Practicum 3 Study Guide

prosimian skull vs. anthropoid skull

Anthropoids have fused skulls while the prosimians do not. The orbit (eye socket) is open in the prosimians, closed in anthropoids.

taxonomy

The science of classifying organisms

1) genus 2) species

The scientific name is written with the _____ name first, followed by the _______ name.

Aotus (owl monkey)

While most NW monkeys are diurnal, the _________ is nocturnal.

smaller NW: 1) insects and 2) tree gums larger NW: 3) fruits and 4) leaves

While smaller NW monkeys rely on __________ and ____________ for their diet, larger NW monkeys rely on _______ or ________ to gain nutrients.

cladistic analysis

_______ _________ begins with identifying potential homologies. The presence or absence of these traits (or characters) are identified and recorded in a matrix that includes each organism under investigation. The data matrix allows researchers to quickly identify if the traits are shared across many organisms (ancestral traits), shared by some organisms (shared derived traits), or unique to one organism (unique derived traits). Researchers then begin grouping organisms together based on their relationships.

habitat loss and hunting

__________ and ____________ are the two most significant factors in nonhuman primate population decline.

Postorbital bar/postorbital closure

a bar of bone that is lateral to the eye but does not fully enclose the eye in a bony socket; found in lorises

cladogram

a diagram used to represent cladistic classifications, where lines are used to link organisms in different degrees of relationship to one another

phylogram

a diagram used to represent evolutionary relationships that also accounts for the amount of change (and usually length of time) separating organisms

insectivory

a diet emphasizing insects; these foods provide *small* packets of energy, therefore insectivorous primates tend to have *smaller* bodies; teeth with very pointy cusps that help crunch through the hard exteriors of insects; simple and short digestive tracts; ex: lorises and tarsiers, some marmosets (NW monkey)

frugivory

a diet that emphasizes fruit eating medium bodies/simple digestive tracts/molars with low, rounded cusps/molars not as large as those of a folivore/wider incisors/most primates are frugivorous ex: lemurs, lorises, most NW monkeys, numerous cercopithecines (OW monkeys), and many nonhuman apes like gibbons and orangutans.

folivory

a diet that emphasizes leaves (foliage) and other plant parts; large molars and smaller incisors; molars with shearing crests; large mandibles and jaw muscles to help with chewing; large jaw muscles sometimes require extra areas of bone for muscle attachment, as seen with gorillas who have a sagittal crest extensive digestion/elongated intestines ex: langur/black and white colobus/howler monkey/gorilla

threat display

an action (such as flashing the teeth) that seeks to threaten others from a distance

bachelor group

an all-male social group where multiple adult males live together, without females or offspring

paleospecies

an extinct species that is known through fossil evidence

threat yawn

an opening of the mouth that displays the teeth in a threatening manner

non-human primate culture

group-specific, learned behavior in nonhuman primates ex: chimps using twigs as tools

orthognathic

having a flat face; apes tend to exhibit this characteristic

prognathic

having a projecting lower jaw/face

single-male polygynous groups

in ___________ groups (and some solitary groups), male-male competition is extremely high

social organization

sexual dimorphism can help a biological anthropologist determine the likely ____________ of a group.

New World primates (Platyrrhini) vs. Old World primates (Catarrhini)

1) NW monkeys have broad noses, with nostrils to the side with a wide septum 2) OW monkeys and apes have narrower noses with nostrils facing downward along with a narrow septum

Old World Monkeys (Cercopithecoidea)

1) dental formula of 2.1.2.3 2) large social groups 3) quadrapeds 4) exhibit bilophodont molars 5) ischial callosities

Africa and Asia, or the Old World

Old World primates are the monkeys and apes that inhabit ____________.

viable offspring

offspring that are capable of reproduction

definition of species

one of the most specific levels of classification uniting related organisms

colobines and cercopithecines

the two subgroups of Old World monkeys

1) shared derived traits and 2) unique derived traits

there are two types of derived traits:

Analogies

traits that are similar across organisms due to similar adaptations

vocalization

verbal communication

affiliative communication

verbal or nonverbal communication that reinforces social relationships

definition of family

the level of classification that includes multiple related genera

definition of class

the level of classification that includes multiple related orders

the Americas, or New World

New World primates are monkeys that inhabit ____________.

definition of genus (genera, plural)

the level of classification that includes multiple related species

estrus swelling

the swelling of the female genital region around the time of ovulation... seen in chimpanzees and savanna baboons

dental formula for apes

2.1.2.3

dental formula for old world monkeys

2.1.2.3

dental formula for new world monkeys

2.1.3.3

dental formula for prosimians

2.1.3.3 (for most lemurs and lorises, upper dentition for tarsiers) 1.1.3.3 (lower dentition in tarsiers)

arboreal quadruped characteristics

-Shorter limbs for balance -Powerful grasping hands and feet for holding on -Large tail for balance

prosimian skull vs. old world monkey skull vs. new world monkey skull

-prosimians have eyes facing outward (divergent) -old world monkeys and new world monkeys have eyes facing forward (convergent) -New World monkeys have broad noses with a wide septum separating outwardly directed nostrils -Old World monkeys have narrow noses with a thin septum and downward-facing nostrils, as do apes and humans.

common features of anthropoids

1) larger than prosimians 2) bigger brains for their body size 3) almost all are diurnal 4) rely more on vision than smell 5) color vision 6) full bony enclosures for eyes 7) eyes are close together and on the front of the face

behavioral traits shared by primates

1) most are arboreal, spending the majority of their time in trees (a few primates are terrestrial and live on the ground) 2) tend to have generalized diets, eating a range of foods rather than just meat or just plants 3) most are diurnal, though some are nocturnal 4) most are uniparous, meaning they give birth to one offspring at a time, and primate offspring tend to take longer than other mammals to reach reproductive age 5) females spend a lot of time and energy caring for and raising their offspring

common features of prosimians

1) nocturnal 2) relatively large eyes + more rods (photoreceptor cells in the retina) in their eyes that help improve their vision in low-light environments 3) postorbital bar (except tarsiers) 4) longer snouts and rhinarium, a damp pad at the end of the nose (except tarsiers) 5) dental comb (except tarsiers) 6) reliance on smell rather than sight 7) unfused mandible 8) mix of claws and nails

anatomical traits shared by primates

1) opposable thumbs and big toes give primates the ability to grasp objects and tree branches 2) nails instead of claws 3) sensitive sense of touch, particularly in the tactile pads on the tips of fingers and toes 4) forward-facing eyes that provide better depth perception because the fields of vision from each eye overlap in the center 5) there is more bone around their eyes than other animals 6) color vision 7) larger brain relative to body size 8) olfactory bulbs are smaller in primates than other animals who rely on smell. 9) reduced snout length

New World Monkeys (Ceboidea)

1) three premolars 2) 2.1.3.3 / 2.1.3.2 dental formula 3) most are arboreal and diurnal 4) varying diets 5) relatively social 6) prehensile tail

binomial

Each known type of organism has a two-part scientific name (or _______), made up of the genus and species title for the organism.

quadrapedalism

Form of locomotion where animal uses four limbs

example of a binomial or scientific name

Homo erectus (italicized term) means "upright man." What is this an example of?

Australopithecus afarensis and Ardipithecus ramidus can be abbreviated to Au. afarensis and Ar. ramidus.

If two genera are mentioned and they both start with the same first letter, one can abbreviate the genera to be the first letter (capitalized) and the second letter (lowercase), follow by a period. What is an example?

1) capitalized 2) lowercase

In a scientific name, the genus name is always ______ while the species name is _________. Both words must be italicized (or underlined if written by hand).

Terrestrial Quadruped characteristics

Longer limbs for long steps Short, strong digits Stronger, less flexible joints

Arboreal Quadrupedalism

Mode of locomotion in which the animal moves along the horizontal branches with a regular gait pattern involving all four limbs most primates exhibit this behavior seen in some lemurs, most NW monkeys, and the colobines (OW monkeys)

ischial callosities

Patches of tough, hard skin on the buttocks of Old World monkeys and chimpanzees.

phylum

Related classes are grouped together in the same ______.

class

Related orders are grouped together in the same _____.

kingdom

Related phyla are grouped together in the highest level of classification, _________.

order

Similar families are clustered into the same ______.

family

Similar genera (the plural of genus) are clustered into the same _______.

genus

Similar species are grouped into the same _____ to reflect their relationship to one another.

Hominoids vs. Hominids

The former consists of *all* apes (gibbons, siamangs, gorillas, orangutans, chimps, bonobos, humans, etc.) while the latter includes great apes and excludes lesser apes, like gibbons.

species

The major levels of classification, based on Carl von Linne's system, begin with the ________.

gummivory

a diet that emphasizes tree gums (or sap); tree gums provide *small* bursts of energy, so gummivorous primates tend to be *smaller* in size; many gummivores supplement diet with insects for adequate nutrients; often have dental combs that help scrape tree bark; relatively simple/short digestive tracts ex: lemurs, lorises, many marmosets

vertical clinging and leaping

a form of locomotion where the body is oriented vertically and movement occurs by leaping from tree to tree seen in some lemurs and lorises, as well as tarsiers

suspensory locomotion

a form of locomotion where the body is suspended (or hanging) below tree branches

knuckle-walking

a form of quadrupedal walking in which the forelimbs hold the fingers in a partially flexed posture that allows body weight to press down on the ground through the knuckles.

solitary

a form of social organization where adults spend most of their time alone; adult females (and their offspring) occupy separate territories, and an adult male occupies a territory that overlaps with that of several females... seen in orangutans, as well as in some lemurs and lorises

multimale polygyny

a form of social organization where multiple adult males, multiple adult females, & their offspring live together... seen in ring-tailed lemurs and some NW monkeys (like the squirrel monkey), many OW monkeys (like the savanna baboons and most macaques), and both the bonobos and chimpanzees.

polyandry

a form of social organization where one adult female, multiple adult males, and their offspring live together... seen in only in some NW monkeys, especially the tamarins because they tend to give birth to twins, thus additional male help is advantageous.

single-male polygyny

a form of social organization where one adult male, multiple adult females, and their offspring live together... seen in some NW monkeys, such as the howler monkeys, as well as some OW monkeys, such as gelada baboons and colobus monkeys. Among the apes, many gorillas live in single-male polygynous groups.

monogamy

a form of social organization where one adult male, one adult female, and their offspring live together... seen in some lemurs, many tarsiers, some NW monkeys (especially several types of marmosets), gibbons and siamangs...

polygyny

a form of social organization where there are multiple adult females for each male...

brachiation

a form of suspensory locomotion where movement occurs through arm-over-arm swinging ex: gibbon

semibrachiation

a form of suspensory locomotion where movement occurs through the use of the arms and a specially adapted prehensile tail, which can grasp tree branches seen in some NW monkeys, like howler monkeys, spider monkeys, woolly monkeys, and capuchin monkeys

coalition

a group of multiple primates that work together against other members of their group... seen in male chimpanzees

shared derived trait

a modified trait that is shared by two or more organisms, also called a synapomorphy ex: apes and Old World monkeys have the same dental formula. Because it is a modification of an ancestral trait that is shared between the two organisms, it is a __________.

unique derived trait

a modified trait that is unique to one group, also called an autapomorphy ex: humans' round/bowl-shaped pelvis is specific only to humans among primates

bilophodont molar

a molar with four cusps arranged in two parallel ridges (or lophs)

cladistics

a more recent approach to classification that emphasizes derived traits and deemphasizes ancestral traits, also called phylogenetic systematics

fission-fusion

a social organization that involves the fission of a large group into smaller groups to pursue sparsely distributed resources and the fusion of the smaller groups back into a large group at other times; this can be impacted by predation risks... for example, a larger group is favored if there is a high risk of attack from predators

prehensile tail

a tail with the ability to grasp tree branches and act like a fifth limb

evolutionary systematics

a traditional approach to classification that emphasizes both derived traits and ancestral traits

homology

a trait that is similar across organisms because the organisms share common ancestry

ancestral trait

a type of homology; a trait that is shared by two organisms from a relatively distant common ancestor also called a plesiomorphy ex: humans and ring-tailed lemurs both have mammary glands because their common ancestor had them.

alarm call

a vocalization that indicates a particular threat

aggressive behavior

behavior that challenges, threatens, or harms others

affiliative behavior

behavior that is generally cooperative

derived traits (or apomorphies)

biological anthropologists often focus more on these kind of traits; traits that are modifications of ancestral forms

Terrestrial Quadrupedalism

four-limbed locomotion on the ground

arboreal

living in trees

terrestrial

living on the ground; seen in humans, baboons, and gorillas

pronounced, but not as extreme

male-male competition in multimale polygynous groups tends to not be as violent because they must live together. As a result, sexual dimorphism is __________.

Y-5 molar

molar that has five cusps with grooves running between them, forming a Y shape. This is characteristic of hominoids

thorax of monkeys vs. apes

monkeys are typically smaller than apes and have narrow chests, whereas apes have broad and much larger chests.

male-male competition

primate species with more __________ _____________ have more pronounced sexual dimorphism

social hunting practices

primates work together in the hunt, often by herding prey toward an ambush. While adult males are usually the hunters, they share the meat with females and juveniles of the group.

biological species concept

the biological concept that argues two organisms are from the same species if they can produce viable (fertile) offspring

homoplasy

the evolutionary development of similar traits in unrelated organisms ex: colobus monkeys and cows have complex digestive systems due to similar dietary adaptations *rather than* a common ancestor. (Another example is depicted...)

definition of kingdom

the highest level of classification, which includes multiple phyla

infanticide

the killing of infants or young members of a species; __________ in nonhuman primates usually involves killing the offspring of another individual. For example, when a male takes over a group that includes females who are breast-feeding (and thus not as likely to get pregnant), the male is likely to kill the existent offspring.

-gracile -longer -curved -short

the lesser apes exhibit more ______ bodies than the other apes. Along with this, their arms tend to be ________ and their fingers are more ______ to help with locomotion. Their thumbs are also very _____ to help with rapid arboreal swinging.

definition of phylum (phyla, plural)

the level of classification that includes multiple related classes

definition of order

the level of classification that includes multiple related families

activity budget

the pattern of waking, eating, moving, socializing, and sleeping that all nonhuman primates engage in each day

sexual dimorphism

the physical differences between mature males and females of a species

grooming

the removal of foreign objects (such as insects or plant parts) from another primate's fur

systematics

the study of the relationships between organisms