Political Science Exam 2
The Origins of Public Opinion: Attitudes
*Expressed opinions reflect underlying attitudes:* Attitude = an organized and consistent manner of thinking, feeling, and reacting with regard to people, groups, social issues or any event in one's environment Most people have loosely structured sets of political attitudes
President's Power to Convene Congress
---The president may convene the Congress on "extraordinary occasions" -Congress is in session most of the time now, so this power no longer applies. -Used in the past during extreme circumstances: Civil War Depression
The Origins of Public Opinion: Ideologies
-A political ideology = an elaborately *organized set of political attitudes* Ideologies promote consistency by *connecting political attitudes to a more general principle or set of principles* Ideologies are *most often linked by coalitional politics rather than by principle* Americans often identify themselves as being *liberal or conservative* Some researchers suggest that political attitudes reflect an individual's core values
Public opinion in the aggregate appears stable and intelligible
-Aggregate opinion varies in coherent ways over a short term -Aggregate partisanship shifts with changes in economic conditions, political events, and presidential approval -Significant changes reflect historical trends or responses to changed conditions -Some research shows broad cyclical changes across a range of issue
The Content of Public Opinion: Consensus on the System
-Almost all Americans support the institutional underpinnings of modern democracy in the abstract -Consensus fades with the application of abstract principles
The Logic of Elections
-America is a representative democracy, but actually representing all citizens wants and needs is not possible. -Delegation of authority raises the possibility of agency loss, that is, representatives serving themselves and not their constituents. -Regular, free, and competitive elections in which all adult citizens can vote are a hallmark of modern democratic governments.
The Content of Public Opinion: Politicians
-Americans are often critical of elected officials -Distrust in government and public officials increased over the last half of the 20th century -Confidence in government rebounded during the Clinton administration's 2nd term continued through the Bush administration's 1st term -By 2008, there was public discontent with the war, economy, and direction of the country. -Public criticism continued during the Obama administration's 1st term: high unemployment, rising budget deficits, war casualties, and the debt ceiling crisis.
The Content of Public Opinion
-Americans share a broad consensus on basic political values that puts real limits on what is politically feasible. -Consensus on the basics makes collective action possible. Disagreement within the consensus makes politics necessary.
General Characteristics of the Supreme Court (overview)
-Both a legal and political institution -policies are made in court -there are limitations to policy making -Judicial activism
Bureaucrats as Politicians
-Bureaucrats operate in a world of competition for scarce resources, many times intense conflicts among interests and values, and multiple bosses. -Goals can be achieved only through politics: mobilizing supporters, gathering allies, negotiating mutually deals with other politicians, staying in contact with those whose cooperation is needed, and adapting to the realities of power. -Agencies with different missions, clienteles, skills, and ideologies compete for influence over policy, control of implementation, and resources.
Congress and Electoral Politics
-Congress is organized to serve the members' goals The number one goal of most members is reelection. Holding his or seat is key to all else a member hopes to accomplish in office -Electoral considerations influence all important aspects of congressional life.
The Development of the Federal Bureaucracy
-Constitution leaves Congress responsibility to establish executive departments and agencies as well as how they will be staffed Congress was wary of delegating too much power to the executive but realized the impracticality of delegating too little -Congress created executive branch agencies with authority to implement laws -Presidents delegated their executive chores to senior executive branch officials -Over 2,000 departments, agencies, etc. employing some 2.9 million nonmilitary personnel
Judicial Review: Pre-Marbury
-Dr. Bonham's Case (1610) in England Physician accused of malpractice and brought before medical review board British law allowed medical review board to both prosecute and adjudicate dispute Chief Justice Edward Coke (on appeal) states that when an act of Parliament is against right and reason, the common law will control that act and render the law void -William Blackstone's Commentaries (1775) Supremacy of government rests with Parliament Majority of British law based on these writings
Political Aspects of Supreme Court
-Each decision creates a broader policy implication -Legal interpretation subject to ideological influence
Supreme Court Procedure: Oral Arguments
-Each litigant receives 30 minutes to present case -Often interrupted by the justices (which uses up their time)
An expanding gov't: the cabinet
-Earliest Departments: Until 1849, Treasury, State, Navy, and War stood alone as a cabinet-level department Department of the Interior joined in 1849; Department of Justice joined in 1870 -Clientele Agencies (serve clientele rather than general social purposes) Department of Agriculture (1889); Department of Labor (1903); Department of Commerce (1903) -The Military Establishment Department of Defense (1947) -Extension of Federal Domain Department of Health and Human Services (1979); Department of Housing and Urban Development (1965); Department of Transportation (1966); Department of Energy (1977) -Symbolism of Cabinet Status Department of Education (1979); Department of Veterans Affairs (1988) -Department of Homeland Security Established in 2002, it combined 22 agencies
Judicial Review: Marbury v. Madison (background info)
-Election of 1800 further fragmented political factions in the U.S. Federalists - strong national government Jeffersonian Republicans - strong state gov't Jefferson defeats Adams in presidential election -Congressional lame duck session Passes two bills which create new judgeships Senate confirms "midnight judges" John Marshall, as Secretary of State, runs out of time to deliver all commissions -Jefferson enters office and refuses to deliver Battle in Congress between Federalists and Republicans Some federalist judges impeached by Congress -William Marbury brings claim to Attorney General who brings case directly to Supreme Court Writ of Mandamus allowed under Judiciary Act of 1789
Unequal Representation in Senate
-Every state, regardless of its population, has two senators. The imbalance means that citizens in more populous states like California with 37 million people are essentially underrepresented in the upper chamber as compared to less populous states like Wyoming with 570,000 residents. -The unequal representation can have political ramifications in terms of party strength
Organizing Congress: The Committee Systems
-Evolution of Congressional Committees House appointments more partisan, reward for party loyalty, bargaining chips for Speakership; Senate appointments largely made on the basis of seniority -Types of Committees standing, special, select, joint, ad hoc, and conference committees -Committee Assignments Assignments are made by party committee under control of senior party leaders and ratified by party membership; party leaders responsive to their members' reelection chances; consideration of personal and political interests avoid assignments where views conflict with party line
The President: Impeachment and Removal (and executive privilege)
-Executive Privilege - an implied presidential power: president can refuse to disclose confidential conversations about national security to Congress or the judiciary -U.S. v. Nixon (1974) - executive privilege does not allow a president to refuse to comply with a court order to produce information for a criminal trial.
Separation of Powers: Judicial Recruitment
-Federal judges are nominated by the president with the "Advice and Consent" of the Senate. -The president and Senate carefully consider the nominee's political views (and professional credentials) -Turnover as the Source of Shifting Judicial Ideology Judges appointed by Democratic presidents tend to liberal and those appointed by Republican presidents tend to be conservative
Limitations to Policy Making
-Few decisions per year (around 80) -Exercise of judicial restraint and deference to other branches
Supreme Court Procedure: Final Decision
-Final vote taken based on the language of the majority opinion (each justice votes) Simple majority vote determines which litigant wins the case In the event of a tie, the lower court decision stands -Individuals have the option of joining the majority opinion or casting a dissenting vote Individuals then have option of writing a concurring opinion (if they sided with the majority) or a dissenting opinion (if they sided with the minority)
Supreme Court Procedure: Concurring Opinions
-Happen when justice agrees with the outcome stated by the majority opinion but not with the reasoning Regular concurrences - do not detract from precedent Special concurrences - argue against legal rationale in the majority opinion and can detract from the precedent
Legal aspects of supreme court
-Has specific jurisdiction to hear disputes -Can only hear legal issues from cases brought specifically before it -Lifetime appointment of justices generates certain political insulation
Who Guards the Guardians? (limits to judicial review)
-How appropriate is it that unelected, life-tenured judges can decide on the constitutionality of acts of Congress? It violates the republican principles of majority rule but meets the Framer's broader concerns for balanced political system. -There are limitations on judicial review. lack of enforcement power constitutional limits lifetime tenure internal, organizational weaknesses of the judiciary ways that Congress and the president can redirect judicial doctrine
Who Uses the Right to Vote?
-If most Americans believe the right to vote is the essence of democracy, why do so many not exercise their rights? -The answer is inherent in the logic of elections. The benefits of elections are collective benefits. In other words, everyone gets the payoff without participating. -The real puzzle is why so many forego free riding and actually vote.
Americans hold contradictory views about Congress.
-In the abstract, they approve of the Constitution's institutional arrangements. -In general, they approve of their own representatives and senators, but do not have as favorable an impression of the institution. -Compromises and trades leave few people satisfied. Gridlock is widely criticized. -The nature of pluralism results in some discontent, especially when an apathetic majority loses to a committed minority on issues. -Ethical misconduct damages the reputation of Congress
The Advantages of Incumbency
-Incumbents broadened their appeal by emphasizing their character, legislative performance, and constituency service. -Members increased the allowances for staff, travel, local offices, and communication. -Incumbency advantage is not automatic. Incumbents work hard to maintain their advantage. -The resurgence of political parties has not dampened incumbents' efforts to stave off potential challengers. -Unexpected events and strong partisan tides can result in members being ousted.
An Expanding Government: Noncabinet Agencies
-Independent Executive Agencies Headed by presidential appointees who serve at the pleasure of the president Eg. NASA, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) -Independent Regulatory Commissions Independence from the president; typically run by boards of commissioners (appointed by the president) to serve fixed, staggered terms Eg. Federal Trade Commission (FTC), Federal Reserve System (Fed) -Independent Government Corporations Deliver services like a private business, headed by a chief executive officer, under the supervision of a board of directors or commissioners (and selected the same way as regulatory board members) Eg. US Postal Service
Making Laws
-Introducing Legislation Only members may introduce legislation. Proposals can originate within Congress or from the executive branch, interest groups, or constituents. -Assignment to Committee Once introduced, the bill is assigned a number and referred to committee. Most bills are assigned to the appropriate committee; complex bills are generally referred to multiple committees; and, controversial bills are sometimes referred to ad hoc committees. Most bills die in committee. -Hearings Subcommittees or the full committee may hold hearings at which executive agencies, interest groups, academicians, or others, can be invited to speak.
The Supreme Court's Place in Separation of Powers
-Judicial review seems to give the Court the last word on much of public policy. -The Court faces formidable obstacles when its policy preferences differ sharply from those of Congress and the President. -As the Supreme Court has no enforcement power, Congress and the president can ignore its rulings.
Supreme Court Procedure: Initial Conference
-Justices meet behind closed doors to discuss the case -Chief Justice speaks first, Associate justices speak in order of seniority -Vote taken on case -If Chief is in the majority coalition he assigns the opinion author Otherwise, most senior Associate Justice in the majority assigns
Supreme Court Procedure: Majority Option
-Majority Opinion At least 5 justices needed to "sign on" This is absolute and irrespective of the total number of justices voting (need at least six justices in order to have quorum) Majority opinion considered precedent If less than 5 justices "sign on" to the opinion it is considered a plurality opinion Plurality opinions are not considered precedent -Determining whether a case is considered precedent is vital
Indirect administration (noncabinet agencies)
-Many federal policies and programs are administered by state governments, private contractors, and grant recipients. -State and local agencies carry out some of the federal government's regulatory work. -Private nonprofit organizations and state and local governments receive federal grants to implement programs. -Nonfederal institutions, such as universities and research laboratories, administer more than 80 percent of the federal government's scientific research funds. -The government contracts with private companies for an array of goods and services. -Indirect administration carries political risks to principals.
Judicial Review: Marbury v. Madison (1803)
-Marshall asked three questions: Does Marbury have the right to the commission? Do the laws of the United States afford him a remedy? Is the appropriate remedy a writ of mandamus issued by the Supreme Court? -He wrote that Article III explicitly lists cases that are within the Court's jurisdiction, and issuing writs of mandamus is absent. Article III does not give Congress the power to add to the Court's original jurisdiction. -The landmark decision *solidified the Court's power of judicial review.*
Opinion Leadership: How can stable and coherent public opinion arise from unstable and incoherent individual opinions?
-Measurement errors and random individual changes tend to cancel one another out, so the average remains the same if circumstances remain the same -Opinion leaders give public opinion rationality and coherence -Many people rely on trusted sources for cues (cognitive shortcuts) -Issue publics are subsets of the population who are better informed than others about issues in which they have a stake
The President as Legislator
-Mobilizing Public Support The State of Union address is a "prime-time" opportunity for presidents to influence public opinion and steer the legislative agenda in Congress. Going public is a strategy to promote policies to voters and prompt cooperation from legislators. Presidents also communicate with voters by speaking at events such as commencement ceremonies and various conferences. -A president's capacity to influence public opinion and mobilize support for policies varies by the issue. -The president's ability to shape public opinion also depends on citizens' appraisal of him as president.
The Modern Presidency: Presidents as Strategic Actors
-Modern presidents have far greater responsibility and authority, a larger and more expert staffing system, and more opportunities to go public than the Framers could have envisioned. -All modern presidents face the dilemma of having too little authority to satisfy voters' expectations. Part of the dilemma relates to intractable problems The demands of the office exceed the resources available to presidents
Presidential Qualifications and Terms of Office
-Natural born citizen of the United States. -At least 35 years old. -Resident of the United States for 14 years of longer. -The last four presidents went to ivy league institutions for college. -No term limit originally -Only one president ever served more than two terms: Franklin Roosevelt (4 terms, died after 12 yrs) -22nd Amendment - limits president to two terms, or 10 years if the president takes office via succession
Three Eras of the Court's Judicial Review
-Over time, the Supreme Court's exercise of judicial review has varied significantly -Between 1790 and 1860 portions of 2 federal laws were ruled unconstitutional -19th century: (with the exception of the 1920s and 1930s) Court struck down a relatively low number of acts of Congress and presidential executive orders -In the 1960s, an activist Court focused on federal and state laws.
Legal Influences on Decisions: Precedent
-Past cases as legal reference Stare Decisis -Cases before Supreme Court are usually different from precedent (otherwise would have denied certiorari) -Reluctance of Court to overturn precedent -Difficulties with Precedent With growing body of precedent on both sides, judges can simply ignore some past cases Factual distinction Narrow the interpretation of precedent
Effects of Background on Public Opinion
-People's opinions on specific issues reflect the knowledge, beliefs, and values they have acquired over their lifetimes Opinions vary with demographics Politicians pay attention to these differences for political reasons: They help them develop coalition building strategies -Race and ethnicity, Gender, Income and education, Religion, Other major social groups
Commander in Chief
-President is the head of the armed forces. -Clashes with Congress about how far the power of the presidency extends concerning making war without approval from Congress Since the Vietnam War, most presidents have sought and received congressional approval for military engagements
Methods of Presidential Control
-Presidents pursue their policy goals by appointing senior officials loyal to them and their ideas (with Senate approval) -Presidents have own supervisory bureaucracy in Executive Office -Office of Management and Budget is president's primary vehicle of control of bureaucracy -President has special authority and control over agencies involved in diplomacy and national security
Separation of Powers: Constitutional and Statutory Control
-Provisions in the Constitution give Congress and the president power to rein in the Supreme Court. Congress can set the Court's jurisdiction. Congress can create lower courts. Congress can set the number of justices. Congress can move to amend the Constitution. Congress can pass laws to reverse or modify a ruling.
A Vital Component of American Politics
-Public opinion is rarely simple and unmediated. -Politicians, as well as other policy advocates, give public opinion shape, focus, and force. -Opinion leaders provide cues that uninformed people use as shortcuts in forming their opinions. -Individual opinions are shaped by and expressed through leaders and institutions, but leaders and institutions do not control public opinion.
The Historical Presidency
-Royal governors, King of England, served as earliest examples of executive power This led to a distrust in executive power -The Articles of Confederation had no executive. -The Framers gave the president enough resources for responding to national emergencies, but insufficient authority to usurp the Constitution. -They eventually settled on a single president, whose powers were initially limited but have grown over time
The Electoral System
-Senators are elected in statewide contests -Representatives are elected from congressional districts -Senate and House candidates are elected by plurality vote plurality vote: Wins more votes than any other candidate Majority vote= wins >50% of votes Supermajority= wins >= 2/3 of votes
The Content of Public Opinion: Social and Moral Issues
-Social and Moral Issues Social and moral issues are the center of heated debates Overall, Americans take conservative positions on most social issues. In practice, their views are most often balanced by the respect for individual freedom -Foreign Policy Most people do not pay much attention to foreign policy issues, save for when American involvement in a military action is controversial in terms of purpose, American life, and financial commitment
Bureaucracy in Action (possible problems)
-Some agencies operate with considerable autonomy, although others are carefully monitored by their multiple principals. -Federal workers with long service in an agency absorb its bureaucratic culture. They tend to value their agency's programs and services more so than most outsiders. -Distinctive bureaucratic cultures and missions inhibits cooperation among agencies.
Policy Making in Court
-Specific dispute brought by litigants (parties) -Court renders a decision for one litigant -Interpretation of law or general policy statement generates implications for society
Modest Beginnings: The Dilemma of Delegation
-The First Congress reestablished three departments that existed under the Articles of Confederation Department of Treasury, Department of Foreign Affairs (Department of State), and Department of War Congress authorized the hiring of an attorney general to give the president and department heads legal advice. -The larger departments were subdivided into more specialized offices, which later called bureaus -Each executive department should be headed by a single official responsible for its operations -Presidents would appoint senior officials with Senate approval. -Congress established executive branch agencies and set their annual budgets -The concern for presidents was whether appointees would faithfully carry out official policies. Standard principal-agent model
Measuring Public Opinion
-The basic techniques for measuring public opinion are: drawing a random sample (a sample size of approximately 1,200; a three percent margin of error) -A completely random sample is unlikely because: no single directory in which everyone is listed , random digit dialing misses potential respondents, cell phone-only households, some unwilling to participate in polls, weighting is imperfect, question wording and interpretation
Institutional factors affecting voter turnout
-The institutional context, such as variations in voter registration requirements, affects voter turnout. As expected, the more onerous the registration requirement, the more costly the act of voting. -Social circumstances, for example, deliberate efforts by political activists and get out the vote activities orchestrated by candidates, political parties, and interest groups, impact voter turnout.
The Basic Problems of Legislative Organization
-The modern institution is the result of a set of complex rules, procedures, and customs that evolved from the need to address problems pertaining to organization and competing individual and collective needs of members. *The Need for Information*: division of labor and specialization *Coordination Problems*: dividing work, flow of bills, and scheduling debates and votes *Resolving Conflicts*: rules, customs, procedures, coalition-building *Collective Action*: committee system gives well-informed members influence over policy *Transaction Costs*: fixed rules and precedent *Time Pressures*: one-year session and two-year tenure
Who Controls the Bureaucracy?
-The more things elected officials want the government to do, the more discretionary authority must be given to administrators. -In general, Congress pays little attention to bureaucratic agents -Legislators, aware of principal-agent dilemmas, have strategies to cope with them: Direct monitoring (of a sample) Interest groups and citizens raise alarm
The Origins of Public Opinion: Framing
-The most significant source of instability in people's opinions is ambivalence -The mass media and political campaigns can *affect people's expressed political opinions by framing issues* *Framing influences perspective*
President's Appointment Powers
-The president appoints ambassadors, ministers and consuls, judges, and officers of the United States. -Approved by the Senate Cabinet - formal body of advisers who head the 15 executive agencies. Presidents typically rely on advisers that are not in the cabinet.
President's Power to Make Treaties
-The president negotiates and signs treaties -The Senate must confirm with a 2/3 vote -The Senate has confirmed 90% of all treaties submitted by the presidents. -Presidents may also withdraw from approved treaties George W. Bush withdrew from the International Criminal Court (ICC)
What is Public Opinion?
-V.O. Key, Jr. defined public opinion as "those opinions held by private persons which governments find it prudent to heed" -Basis constitutional guarantees give Americans a platform for expressing their opinions -The same guarantees make it possible and essential for public officials and policy advocates to attempt to influence and mobilize public opinion
Veto Power
-Veto - formal rejection of a bill passed by Congress Threat of veto frequently used as a tool to shape legislation. -Line-item veto - authority to reject part of a taxing or spending bill, while approving the rest The president does not have authority (but most governors do)
The Content of Public Opinion: Public Opinion on Issues
-When the public is divided in different ways on different issues and lacks consensus on what issues are most important, strategies for assembling and maintaining party coalitions become more difficult. -Economic Issues Americans believe in capitalism, but very few support the idea that business should be completely unregulated. Large majorities generally agree with stable or increased government spending for programs that serve everyone. In general, Americans appear to support economic and social welfare policies, which are commonly classified as liberal
Model bureaucracy
-a purposive machine with interchangeable human parts designed to facilitate collective action while enabling principals to control agents -Impose heavy conformity costs (for bureaucrats and people they interact with)
Supreme Court Procedure: Certiorari
-a writ issuing from a superior court calling up the record of a proceeding in an inferior court for review. -Approximately 8,000 petitions for a writ of certiorari every year Takes four (4) justices to grant certiorari (known as the Rule of Four) -Approximately 80 cases granted certiorari -Some cases Dismissed as Improvidently Granted (DIG) Occurs after initial grant of certiorari, case is not reviewed
Individual factors influencing voter turnout
-age, education, race, region, community roots, internal and external efficacy, and strong partisanship -living in politically competitive areas and in areas with lower barriers to registration and voting -gender, alone, has no impact
The president has 3 options (4 under special circumstances) after receiving a bill.
1. The president can sign the bill into law. 2. The bill becomes law if not signed within ten days (Sundays not included). 3. The president can veto the bill. 4. A pocket veto may be used if Congress adjourns before the ten-day period has ended
Docket History of the Court
1790-1865: issues of federalism 1865-1937: economic issues 1937-today: civil liberties
The federal civil service is a close match to the American population. (bureaucracy in action)
30% of federal civil servants are minorities. Women account for 45% of the federal workforce. Skills in the public and private sectors are similar. Federal civil servants and workers in the private sector display similar dedication to their jobs. Federal workers' views on private and public matters are indistinguishable from those of other citizens.
Making laws: in conference
A conference committee reconciles the differences between the House and Senate versions of a bill. -standing committee members most involved in the legislation normally appointed; both parties represented -once agreement reached, the report goes to both houses Killing" a bill is easier than passing it, as a sustained sequence of victories is required.
The Origins of Public Opinion: Acquiring Opinions
Attitudes derive from experience -Political socialization is the process of acquiring political attitudes -Experiences from childhood and young adulthood are the most influential, but new ones can alter attitudes at any stage of life -The news media are a socializing agent, as they provide information and commentary that help shape opinions about politics -Certain collective political attitudes and beliefs are grounded in experience, albeit not personal experience
Constituents
Congress members are concerned with the opinions of their constituents It is rare for a member of Congress to frequently vote against their constituency Use opinion polls, trips back home to the district, and communication from constituents to gauge their preferences
Organizing Congress
Congress's power in the federal system depends on the party and committee systems. -The Parties: Majorities enact bills (a few important exceptions), set rules, establish procedures, choose leaders, and decide how to organize their respective chambers. -Increased Partisanship: *Congressional parties are increasingly unified and polarized along ideological lines.*
An Expanding Government
Government could only grow if presidents delegated authority to new agencies. (delegate, cabinet)
Making laws: Debate and Amendment
House: debate time divided equally between proponents and opponents germane amendments riders Committee of the Whole (quorum) Senate: unanimous consent agreements needed to limit debate amendments need not be germane unrestrained debate a forum for expressing social interests
Decision Making in Congress (Representation Models)
How should members of Congress treat decision making? Trustee - an elected representative listens to constituents and then uses their best judgment. Delegate - an elected representative who votes the way the constituents want them to. Politico - an elected representative who acts as a trustee or a delegate, depending on the issue.
Is Public Opinion Meaningful?
If large segments of the public are politically ignorant, hold inconsistent views, and can be manipulated by varying the words or context of questions, the question becomes, Is public opinion meaningful?
Making laws: the vote
Legislation is often decided by a series of votes. -Opponents may add "killer" amendments make a bill unacceptable to an otherwise supportive the majority. -In addition to personal views, the strongest cues are from constituents and trusted and knowledgeable colleagues. Others are the administration (president of same party) and party leaders. -House rules allow unrecorded or roll call votes (electronically recorded). At least 20 members are need to support a roll call vote. -The Senate uses a voice vote.
candidate-centered electoral process:
Legislators have greater incentive to be individually responsive than collectively responsible. -Modern Democratic majorities coincided with candidate-centered politics
Party-centered electoral process:
Legislators represent citizens by championing the policies promised by the party. -The Republican resurgence is credited to party-centered politics -Party-centered campaigning came back in full force in 1994
Interest Groups
Lobbyists are influential in Congress Range from powerful (NRA) to less influential (animal welfare groups) Lobbyists, with support of interest groups, can mobilize voters in districts Members rely on interest group money for their campaigns
Political Parties in Congress
Members of Congress usually vote along party lines. Divided government - when different political parties control the presidency and Congress Unified government - when the same political party controls the presidency and Congress
Representatives and senators are not "representative" of the people with respect to demographic characteristics.
Most members have college degrees. 37% have law degrees. A majority are professionals. A small number have blue-collar backgrounds. Most have served in lower elected offices. Women and minorities are underrepresented. -There is a significant difference in the demographic composition of the two congressional parties.
Supreme Court Procedure: Dissenting Opinions
Occur when justice disagrees with the outcome stated by the majority Opinion often highlights problems with the majority opinion's legal argument
The Pardoning Power
Pardon - an executive grant releasing an individual from punishment and legal consequences of a crime before or after conviction Can be granted to a general population as amnesty Example: forgiveness for all draft-dodgers
The Origins of Public Opinion: Partisanship
Partisanship, or the *disposition toward political parties*, shapes opinions and organizes other political attitudes There are two complementary interpretations of partisanship: 1. party identification as psychological phenomenon 2. party attachment as a practical tool Party identification also impacts beliefs
Why is public opinion important?
Public opinion is important because of its *effect on political behavior, particularly voting*. It has its political effect as an aggregate (mass) phenomenon, but like the vote, it is the sum of many individuals parts.
Making laws: Reporting a bill
Subcommittees mark-up bills before they are reported to the full committee. Written reports, which summarize the purpose of the legislation, major provisions, and changes from existing law, accompany all bills reported out of committee.
The judiciary shares authority over the bureaucracy.
The United States inherited the common law principle that the government, no less than its citizens, is bound by law.
Congress and Executive
The power balance has ebbed and flowed over time Some presidents have expanded powers of the executive (both Roosevelts, Johnson) Congress is weaker today than it used to be
Judicial Activism
When the Court inserts its own preferences over policy for those of another institution
The Origins of Public Opinion: Information
There is cost-benefit component to being an informed citizen -"Cognitive misers" generally uniformed and unstable opinions about public affairs -Knowledge of political facts varies with the availability of information -People are most familiar with information on the front-page and in the nightly television news
Voter turnout has varied widely over time.
There was a sharp decline in voter turnout between 1968 and 1972. Since then, the average turnout of the eligible electorate who registered and voted in presidential elections hovers around 58 percent. Voter turnout in the 2008 presidential election was nearly 59 percent.
Congress and Judiciary
Until 1987, the Supreme Court struck down 127 laws (or less than one per term) Since 1987, the average is closer to 3 per term Congress must consider what the Supreme Court might do when passing legislation
Candidate-Centered versus Party-Centered Electoral Politics
Up to 19th century, party-line voting was common Changes in election laws and within parties encouraged ticket-splitting= voting for candidates of different parties for different offices weakened political parties
Misrepresentation in voters
Wealthy, well-educated, older white people are overrepresented while poor, uneducated, young, and nonwhite people are underrepresented. Unequal resources but social advantage too Political parties, interest groups, and campaign organizations devote scarce resources to mobilizing likely voters—that is, people like themselves (educated and wealthy, organized).
Characteristic features of bureaucratic institutions (Max Weber)
a hierarchal structure of offices a division of labor a consistent set of abstract rules impersonality a career system specified goals
Executive Agreement (power to make treaties)
formal international agreements that do not require U.S. Senate approval They are not binding on subsequent administrations
Common reasons to delegate
handle large-scale administrative tasks exploit expertise avoid blame for unpopular decisions make credible commitments to stable policy deal with crises demanding swift, coordinated action
Methods of Congressional Control (variety of means to influence administrative agencies)
hearings and investigations mandatory reports legislative vetoes committee and conference reports inspectors general General Accounting Office can place a time limit on delegations of authority Procedural devices