

"The obligation of subjects to the sovereign, is understood to last as long, and no longer, than the power lasteth, by which he is able to protect them. For the right men have by nature to protect themselves, when none else can protect them, can by no covenant be relinquished"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - the social contract is not indefinite - When the sovereign falls, the contract is void and we return back to nature

"...the motive, the end for which this renouncing, and transferring of right is introduced, is nothing else by the security of a man's person, in his life, and the means of so preserving life"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - through reason, we give up our right of nature -We do this for self preservation - Collective act of renouncing our right to nature is the social contract - Made on the basis of equality and consent - We are all made equal

"So that in the first place, I put for a general inclination of all mankind, a perpetual and restless desire of power after power, that ceaseth only in death" "...because he cannot assure the power and means to live well, which he hath present, without the acquisition of more" "...ignorance of causes, disposeth, or rather constraineth a man to rely on the advice, and authority of others" "...men give different names to one and the same thing, from the difference of their own passions: as they that approve a private opinion, call it opinion; but they that mislike it, heresy" "...from the innumerable variety of fancy, men have created in the world innumerable sorts of gods. And this fear of things invisible is the natural seed of that, which everyone in himself calleth religion"

Hobbes (Leviathan) - views state of nature as how people act without institutions, no power authority, self preservation - Humans are always seeking for more power because there are always new threats - everyone has a different perspective - must recognize this - divisive, conflict on everything - Religion comes from basic fear that has created many gods

"For when any number of men have, by the consent of every individual, made a community, hey have thereby made that community one body, with a power to act as one body, which is only by the will and determination of the majority" "...he (the person in the state of nature) is to part also, with as much of his natural liberty, in providing for himself, as the good, prosperity, and safety of the society shall require"

Locke (Second Treatise) - A majority in determination because reasoning adults will have similar views form the same circumstances - trying to take away power from degenerates - Majority will stands above all else

"This freedom from absolute, arbitrary power, is so necessary to, and closely joined with a man's preservation, that he cannot part with it, but by what forfeits his preservation and life together. For a man, not having the power of his own life, cannot, by compact, or his own consent, enslave himself to any one, nor put himself under the absolute, arbitrary power of another"

Locke (Second Treatise) - Absolute power is a state of slavery, which is a violation of natural law - The only way someone can have absolute power is if you give consent - As a reasoning adult, shouldn't have to consent to absolute power - Only God can give away your freedom, taking away your self power is taking it away from God

"For he that thinks absolute power purifies men's blood, and corrects the baseness of human nature, need read but the history of this or any other age, to be convinced of the contrary. He that would have been so insolent and injurious in the woods of america, would not probably be much better in a throne; where perhaps learning and religion shall be found out to justify all that he shall do to his subjects, and the sword presently silence all those that dare question it"

Locke (Second Treatise) - Absolute power is irrational -shouldn't want to consent to absolute authority, it gives allowance for greed and war alike

"And therefore he that encloses land, and has a greater plenty of the conveniences of life from ten acres, than he could have from a hundred left to nature, may truly be said to give ninety acres to mankind"

Locke (Second Treatise) - Characteristics of property are body, labor, and products of labor, created in nature - Natural result of God's plan, he wants us to be productive and take goods out of the commons, more valuable than anything in the commons - Defends private property and the rights of inequality

" Whenever therefore any number of men are so united into one society, as to quit every one his executive power of the law of nature, and to resign it to the public, there and there only is a political, or civil society" "wherever there are any number of men, however associated, that have no such decisive power to appeal to, there they are still in the state of nature"

Locke (Second Treatise) - Complications compel us to give up the rights we have in nature all together - give up the right to execute the law of nature and punish others

"absolute, arbitrary authority; one man has over another, to take away his life, whenever he pleases" Subject to forfeiture when "an aggressor puts himself into the state of war with another"

Locke (Second Treatise) - Despotic power is power over lives, not property - Absolute, arbitrary authority - Invalid except in times of war

"And forfeiture gives the despotical power to lords, for their own benefit, over those who are stripped of all property" "Should a robber break into my house, and with a dagger at my throat, make me seal deed to convey my estate to him, would that give him any title? Just such a title, by his sword, has an unjust conqueror"

Locke (Second Treatise) - Despotic power lets the lord to almost anything to those stripped of property - Legitimate when conquering in a just war

"For men being all the workmanship of one omnipotent and infinitely wise Maker; all the servants of one sovereign master, sent into the world by his order, and about his business... And being furnished with like faculties, sharing all in one community of nature, there cannot be supposed any such subordination among us, that may authorize us to destroy another, as if we were made for one another's uses"

Locke (Second Treatise) - Draws a firm line between nature and war - everyone is equal in nature - no one is inferior or superior to nature, can't kill - Equal part in doing God/sovereign work on earth

"For in that state of perfect equality, where naturally there is no superiority or jurisdiction of one over another, what any may do in prosecution of that law, everyone must needs have a right to do. And thus, in the state of nature, one man comes by a power over another; but yet no absolute or arbitrary power, to use a criminal, when he has got him in his hands...but only to retribute to him, so far as calm reason and conscience dictate, what is proportionate to his transgression; which is so much as may serve for reparation and restraint"

Locke (Second Treatise) - Even before we had formal laws, by reason, we have a right to punish in nature - Punishment must be constructed by the well being of society, a teaching tool

"It... has no other end but preservation, and therefore can never have a right to destroy, enslave, or designedly to impoverish the subjects" "...the ruling power ought to govern by declared and received laws, and not by extemporary dictates and undetermined resolutions"

Locke (Second Treatise) - Legislative power is the power to make laws according to the majority will - Laws of punishment, equal punishment, severity - Does not include property laws, impoverishing, etc. - Laws made from the rights we have given up

" So that the children, whatever may have happened to the fathers, are freemen, and the absolute power of the conqueror reaches no farther than the persons of the men that were subdued by him, and dies with the: and should he govern them as slaves subjected to his absolute arbitrary power, he has no such right of dominion over their children"

Locke (Second Treatise) - Limits to despotic power is they cannot exercise any power over allies - Limited to the actual participants of the losing side - Restrained use of their possessions, seize lives and property for repair purpose and to deter future aggressors - Restrained when it would leave families destitute

"...all this puts no sceptre into the father's hand, no sovereign power of commanding. He has no dominion over his son's property, or actions; nor any right that his will should prescribe to his son's in all things"

Locke (Second Treatise) - Paternal power exists, the parents teach reason to children - We are born with a capacity to reason but need help to develop it, not free and equal until you have this capacity - Challenging the father's sole authority over children, mother has authority as well - Establishing the role of reason in liberty and political equality - Disconnecting political authority and parental authority - Child is free of paternal power when they reach the age of maturity and reason

"...the irregular and uncertain exercise of the power every man has of punishing the transgressions of others..."

Locke (Second Treatise) - Political community for the enjoyment of property is uncertain and insecure- we're too biased - More concerned with external threats, security with others - To combat biases, we create a political society in order to solve the problem of punishment

"enough, and as good, left in the common good for others" "As much as any one can make use of to any advantage of life before it spoils, so much he may by his labour fix a property in:whatever is beyond this, is more than his share, and belongs to others"

Locke (Second Treatise) - Restrictions on property acquisition - Can't be wasteful, no spoilage, use land productively - Sufficiency, leave enough for others to use - Gotten around spoilage by money to buy products

"And if he also bartered away plums, that would have rotted in a week, for nuts that would last good for eating a whole year, he did no injury; we wasted not the common stock; destroyed no part of the portion of goods that belonged to others, so long as nothing perished uselessly in his hands"

Locke (Second Treatise) - The invention of barter and, by extension, money - Trade came before money to ensure goods were being used and will never spoil - destroy no part of the goods, eliminates spoilage

"It is plain then... that a child is born a subject of no country or government. he is under his father's tuition and authority, till he comes to age of discretion; and then he is a freeman, at liberty what government he will put himself under, what body politic he will unite himself to."

Locke (Second Treatise) - Two objections anticipated: never really happened this way, and consent of the government isn't possible - Response: 2 forms of consent - Express- saying explicitly - Tacit- silence is a form of consent

"...a sedate settled design upon another man's life, puts him in a state of war with him against whom he has declared such an intention" "And hence it is, that he who attempts to get another man into his absolute power, does thereby put himself into a state of war with him; it being to be understood as a declaration of design upon his life" "And here we have the plain difference between the state of nature and the state of war; which however some men have confounded, are as far distant, as a state of peace, good will, mutual assistance and preservation, and a state of enmity, malice, violence and mutual destruction, are one from another."

Locke (Second Treatise) - War is chaotic, but a thought out process - taking someone out of their state of nature causes war, - The state of nature is great, peaceful, and preserving - Contrast Hobbes - state of war and nature are the same

"...must of necessity find out another rise of government, another origin(al) of political power, and another way of designing and knowing the persons that have it, than what Sir Robert filmer hath taught us"

Locke (Second Treatise) - diatribe against Robert Filmer's argument for a divine right to an absolute, hereditary monarch - Filmer had argued that a monarch's authority derives from a lineage that can be traced back to Adam

"And, were it not for the corruption and viciousness of degenerate men, there would be no need of any other (law than the law of nature); no necessity that men should separate from this great and natural community, and by positive agreements combine into smaller and divided associations"

Locke (Second Treatise) - if not for the degenerates, the law of nature would work - preservation of self vs. preservation of all

"And reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind, who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions" "...when his own preservation comes not in competition, out he, as much as can, to preserve the rest of mankind"

Locke (Second Treatise) - law of nature, found out by reason - No criticism in nature for hobbes, but Locke disagrees - All equal and independent: reason plays a role in nature - Preserve yourself in nature and serve the rest of mankind

"This partage of things in an inequality of private possessions, men have made practicable out of the bounds of society, and without compact, only by putting a value on gold and silver, and tacitly agreeing in the use of money"

Locke (Second treatise) - Money gives way to inequality - necessary for overall prosperity and we agree to inequality when using money - overall theme of necessary inequality

"...no private person has any right in any manner to prejudice another person in his civil enjoyments because he is of another church or religion. All the rights and franchises that belong to him as a man... are inviolably to be preserved to him"

Locke (Toleration) - Civil enjoyments are rights you can't take away, what you consent to in the social contract - body, labor, fruits of labor - person to person, church to church

"...The business of true religion is quite another thing. It is not instituted in order to the erecting of an external pomp, nor to the obtaining of ecclesiastical dominion, nor to the exercising of compulsive force, but to the regulating of men's lives, according to the rules of virtue and piety. Whosoever will list himself under the banner of Christ, must, in the first place and above all things make war upon his own lusts and vices"

Locke (Toleration) - Criticizes the class of people that outwardly look like christians, but internally, they have many lusts and violent thoughts, and vices. - promoting public enlightenment and a diversity of views

"...the care of souls is not committed to the civil magistrate, any more than to other men... it appears not that God has ever given any such authority to one man over another as to compel anyone to his religion. Nor can any such power be vested in the magistrate by the consent of the people, because no man can so far abandon the care of his own salvation as blindly to leave it to the choice of any other, whether prince or subject, to prescribe to him what faith or worship he shall embrace"

Locke (Toleration) - Critique of Catholicism - no one should be in charge of your own salvation - everyone develops their beliefs on their own

"...by what means then shall ecclesiastical laws be established, if they must be thus destitute of all compulsive power? I answer; They must be established by means suitable to nature of such things... The arms by which members of this society are to be kept within their duty are exhortations, admonitions, and advices"

Locke (Toleration) - Free choices must give real consent depending on reason - compulsive power is obsolete, has no power - Contrast with hobbes, fear and choice go hand in hand

"the one only narrow way which leads to heaven is not better known to the magistrate than to private persons, and therefore I cannot safely take him for my guide, who may probably be as ignorant of the way as myself, and who certainly is less concerned for my salvation than I myself am"

Locke (Toleration) - Institutions are good for some things - keeping us safe, stable and secure- but nor good for all things - Shouldn't trust them to guide the life of the individual, which is why the public sphere should be small - Individuals can be trusted to guide their own lives

"It is not the diversity of opinions (which cannot be avoided), but the refusal of toleration to those that are of different opinions (which might have been granted), that has produced all the bustles and wars that have been in the Christian world upon account of religion"

Locke (Toleration) - Intolerance is what has caused conflict - Refusing to tolerate other opinions in general (religion) - Problem of nature is irregular punishment - need one ruling power to standardize punishment

"...no opinions contrary to human society, or to those moral rules which are necessary to the preservation of civil society, are to be tolerated by the magistrate" "These, therefore, and the like, who attribute unto the faithful, religious, and orthodox, that is, in plain terms, unto themselves, any peculiar privilege or power above other mortals, in civil concernments; or who upon pretense of religion do challenge any manner of authority over such as are not associated with them in their ecclesiastical communion, I say these have no right to be tolerated by the magistrate"

Locke (Toleration) - Limits of toleration - No tolerance to immoral opinions or those that threaten the preservation of civil society - If anyone things they are above the rule of society are not to be tolerated

"You will say, by this rule, if some congregations should have a mind to sacrifice infants, or (as the primitive Christians were falsely accused) lustfully pollute themselves in promiscuous uncleanness, or practice any other such heinous enormities, is the magistrate obliged to tolerate them, because they are committed in a religious assembly? I answer: No. These things are not lawful in the ordinary course of life, nor in any private house; and therefore neither are they so in the worship of God, or in any religious meeting"

Locke (Toleration) - Toleration requires no distinction between religious and civil law - needs of politics comes before needs of religion

"The toleration of those that differ from others in matters of religion is so agreeable to the Gospel of Jesus Christ, and to the genuine reason of mankind, that it seems monstrous for men to be so blind as not to perceive the necessity and advantage of it in so clear a light"

Locke (Toleration) - We would be agreeable to reason because it leads us to thoughts of trust - we should be at peace with each other

"That Church can have no right to be tolerated by the magistrate which is constituted upon such a bottom that all those who enter into it do thereby ipso facto deliver themselves up to the protection and service of another prince. For by this means the magistrate would give way to the settling of a foreign jurisdiction in his own country and suffer his own people to be listed, as it were, for soldiers against his own Government"

Locke (Toleration) - referencing the Catholic church, more specifically the pope - Religion should have no influence on Politics

"But what if he neglect the care of his soul? I answer: What if he neglect the care of his health or of his estate, which things are nearlier related to the government of the magistrate than the other? Will the magistrate provide by an express law that such a one shall not become poor or sick? Laws provide, as much as is possible, that the goods and health of subjects be not injured by the fraud and violence of others; they do not guard them for the negligence or ill-husbandry of the possessors themselves"

Locke (Toleration) - the private sphere is the corner stone of liberalism - Family, estate, personal beliefs - not concerned with public good - private is outside of the government's boundaries - limited government - only things of public concern - laws not made to protect us from ourselves

"And, first, I hold that no church is bound, by the duty of toleration, to retain any such person in her bosom as, after admonition, continues obstinately to offend against the laws of the society... But, nevertheless, in all such cases care is to be taken that the sentence of excommunication, and the execution thereof, carry with it no rough usage of word or action whereby the ejected person may any wise be damnified in body or estate"

Locke (toleration) - "the society" = free individuals - Those that don't fit by society's rules, those that are offensive can be thrown out, still have citizens rights

"Lastly, those are not at all to be tolerated who deny the being of a God. Promises, covenants, and oaths, which are the bonds of human society, can have no hold upon an atheist. The taking away of God, though but even in thought, dissolves all; besides also, those that by their atheism undermine and destroy all religion, can have no pretense of religion whereupon to challenge the privilege of a toleration"

Locke (toleration) - Exception to atheists - No right to toleration, state of nature revolves around God's purpose, so they have no purpose - Self preservation and other people come from God

"I maintain that those who criticize the clashes between the nobility and the populace attack what was...the primary factor making for Rome's continuing freedom"

Machiavelli (Discourses) - Conflict can be productive - conflict - good laws - good education - good citizens - Institutions lead to a better society

"The way to reform an organization is, as I have just said, to bring it back to its founding principles. For all political and religious movements, all republics and monarchies must have some good in them at the start... But as time goes by, that original goodness becomes corrupted, and, unless something happens that brings them back to first principles, corruption inevitably destroys the organization"

Machiavelli (Discourses) - Founding principles - intentions of founder, believe they have a foundation of belief, teach beliefs of patriotism - Must live by laws and habits

"For just as good habits need good laws if they are to survive, so good laws will only be obeyed if the subjects have good habits"

Machiavelli (Discourses) - Hard to save a political community from corruption because the people are corrupt, the danger is that they undermine political institutions - Good habits and good laws coexist

"Think... of the immensely skillful deeds the history books record for us, deeds done by ancient kingdoms and classical republics, by kings, generals, citizens, legislators, and others who have worn themselves out for their homelands. These deeds may be admired, but they are scarcely imitated. Indeed, everybody goes to great lengths to avoid copying them... The result is that not a trace of the classical military and political skills survives"

Machiavelli (Discourses) - History is admired but not used/learned from - Church doesn't want new ideas to emerge, does not want to lose power - everyone is pagan, don't want non-christian leaders - Church takes away from the idea of the republic, not for the public good and corrupt

"...power was added to power, and the mixture that resulted made for a perfect republic. Rome achieved this perfection because of the conflict between the senate and the people"

Machiavelli (Discourses) - Monarchy = the consults - Aristocracy = Senate - Democracy = tribunes - Advantages: stability, institutionalized, formalized conflict, much less bloody

"Cities, are built by free men when a group of people, either under the command of a ruler or acting on their own, are forced to abandon the land of their birth and to seek new territory because of disease, or hunger, or war."

Machiavelli (Discourses) - Politics is a response to the collective dilemmas faced by us all. Politics makes our lives better - We can hope for more than simply the glory of an absolute ruler. WE expect more of political arrangements - Republic is supposed to support the needs of the public good.

"Anyone who wants to set up a republic in a place where there is a fair number of gentlemen can only do it if he begins by killing them all."

Machiavelli (Discourses) - inequality is a problem b/c - elites are not always trusted because tey look down on the people, and use resources for goods - Those who don't work are those that kill, too much time means a bad outlet for ambitions

"Men by nature are envious"

Machiavelli (Discourses) - men are insatiable, ambitious - describing human nature as corrupt, result of envy

"For anyone who wants to act the part of a good man in all circumstances will bring about his own ruin, for those he has to deal with will not all be good. So it is necessary for a ruler, if he wants to hold onto power, to learn how not to be good, and to know when it is and when it is not necessary to use this knowledge."

Machiavelli (Prince) - "not good" meaning immoral, sneaky, unpopular actions - need to know when to be good so you can use the knowledge when necessary

"One ought not, of course, to call it Virtu to massacre one's fellow citizens to betray one's friends, to break one's word, to be without mercy and without religion. By such means one can acquire power but not glory?

Machiavelli (Prince) - Action vs. constant being virtu vs. virtuous - free of religion vs. christian, outward vs. inward, results vs. meanings - Goal of a ruler is to minimize wickedness and cruelty to the extent that it is possible

"You need to understand this: A ruler... cannot conform to all those rules that men who are thought good are expected to respect, for he is often obliged, in order to hold on to power, to break his word, to be uncharitable, inhumane, and irreligious. So he must be mentally prepared to act as circumstances and changes in fortune require"

Machiavelli (Prince) - Leaders can judiciously use bad qualities to their advantage - Better for people to fear than love you because you can control fear - avoid being hated at all costs, people can unite in hate and destroy a prince

"I argue it would be good to be thought generous; nevertheless, if you act in the way that will get you a reputation for generosity, you will do yourself damage. For generosity used skillfully and practiced as it ought to be, is hidden from sight, and being truly generous will not protect you from acquiring a reputation for parsimony"

Machiavelli (Prince) - Many good qualities can lead to bad outcomes, and many bad qualities can lead to good outcomes

"For the armed man has contempt for the man without weapons; the defenseless man does not trust someone who can overpower him" "(A wise ruler) will never relax during peacetime, but will always be working to take advantage of the opportunities peace presents, so he will be fully prepared when adversity comes"

Machiavelli (Prince) - Military, war and security are the most important things to a ruler - must be thinking and planning war, especially in times of peace. - Stay in war so military can't overthrow you - war instills fear and keeps prince in power - Sometimes violence is necessary

" if you forsee problems while they are far off... they can easily be dealt with; but when... you allow them to row to the point that anyone can recognize them, then it is too late to do anything" " It is perfectly natural and normal to want to acquire new territory... But when they are not in a position to make gains, and try nevertheless, then they are making a mistake, and deserve condemnation" " If you look at (great rulers) deeds and their lives, you will find they were dependent on chance only for their first opportunity. They seized their chance only for their first opportunity. They seized their chance to make of it what they wanted... Without their strength of purpose, the opportunity they were offered would not have amounted to anything"

Machiavelli (Prince) - Qualities of Leadership: foresight, adaptability, self-awareness, moral discomfort, ambition, decisiveness - Describing the type of ruler he believes is the best

"...the hardcore of power is violence and to exercise power is often to bring violence to bear on someone else's person or possessions... the task of such a science would be to preserve the distinguishing line between political creativity and destruction" "... every application has to be considered judiciously...the true test of whether violence had been rightly used was whether cruelties increased or decreased over time"

Machiavelli (Prince) - economy of violence - used for gain - efficient use of violence - Political leadership is a sacrifice

"So a ruler ought not to mind the disgrace of being called cruel, if he keeps his subjects peaceful and law-abiding, for it is more compassionate to impose harsh punishments on a few than, out of excessive compassion, to allow disorder to spread, which leads to murders or looting"

Machiavelli (Prince) - violence is the most important tool in keeping power, brings fear and respect and secures peace

"If you take control of a state, you should make a list of all the crimes you have to commit and do them all at once... Do all the harm you must at once and the same time, that way the full expect of it will not be noticed, and it will give the least offense" "Whenever you have to kill someone, make sure you have a suitable excuse and an obvious reason"

Machiavelli (Prince) - well used violence is targeted, specific, immediate, visible, brief, and just.

"She demonstrates her power where precautions have not been taken to resist; she directs her attacks where she knows banks and barriers have not been built to hold her" "I do think, however, that it is better to be headstrong than cautions, for fortune is a lady. It is necessary, if you want to master her, to beat and strike her. And one who sees she more often submits to those who act boldly than to those who proceed in a calculating fashion"

Machiavelli (Prince) -Must have virtu and fortune, opportunity and what you do with it Be active, depend only partially on fortune - Circumstances are always in flux, a good ruler is aware of and responsive to them in context

"It is what these different interests have in common that forms the social bond, and were there no point of agreement among all these interests, no society could exist"

Rosseau (Social Contract) - General will provides direction to the state, parameters for the sovereign - can't forfeit right to be part of sovereign

"Let us therefore begin by putting aside all the facts, for they have no bearing on the question. The investigation that may be undertaken concerning this subject should not be taken for historical truths, but only for hypothetical and conditional reasonings, better suited to shedding light on the nature of things than on pointing out their true origin"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - Best guess of nature is a basic goodness, self preservation - We are all animals, solitary and isolated is part of human nature

"Knowing nature so little and agreeing so poorly on the meaning of the word 'law', it would be quite difficult to come to some common understanding regarding a good definition of natural law. Thus all those definitions that are found in books have...the added fault of being drawn from several branches of knowledge which men do not naturally have, and from advantages the ideas of which they cannot conceive until after having left the state of nature"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - Critique of natural law - Not knowing what nature is and coming to conclusions of natural law is incorrect - Only possible to have these ideas once you are outside of the state of nature, but still can't accurately determine what it is

"...as soon as one man needed to help of another, as soon as one man realized that it was useful for a single individual to have provisions for two, equality disappeared, property came into existence, labor became necessary"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - Dependence basis of inequality - resources need to be equal - largely based on labor and property - small inequalities are magnified overtime

"Having first made their domestic livestock dumb...these guardians then show them the danger that threatens them, should they attempt to walk alone" "Nothing is required for this enlightenment, however, except freedom...namely, the freedom to use reason publicly in all matters"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - Enlightenment is destabilizing to old powers - Belief that progress is inevitable - Priority of individual liberty to exercise reason

"Nature commands every animal, and beats obey. Man feels the same impetus, but he knows that he is free to go along or to resist; and it is above all in the awareness of this freedom that the spirituality of his soul is made manifest" "...an animal, at the end of a few months, is what it will be all its life; and its species, at the end of a thousand years, is what it was in the first of those thousand years"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - Free will and perfectability separates us from other animals - Animals have to obey nature - Both individual and species level characteristics can be improved on in humans, not in other animals

"The rich in particular must have soon felt how disadvantageous to them it was to have a perpetual war in which they alone paid all the costs, and in which the risk of losing one's goods was personal" "...(they) finally conceived the most thought-out project that ever entered the human mind. It was to use in his favor the very strength of those who attacked him, to turn his adversaries into his defenders" "They all ran to chain themselves, in the belief that they had secured their liberty

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - Get from inequality to politics through the fear of many, the rich are afraid of the poor because the numbers could come and conquer the rich - solved problem of risk by dividing the many into regions and promising the security

"For it is no light undertaking to separate what is original from what is artificial in the present nature of man, and to have a proper understanding of a state which no longer exists, which probably never existed, which probably never will exist, and yet about which it is necessary to have accurate notions in order to judge properly our own present state"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - Hard to determine what the state of nature was - doesn't currently exist, but we must find it to grow - must focus on what is nature to reach a good conclusion

"The first developments of the heart were the effect of a new situation that united the husbands and wives, fathers and children in one common habitation" "...since men enjoyed a great deal of leisure time, they used it to procure many types of conveniences unknown to their fathers; and that was the first yoke they imposed on themselves"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - Language to lodgings to homes - Proximity naturally leads to coordination - Development leads to corruption, driven to dominate - Leisure time leads to more needs and leads to unhappiness and jealousy, inequality - families leads to comparison, first step toward inequality

"This latter type of inequality consists in the different privileges enjoyed by some at the expense of others, such as being richer, more honored, more powerful than they, or even causing themselves to be obeyed by them"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - Moral/political inequality is man made, requires human convention, wealth, power etc. - established by practices and agreement

"Do what is good for you with as little harm as possible to others. In a word, it is this natural sentiment, rather than in subtle arguments, that one must search for the repugnance at doing evil that every man would experience, even independently of the maxims of education" "Although it might be appropriate for Socrates and minds of his stature to acquire virtue through reason, the human race would long ago have ceased to exist, if its preservation had depended solely on the reasonings of its members"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - Pity and Reason - Do what is good for you with as little harm as possible to others

"The first person who, having enclosed a plot of land, took it into his head to say this is mine and found people simply enough to believe him, was the true founder of civil society"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - Property founded by someone selfish to claim it and convinced enough people it belonged to him

" And instead of a being active always by certain and invariable principle,s instead of that heavenly and majestic simplicity whose mark its author had left on it, one no longer finds anything but the grotesque contract of passion which thinks it reasons and an understanding in a state of delirium"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - Simplicity is viewed positively - base motives are not based on reason - Questioning the true progress of reason and understanding

"It is from the bosom of this disorder and these upheavals that despotism, by gradually raising its hideous head and devouring everything it had see to be good and healthy in every part of the state, would eventually succeed in trampling underfoot the laws and the people"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - State is a tool developed by elites to oppress the masses - domination becomes the goal of all groups - ends with despotism

"...when I considered, in a word, as he must have left the hands of nature, I see an animal less strong than some, less agile than others, but all in all, the most advantageously organized of all" "...nothing is as timid as man in the state of nature...he is always trembling and ready to take flight at the slightest sound he hears or at the slightest movements he perceives"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - We are, and always have been, animals, but we are not animalistic - timid, scared, smart, and organized

"This is how hem could imperceptibly acquire some crude idea of mutual commitments and of the advantages to be had in fulfilling them, but only insofar as present and perceptible interests could require it, since foresight meant nothing to them"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - We get from singular animals to society by learning to distinguish ourselves and eventually cooperate with each other

"...as long as he does not resist the inner impulse of compassion, he will never harm another man or even another sentient being, except in the legitimate instance where, if his preservation were involved, he is obliged to give preference to himself" "In this way one is not obliged to make a man a philosopher before making him a man. His duties toward others are not uniquely dictated to him by the belated lessons of wisdom"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - We have two instincts in nature - Self-preservation and pity - leads us to not harm others except in when in need of self preservation - co-exists peacefully but not with each other - Not naturally aggressive or sociable

"...the first state was the establishment of the law and the right of property, the second stage was the institution of the magistracy, and the third and final stage was the transformation of legitimate power into arbitrary power. Thus the class of rich and poor was authorized by the first epoch, that of the strong and the weak by the second, and that of master and slave by the third"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - bad beginnings to bad conclusion - states founded on the principle of inequality can only become corrupt - 3 stages of development - 1: establishment of law and right of property - 2: institution of the magistracy - 3: transformation of legitimate to arbitrary power

"...(final development is) still more difficult to conceive in itself, since that unanimous agreement had to have a motive, and speech appears to have been necessary in order to establish speech"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - cry of nature to gestures to words - there is nothing natural about sociability, nature never intended this sociability and cooperation

"...it is impossible to enslave a man without having first put him in the position of being incapable of doing without another. This being a situation that did not exist in the state of nature, it leaves each person free of the yoke, and renders pointless the law of the strongest"

Rousseau (Discourse Inequality) - inequality and domination derive from a state of dependence - realized we can't produce everything, so you come together with other people to become better off - Could interpret this into slavery - Problem is that this takes away pity and self preservation to a degree

"I am speaking of mores, customs, and especially of opinion, a part of the law unknown to our political theorists but one on which depends the success of all the others"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - "true constitution of the state" - culture and character, how we act as a people

"We grant that each person alienated, by the social compact, on that portion of his power, his goods, and liberty whose use if of consequence to the community; but we must also grant that only the sovereign is the judge of what is of consequence" "A citizen should render to the state all the services he can as soon as the sovereign demands them. however, for its part, the sovereign cannot impose on the subjects any fetters that are of no use to the community"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - Sovereign has limits but the sovereign also decides those limits

"The essential difference between these two bodies is that the state exists by itself, while the government exists only through the sovereign"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - Sovereign maintains or alters government by vote - commission

"Find a form of association which defends and protects with all common forces the person and goods of each associate, and by means of which each one, while uniting with all, nevertheless obeys only himself and remains as free as before"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - Strength of having security, but giving up some of your freedom

"These clauses, properly understood, are all reducible to a single one, namely the total alienation of each associate, together with all his rights, to the entire community. For first of all, since each person gives himself whole and entire, the condition is equal for everyone; and since the condition is equal for everyone, no one has an interest in making it burdensome for others" "Each of us places his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will; and as one we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - The common good has the general will at the center because everyone has the same general will

"We always want what is good for us, but we do not always see what it is. The populace is never corrupted, but it is often tricked, and only then does it appear to want what is bad"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - all of know what the general will is but we can get private will confused with general good.

"For since the sovereign is formed entirely from the private individuals who make it up, it neither has nor could have an interest contrary to theirs" "...each individual can, as a man, have a private will contrary to or different from the general will that he has as a citizen" "His absolute and naturally independent existence can cause him to enviasage what he owes the common cause as a gratuitous contribution, the loss of which will be less harmful to other than its payment is burdensome to him"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - collective dilemma: good for individual, bad for collective - danger of free riding - can't achieve both general and private will often - Both part of individual will, but government is driven by general will

"thus, in order for the social compact to be avoid being an empty formula, it tacitly entails the commitment - which alone can give force to the others - that whosoever refuses to obey the general will will be forced to do so by the entire body. This means mearly that he will be forced to be free"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - enforcement of general will - Free because part of general will, this is what you want, so you are forced to be free

"the strongest is never strong enough to be master all the time, unless he transforms force into right and obedience into duty. Hence the right of the strongest, a right that seems like something intended ironically and is actually established as a basic principle...Force is a physical power; I fail to see what morality can result from its effects. To give in to force is an act of necessity, not of will... Let us, then agree that force does not bring about right, and that one is obliged to obey only legitimate powers"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - giving to force is necessary to self preservation - using force is not legitimate way to gain power

"...long debates, dissension, and tumult betoken the ascendance of private interests and the decline of the state"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - long debates mean the general will is unclear - votes are about whether a proposal conforms to the general will

"To be driven by appetite alone is slavery, and obedience to the law one has prescribed for oneself is liberty"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - moral liberty is an attempt to solve the collective dilemma - Individual is free so they follow the rules they make for themselves.

"...since owners are considered trustees of the public good, and since their rights are respected by all members of the state...they have, so to speak, acquired all that they have given"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - property rights: right of the first occupant - must be unoccupied, don't take more than you need, use it.

"An intermediate body established between the subjects and the sovereign for their mutual communication, and charged with the execution of the laws and the preservation of liberty, both civil and political"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - sovereign outlines the general will - Government executes general will in concrete terms

"As soon as this multitude is thus united in a body, one cannot harm one of the members without attacking the whole body"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - the sovereign has to include everyone or else it is illegitimate - interest of each is the interest of all, general will and collective good

"I will always try in this inquiry to bring together what right permits with what interest prescribes, so that justice and utility do not find themselves at odds with one another"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - trying to be efficient and fair, bringing together paradoxes

"...One that is neither rich nor poor and can be sufficient unto itself; finally, one that brings together the stability of an ancient people and the docility of a new people" "...each people has within itself some cause that organizes them in a particular way and renders its legislation proper for it alone"

Rousseau (Social Contract) - People and the laws have to match, not all people can self rule