PS 1 Final

Political Attitude

An organized and consistent manner of thinking, feeling, and reacting with regard to people, groups, social issues, or more, generally, any event in one's environment. Most people have loosely structured sets of political attitudes, not necessarily consistent with one another or well informed by facts and concepts

Proximity Voting

Argues that all other things being equal, the voter will choose the candidate who is least distant from them

Lobbying

Effort by an organized interest group or individual to influence public policy by persuading government officials to support their group's position Three main resources for lobbyists: 1. Information (insider strategy) 2. Votes (outsider strategy) 3. Money

Ideology

Elaborate set of organized, internally consistent attitudes that allow one to understand, evaluate, and respond to political phenomena. Promote consistency among political attitudes by connecting them to something greater, a more general principle or set of principles Examples : liberal, conservative, libertarian

Elite vs. Mass Polarization

Elites are polarized (—> party polarization) Masses aren't polarized, most Americans are moderates. Fiorina : most differences in policy preferences between residents of red and blue states are modest Ex : Economic issues - Agree large firms are too powerful — red states: 62%, blue states: 64% - Should prioritize environment over jobs — red states: 42%, blue states: 43% Ex : Social issues - Abortion should always be legal — red states: 37%, blue states: 48% - Allow homosexual adoption — red states: 40%, blue states: 52%

Going Public

Engaging in intensive public relations to promote the president's policies to the voters and thereby induce cooperation from other elected officeholders in Washington. Presidents and members of Congress share constituencies. If presidents can win the public's backing for themselves and their policies, opponents in Congress may fear voters' reprisals in the next election. Popular presidents frequently exploit their ability to grab the public's attention and generate favorable news coverage for their legislative initiatives. If they succeed in rallying public support for their policies, they may force the accommodation of a Congress otherwise indifferent or opposed to the president's ideas.

Political institution

Organizations which create, enforce, and apply laws; that mediate conflict; make (governmental) policy on the economy and social systems; and otherwise provide representation for the populous Rules and procedures that structure political competition, e.g.: Constitution, Congress, Veto, Filibuster (ability of a minority of senators to prevent an issue from coming to a vote in the Senate) They are persistent : create offices that outlast individuals, hard to change (those who benefit have stake in defending institution), people plan based on expectation that they will remain (adapt to institutions) Institutions shape identities and the way we organize into politics. They give us rules, and if you put people within their limits, they will act according to the rules set by the institutions they live under, thus they will behave in very predictable ways.

Disturbance Model

Organized group forms when shared interest is threatened by a disturbance/threat Form in... - ...opposition to other interest groups so as to counteract influence in their respective political domains - ...the absence or increasing scarcity of resources - ...response to a change in power/policy that some people object to Organized groups do not abuse "latent" (unorganized) interests too much - due to fear that they'll get organized in response David Truman praises this system: - It takes intense preferences into account - Public interest emerges from interest group competition.

Divided Government

Pits a president against an opposition party that controls one or both chambers of Congress. Usually however, party was unified across the legislative and presidential branches, as the winning presidential candidate pulled his party's congressional candidates into office on his electoral coattails. Now: Democratic executive branch, but Republicans took over the Senate.

Political Socialization

The process by which citizens acquire their political beliefs and values The family, educational system, peer groups, and the mass media all play a role While family and school are important early in life, what our peers think and what we read in the newspaper and see on television have more influence on our political attitudes as adults.

Heuristics

The process of gaining knowledge by intelligent guesswork rather than by following some pre-established formula.

Merit System

The process of promoting and hiring government employees based on their ability to perform a job (qualifications, exams, experience), rather than on their political connections Created a much more stable work force while simultaneously altering the political process because workers no longer had to desperately hope that their party would stay in power so they could keep their jobs. Rewards conscientious, long-term service

Take Care Clause

The provision in the Constitution instructing the President to "take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed". Meant to ensure that a law is faithfully executed by the President, even if he disagrees with the purpose of that law

Position-taking

The public enunciation of a judgmental statement on anything likely to be of interest to political actors Often, position taking can take the form of a roll call vote. In this type of action, the Congressmen is a speaker rather than a doer. Position taking is effective, because people often don't understand (or can't monitor) the significance of actions taken in support of bills, so it is easier to judge based on statements only. Some groups monitor roll-call votes and give Congressmen scores on particular issues, showing a pattern of position-taking. Position taking can also be done through floor addresses, speeches at home, TV, newsletters, press releases, interviews, articles, etc. It is also possible for a Congressman to give different messages to different groups - e.g. giving an anti-war speech to college students, but a patriotic speech about past wars and the need to prevent future wars to veterans. The best position-taking strategy is usually to be conservative and continue to repeat past positions. However, Congressmen may sometimes gamble on new ideas (policy entrepreneurship). By watching each others' positions, Congressmen can understand what positions are likely to lead to success or failure at the polls. Senators, possibly due to their access to the media, put more emphasis on position-taking than House members.

Stare Decisis

"Let the decision stand" In court rulings, a reliance on precedents, or previous rulings, in formulating decisions in new cases To the extent that they follow stare decisis, the lower court find it easier to extend the Supreme Court's preferences, freeing the Court to monitor closely those decision that fail to follow precedent or are otherwise unresolved. Cannot strictly determine the outcome of many cases; new and unusual circumstances arise for which existing doctrine offers little guidance. - The facts of a case may bring two doctrines into conflict A judge must decide whether a specific precedent applies to a particular case

Power to Persuade

"Presidential power is the power to __?__"- Richard Neustadt The president is able to convince others that they want what the president wants because the Constitution limits his power so he can't rely on it to enact what he wants.: Public opinion moves to support the president after he delivers a national address Ex : The State of the Union - Limits : 48 Million viewers out of 230 million voters, or 21 percent Congress decides to support the president in response to a legislative proposal Ex : Clean Air Act of 1990 - President George H W Bush prioritized clean air legislation - He signed the Clean Air Act of 1990 under divided government - All but five Democrats and sixteen Republicans supported the president - Limits : Congress wanted this legislation and Bush took advantage of this; Democrats are predispose to support clean air) - No evidence that Bush changed legislators' positions on the issue; he couldn't on other priorities like tax cuts The media cover the presidency in the way the president wants it to be covered Ex : The Iraq War - Widely held belief that the news media did not challenge the Bush Administration - Coverage was decidedly positive (roughly 65 percent of ABC news coverage positive) - Broadcast sources were primarily from the administration And, thus, favorably disposed toward the war effort - Limits : Presidential influence wanes as events change and as opposition speaks against the war - News coverage becomes more negative as coverage of violence increases, even as President Bush speaks positively about the war

Social Desirability Effect

When answering questions, people will want to come up with a socially desirable response Ex : they wouldn't want to say something that would make them be considered racist

Power to Declare War

"The Congress shall have power to..." Sometimes, this doesn't resolve the problem of a president taking the nation to war. Ex : Bush after 9/11 terrorist attacks (the public and Congress gave him a blank check to fight terrorism) Ex : In 1861, without consulting Congress, Lincoln suspended the writ of herbs corpus that prevented the Union Army from detaining civilians suspected of spying or opposing the war effort. He also expanded the army. His justification : "The executive found the duty of employing the war power, in defense of the government, forced upon him. Whether strictly legal or not." Congress's exclusive authority to declare war has become a hollow check on the president's commander-in-chief initiative.

Overcoming the Free Rider Problem

- Small, concentrated interests have an advantage : each contribution makes noticeable difference so less incentive to free ride, easier to monitor contributions - Selective incentives : give special benefit in exchange for contributing - Solidary benefits : Work best in small, face-to-face groups - Expressive benefits : Benefits of expression voters gain with partisanship

Types of Committees

- Standing committees : permanent, specialized in a particular legislative area - Special/select committees : appointed to deal with specific problems and then disappear - Joint committees : gather information and oversee executive agencies but do not report legislation - Ad hoc committees : appointed to handle bills that are particularly sensitive Ex : congressional pay raise legislation - Conference committees : appointed to resolve differences between the House and Senate versions of bills

Factors Determining Voter Turnout

1. AGE In presidential elections, turnout among the oldest citizens is 29 points higher than it is among the youngest citizens 2. EDUCATION Turnout in midterm elections is 27 percentage points higher for the most educated as compared with the least educated 3. SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES More likely to vote if those around you take note of who is voting Ex : different letters sent across the nation showing that they knew if the person and their neighbors voted 4. COSTS - Registration Turnout is higher where legal barriers to registration are lower Ex : Before 2012, more than a dozen states adopted a requirement that voters show picture IDs at the polls, raising the participation cost for poor & minority voters who are less likely to possess driver's licenses or passports - Convenience More likely to go vote if there is a nearby voting center and you don't have to go out of your way - Time More likely to go vote if you can afford to sacrifice the time 5. BENEFITS - Free Rider Issue People enjoy the payoffs even if they have not helped to produce them by voting - Personal Affect Those concerned with issues or with a strong interest in parties or candidates receive more benefits - Expressive Benefits Voters express themselves through voting and gain psychological benefits - Civic Responsibility Those with a sense of obligation to carry out their duties as citizens receive greater benefits (also mainly psychological) --> Lead to an electorate in which wealthy, well-educated, older white people are overrepresented and the poor, uneducated, young & nonwhite are underrepresented

Political Constraints on the Court

1. Judges don't need to be reelected, but they are appointed by the executive to begin with and can be threatened with impeachment 2. Congress sets the jurisdiction of the Court and creates lower courts 3. The Court lacks the ability to implement its decisions directly, must have cases brought before them 4. Congress controls its numbers : limited number of cases (only sees about 1% of appeals it receives) 5. Other two branches can override statutory decisions 6. Congress can use constitutional amendments to invalidate the Court - Ex : Fourteenth Amendment (all persons born or naturalized in the US... are citizens of the US) used to invalidate Dred Scott vs. Sanford decision that African Americans cannot be U.S. citizens

Power of the Mass Media (Limitations)

1. Minimal effects thesis 2. Some people choose not to pay attention to media news coverage 3. Difficult to gain interest while maintaining objectivity 4. Proliferation of media outlets - The multitude of news choices gives consumers the ability to select news producers according to their assessment of their reliability and allows consumers to avoid information that contradicts their prior beliefs

Factors Affecting Individual Vote Choice

1. PAST PERFORMANCE More likely to vote for incumbents that have performed well Presidents are held accountable for the national economy (rates of inflation, unemployment, economic growth...) and their conduct of foreign policy - Ex : economic problems cost Carter and Bush Sr. their jobs, while a strong economy contributed to Reagan and Clinton's reelections - Ex : Eisenhower's success in ending the Korean War helped ensure his reelection Voters hold the president's party as a whole responsible - Ex : Voters unhappy with Bush & the Iraq war took it out on congressional republicans in 2006 - Ex : Voters objecting to Obama, his policies, and the bad economy punished Democratic candidates for Congress in 2010 and 2014 2. PERSONAL EXPERIENCES Examples : Looking for a job —> unemployment Shopping at the supermarket —> inflation Trying to get a mortgage —> interest rates Taking out a student loan —> government programs Those without direct experience with certain issues can learn about them through the news media 3. CUES FROM OPINION LEADERS 4. CANDIDATE'S PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS Competence, experience, honesty, knowledge, leadership skills OR race, sex, ethnicity, age 5. PARTY LABEL / IDENTIFICATION Most voters drastically simplify their electoral evaluations and decisions by developing a consistent bias in favor of the candidates of one of the major parties

Members of Congress Goals

1. REELECTION Credit-claiming High reelection rate Some say that members ignore the general welfare of the country while pursuing the narrow interests of financial contributors, the special interest of organized groups, and the parochial interests of their home constituents. How they go about it: - Request assignment to committees with jurisdictions affecting their constituents - Introduce popular legislation - Win federal funds for projects in their states and districts - Solve constituents' problems with federal agencies - Evaluate legislation for its impact on their constituencies - Solicite media attention - Present themselves to their constituents as a "home style", tailored to the nature of their constituencies 2. POLICY (e.g. favor liberal or conservative policies) Every member must behave like a trustee much of the time, no matter how committed he or she is to serving constituent's interests. Members strategically communicate their dedication to the delegate role 3. PERSONAL POWER / INFLUENCE May see their current position as a stepping-stone to higher office. Ex : In 2012, 14 sitting House members left their seat for a higher office

Why Politicians Need Lobbyists

1. Time is scarce - Lobbyists make it "cheaper" for politician to get involved in an issue 2. Support - Life is easier for officials if they have the support of the governed 3. Lobbyist has incentive to be truthful (to politician) due to reputation - Lobbying is a career - Lots of former members of Congress (and staff) become lobbyists.

Power of the Mass Media (Influences)

1. Watchdog over government 2. Inform public about policy 3. Intermediary institution to link people to government 4. Political polarization 5. Shapes the American people's political priorities (priming)

Challenges to Pluralism

1. With authority so fragmented, government cannot function effectively 2. "The flaw in the pluralist heaven is that the heavenly chorus sings with an upper class accent." (E.E. Schattschneider) - The groups most visible active in politics did not form a balanced cross section of economic or social interests - Advocacy on behalf of citizen preferences and needs in national politics is neither universal nor representative Ex : interests of large industrial corporations were vastly overrepresented, while interests of migrant laborers and the unemployed were not represented at all 3. Pluralist inconsistency: emphasize self-interest of group, but what about self-interest calculation of potential members? - Most political interest groups pursue collective goods that all group members will enjoy whether or not they help to provide them - Rational self-interest could lead to a Free Rider Problem

Marbury vs. Madison

1803 Marbury asked the court to issue a writ of mandamus (an order) to James Madison ordering him to deliver commissions Court decided that Marbury did have right to the commission, and that the laws of the U.S. did afford him a remedy, but that the Supreme Court did NOT have jurisdiction to hear the case - Article III of the Constitution explicitly lists cases that are within the Supreme Court's original jurisdiction, and a writ of mandamus isn't one of them. - Marshall delivered the conclusion that because the Constitution is the supreme law of the land, acts of Congress that conflict with the Constitution are unconstitutional and, thus, void. The case in which Chief Justice John Marshall and his associates first asserted the right of the Supreme Court to determine the meaning of the U.S. Constitution. The decision established the Court's power of judicial review over acts of Congress, in the case of the Judiciary Act of 1789. - Judiciary Act of 1789 tried to add writ of mandamus to Court's original jurisdiction Established the court's "coequal" status among the branches of the American government

Stuard vs. Laird

1803 When the court ruled that Congress had the authority under Article III of the constitution to reorganize the judiciary Presented two constitutional questions raised by the repeal of the Judiciary Act of 1801 - First, could Congress abolish the circuit courts created by the 1801 statute and thereby, in effect, deprive the judges appointed to them of their positions? - Second, could Congress require justices of the Supreme Court to sit as circuit judges? Justice William Paterson's brief opinion answered both questions in the affirmative, basically allowing Congress to rearrange the judicial branch.

Pendleton Act

1883 Response to revulsion against the Spoils System and demand for civil service reform - Main argument : Assassination of James Garfield in 1881 by a demented job seeker incensed at having lost a chance for patronage appointment Created merit system (competitive exams, job security) Covered 10% of federal jobs, but it authorized the President to extend coverage by executive order - Each president about to relinquish office to the opposition party extended civil service protection to thousands of his own patronage appointees By 1933, the merit system covered 80% of federal workers

Court-Packing Fight

1937 FDR proposed to increase the number of U.S. Supreme Court justices from nine to fifteen (appoint another judge for every judge older than seventy) to increase the Court's efficiency However, President Roosevelt wanted to use the court-packing plan to appoint justices who would not block his administration's New Deal programs. Public opinion was bad, his Court-Packing Plan died in Congress, but the court DID start upholding the same economic legislation it had been blocking for 2 years.

Roe vs. Wade

1973 Overturned state laws making abortions illegal. Decision relied heavily on the rights of free speech, privacy, and the rights of accused established by Griswold v. Connecticut (contraception) in 1967 Abortion is the kind of issue that defies political resolution because the wide disagreement on values leaves little space for agreement on action Generates intense feeling among minorities on both sides who tolerate nothing less than full support for their position

Principal

An individual with the authority to make some decision. This authority may be delegated to an agent who is supposed to act on the principal's behalf.

Particularized Benefits

A benefit is given out to a specific individual, group, or geographic constituency, the recipient unit being of a scale that allows a single congressmen to be recognized as the claimant for the benefits Each benefit is given out in apparently ad hoc (formal) fashion with a congressmen having a hand in the allocation. Can come from work on "casework". It also includes new legislation such as construction projects. The benefits don't need to be geographic, they may go to political actors outside home constituencies.

Opinion Leader

A citizen who is highly attentive to and involved in politics or some related area and to whom other citizens turn for political information and cues - May be people we know personally, they may be public figures - A small segment of the public forms opinions by paying close attention to political events and issues, and the uninformed/inattentive majority free rides when forming opinions by taking cues from members of this attentive segment. Opinion leadership arises naturally as people respond to different incentives - Most citizens receive no tangible payoff from becoming better informed - Better information holds no promise of a better outcome because the views of any single individual are so unlikely to be decisive Cognitive shortcuts like this are available because interest people and groups have a stake in gathering and disseminating political information - Ex : American Cancer Society seeks out and publicizes information emphasizing the damage tobacco does to the nation's health while tobacco companies need to know everything that is said about secondhand smoke to counter these claims and defend corporate profits

Supremacy Clause

A clause in Article VI of the Constitution declaring that national laws are the "supreme" law of the land and therefore take precedence over any laws adopted by states or localities.

Committee Gatekeeping

A committee is delegated the power to choose whether or not to take action on specific proposals The ability to obstruct action of a bill and halt it

Bureaucracy

A complex structure of offices, tasks, and rules in which employees have specific responsibilities and work within a hierarchy of authority. A government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected officials, the administrative system governing any large institution. Government bureaucracies are charged with implementing policies.

Credit-Claiming

A congressmen's desire to be seen as the cause of benefiting constituents Politicians are concerned with painting a relentlessly upbeat picture of progress and improvement within their domains of responsibility Seek credit because it can lead to reelection and promotion Ex : A politician who managed to get a major bridge built in his district might name the bridge after himself.

PACs (Political Action Committees)

A federally registered fund-raising group that pools money from individuals to give to political candidates and parties for campaigns Ready to help, but not until campaigns show promise — the candidate has won the primary election, gained favorable media attention, and raised a substantial amount of start-up money (tend to stick with incumbents)

Captured Agency

A government agency that is largely under the influence of the economic interest group(s) most directly and massively affected by its decisions and policies Shapes its regulations and policies primarily to benefit these favored client groups at the expense of less organized and often less influential groups (such as consumers)

Faction

A group of people sharing common interests who are opposed to other groups with competing interests James Madison, Federalist 10 : defined a faction as any group with objectives contrary to the general interests of society Wanted to : - Cure minority faction via free elections - Limit chance of majority faction through extended republic (and checks and balances, separation of powers, federalism)

Issue Network

A loose, informal, and highly variable web of relationships among representatives of various interests who are involved in a particular area of public policy. An informal and relatively open network of public officials and lobbyists who have a common interest in a given area and who are brought together by a proposed policy in that area Unlike an iron triangle, an issue network disbands after the issue is resolved.

Holds

A parliamentary procedure permitted by the Standing Rules of the United States Senate which allows one or more Senators to prevent a motion from reaching a vote on the Senate floor. The majority leader need not follow the senator's wishes, but is on notice that the opposing senator may filibuster any motion to proceed to consider the measure. If the Senator provides notice privately to his or her party leadership of their intent (and the party leadership agreed), then the hold is known as a secret or anonymous hold. If the Senator actually objects on the Senate floor or the hold is publicly revealed, then the hold is more generally known as a Senatorial hold.

Cloture Rule

A parliamentary procedure used to close debate. Under the current Senate rules, three-fifths of the senators (60) must vote for cloture to halt a filibuster.

Party Identification

An individual's enduring affective or instrumental attachment to one of the political parties The most accurate single predictor of voting behavior Ex : 2012 elections (Obama vs. Romney) - About 90% of strong partisans voted for their own party's presidential candidate - Weaker partisans tended to be less loyal but still strongly favored their party's candidate There are enough independents and partisan defectors to keep party identification alone from determining who wins or loses elections

Standing Committee

A permanent legislative committee specializing in a particular legislative area - Division of labor and specialization Have fixed jurisdictions : always deal with the same legislative topics Have stable memberships : a member can expect to keep the seat unless his or her party suffers large electoral losses - But changes occur when legislators seize the opportunity to move up to the committees deemed more important and desirable The job security associated with standing committees gives committee members both the motive and the opportunity to become knowledgeable about policy issues under their committee's jurisdiction. - Expertise makes influence, other members defer to the judgement of committee experts they trust. The top committees are money committees because their activities are so central to Congress's main source of power in the federal system : its control over the budget

Political Cue

A piece of information that helps a person decide how to vote Examples : - Partisanship - Retrospective performance evaluation - Candidate traits / evaluations - Character, trust, personality, party identification

Executive Order

A presidential directive to an executive agency establishing new policies or indicating how an existing policy is to be carried out. Executive Orders are generally used to direct federal agencies and officials in their execution of congressionally established laws or policies. However, in many instances they have been used to guide agencies in directions contrary to congressional intent. Executive Orders are controversial because they allow the President to make major decisions, even law, without the consent of Congress. This, of course, runs against the general logic of the Constitution -- that no one should have power to act unilaterally. Nevertheless, Congress often gives the President considerable leeway in implementing and administering federal law and programs. Sometimes, Congress cannot agree exactly how to implement a law or program. In effect, this leaves the decision to the federal agencies involved and the President that stands at their head. When Congress fails to spell out in detail how a law is to be executed, it leaves the door open for the President to provide those details in the form of Executive Orders. An executive order has the force law until the president or a successor retracts it, Congress nullifies it, or a federal court rules it unconstitutional. Ex : 2001, Bush issued an executive order creating the Office of Homeland Security, which would "develop and coordinate the implementation of a comprehensive national strategy to secure the US from terrorist threats or attacks."

Libel

A published falsehood or statement resulting in the defamation of someone's character

Random Sample

A sampling method in which all members of a group / population have an equal and independent chance of being selected.

Iron Triangles

A stable, mutually beneficial political relationship among a congressional committee (or subcommittee), administrative agency, and organized interests concerned with a particular policy domain Narrowly focused sub governments controlling policy in their domains, out of sight or oversight of the full Congress, the president, and the public at large How it works : - Congress establishes a regulatory agency in response to some threat to public welfare. - Because industries have an enormous economic stake in how they are regulated, they become the primary source of political pressure on the regulators (agencies) - Ironically, the regulated sectors also are the primary repository of the expertise (information and personnel) that agencies need. - Agencies maintain the economic health of the industries it regulates, and regulators become allies, if not agents, of the sector they regulate Iron triangles and captured agencies survive only as long as the costs they impose on everyone are small enough to avoid attracting serious attention from political entrepreneurs in Congress or the White House who may be scouting for popular issues to champion.

Spoils System

A system in which newly elected officeholders award government jobs to political supporters and members of the same political party. 1820s-1880s : used the government offices for patronage by staffing the government with party workers. Parties pursue a collective good : victory for their candidates and policies. Without some prospect of private reward for party activists as well, the free-rider problem would have left parties stillborn. Spoils system intensified party competition and put a heavy premium on winning. Once government jobs became a primary resource for maintaining party machines, members of Congress developed an even keener interest in influencing appointments to federal offices in their states and districts. Limit : Bureaucracy characterized by a career system, with appointment and advancement by demonstrated merit, and often considerable job security

Filibuster

A tactic used in the Senate to halt action on a bill that the majority would otherwise enact Involves making long speeches until the majority retreats Senators, once holding the floor, have unlimited time to speak unless a cloture vote is passed by three-fifths (sixty) of the members

Writ of Certiorari

An order that is given by a superior court to an appellate court and that directs the lower court to send up a case the superior court has chosen to review The central means by which the Supreme Court determines what cases it will hear Supreme Court gained control over its caseload Rule of four helped reduce caseload even more: when four justices support hearing a case the certiorari petition is granted - Cost : having to cull through a mountain of petitions

Conditional Party Government

A theory that party leadership will be strong when a party is more homogenous, and there is high polarization of the two parties. Two considerations—intra-party preference homogeneity and inter-party preference conflict—together form the "condition" in Conditional Party Government. As they increase, the theory predicts that party members will be progressively more willing to create strong powers for leaders and to support the exercise of those powers in specific instances. When diversity grows within parties, on the other hand, or the differences between them are reduced, members will be reluctant to enhance leader powers. When a party's policy goals are fragmented, partisan lawmakers have little incentive to give their leaders more authority. Ex : The balance budget battle between the Republican Congress and President Clinton in 1995 and the consequent shutdown of the federal government had become the landmark of the conditional party government phenomenon in the House

Plurality

A vote in which the winning candidate receives the greatest number of votes (but not necessarily a majority)

Rise of the Modern Presidency

After WWI the US became a global power requiring presidents' increased attention to foreign relations. On the domestic front, large domains of services came to be funded and regulated from Washington via an extensive network of grants-in-aid programs to states. (USDA, EPA, SEC, FDA) Legislation creating or revamping programs assigns presidents statutory authority to oversee and even make changes in policy and administration that serve the program's mission. Even Congresses controlled by the opposition party routinely assign presidents broad discretion to administer policy. The president appoints the executives who administer the departments, agencies, and courts. The president's executive responsibilities spill over to legislative initiative as Congress seeks guidance in creating annual budgets and periodically reauthorizing and revamping programs & bureaucracy. The development of electronic mass media facilitated the transformation to the modern presidency. Through the use of television, modern presidential candidates can get elected as national personalities who enjoy broad personal popularity. While in office, a president can choose to "go public" through direct television appeals to the American people that are designed to circumvent party leaders, Congress, and other government officials. Ex : Reagan used his first televised speech after an assassination attempt to successfully sell his signature tax cut directly to the American people. Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson each expanded the powers of the presidency. Roosevelt worked closely with Congress, sending it messages defining his legislative powers. He also took the lead in developing the international power of the United States. Wilson helped formulate bills that Congress considered, and WWI afforded him the opportunity to take a leading role in international affairs. Franklin Roosevelt, who was elected four times to the presidency, led the nation through the crises of the Great Depression and WWII. Roosevelt gained power through his New Deal programs to regulate the economy, and the war required that he lead the country in foreign affairs as well. So, the powers of the modern presidency have been shaped by a combination of constitutional and evolutionary powers. The forceful personalities of strong Presidents have expanded the role far beyond the greatest fears of the antifederalists of the late 1700s.

The Least Dangerous Branch

Alexander Hamilton, in Federalist No. 78, described the judiciary as the ___?___ branch - "The judiciary, from the nature of its functions, will always be the least dangerous to the political rights of the Constitution; because it will be least in a capacity to annoy or injure them." Judiciary branch simply interprets the laws that have been passed by the legislative branch and that have been approved by the executive branch There seem to be more opportunities for corruption in both the legislative branch and the executive branch in lawmaking than in the judicial branch's interpretation of these laws.

Single-member District

An electoral district or constituency having a single representative in a legislative body rather than two or more

Sophomore Surge

An increase in votes that congressional candidates (candidates for the House of Representatives) usually receive when running for their first re-election - Member A: first elected with 52% of vote - Member A: wins reelection 2 years later with 60% of vote  surge of 8 points Freshman candidates running for a second term now get eight to ten percent more votes than when they were elected for their first term. Over ninety percent of all incumbent House members are reelected. Senate members also currently benefit from a sophomore surge, though it is to a lesser degree.

Prisoner's Dilemma

Arises whenever individuals decide that even though they support some collective undertaking, they are personally better off pursuing an activity that rewards them individually despite undermining the collective effort Participants privately calculate that they would be better off by not contributing to the collective action even when they wholeheartedly agree with its purpose Every successful political exchange must tactically solve the prisoner's dilemma Two candidates in a primary have to decide whether they will attack or play nice (Mitt and Newt example) From Mitt's perspective... - Best outcome: Mitt attacks, Newt plays nice - Second best: Both play nice - Third best: Both attack - Worst: Newt attacks, Mitt plays nice

Purposive Theory of Interpretation

Ask what are the purposes expressed in statute or Constitution. Interpret as members of Congress would have wanted it interpreted in light of current situation Breyer - Views the Constitution more expansively, believing justices should consider the purpose of the document and what the framers were trying to accomplish - Has six interpretive tools—text, history, tradition, precedent, the purpose of a statute, and the consequences. In his view, it's a mistake to ignore the last two

Leadership as "Bargaining"

Bargaining between the President and Congress. Executive bargaining : When the president needs to do something entirely within the executive branch, his power may be weak. After all, agency heads must think about Congress, their clients, their staff, and themselves in addition to the president. Agency heads have been delegated enough authority that they can have substantial influence over policy. Their power is almost equal to the president's, at least within their policy realm. Even though agency heads nominally belong to the executive branch, the president may actually have less influence over them than their other principals. Thus, since the president has less power over them, he cannot bargain as effectively to get them to do what he wants--and getting what he wants always requires bargaining and persuasion, not simple commanding. Congressional bargaining : When bargaining with Congress, on the other hand, Congress needs the president to do certain things: submit a nomination, sign a bill, etc. Oddly enough, the president sometimes has a stronger hand persuading Congress than persuading agency heads within the executive branch. The president's increased power gives him an increased ability to persuade and bargain. Failing to go along with a president can be damaging to members of Congress if the president is popular

Single-Issue Voters

Base their votes on candidates' or parties' positions on one particular issue of public policy, regardless of their positions on other issues Time determines which issues become important to voters - Ex : Civil rights became critical in the 1964 election

Media Bias

Bias or slant in the selection of which news to report and how the news is reported Tends to affect coverage of social issues more than economic issues Reporters tend to be liberal and Democratic, but no study has definitively proven any sort of serious bias. Media has become more partisan to appeal to a niche of viewers In order to attract and keep an audience, news outlet give members of this audience what they want Ex: Fox - For years Republicans had viewed the national media as biased in favor of liberal causes and points of view - Fox sought to appeal to Republicans who were unsatisfied with their news options - Hired conservative news anchors, loosened traditional constraints on editorializing while presenting the news

Modern Presidency

By the 1930's, the organization of the presidency received a makeover, making the President the CEO of the national gov, giving him broad discretion over implementation of policies INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS: - Commander in chief and head of state - CIC of nation's armed forces, has the most power over the military despite congress's "check" - Authority to transact diplomatic affairs - Constitution: "to receive ambassadors and other public ministers" President took it as he alone could decide whether the US would recognize a new gov (Truman, Israel) - Executive agreements: statements of understanding btw the administration and a foreign gov, exempt from senate ratification, used to achieve something congress wouldn't agree to, or would rather keep private CHIEF EXECUTIVE - Article II: long generalities and short on details - Sections 2: President may appoint the officers of government, by and w/ consent of the senate - Take care clause - No provision for how to constitute the cabinet. If provided for the constitution might have provided greater checks on executive - Executive Privilege: right to withhold information from Congress and Courts, presidents say it is necessary to maintain separation of powers - Usually establish branch agencies, modify admin rules, or give force to statutes ADMINISTRATOR - Absence from constitution of any real administrative authority for president - But growth of national government enhanced the president's control over public policy - Congress found its interest best served delegating to the white House a lot of administration and the policy discretion that goes w/ it - Delegating, budgeting (sending annual budget for all federal programs to Congress), centralized administration LEGISLATOR - May call congress into special session - State of the union - Tries and direct american policy by establishing a legislative agenda and doing what they can to persuade lawmakers to pass it - Congress gives a chief executive's proposal serious consideration

Horserace Coverage

Campaign coverage from the media focuses on the race rather than the policy stands - Focus on polling data, strategy, and public perception instead of candidate policy - Almost exclusive report on candidate differences rather than similarities - Fails to display the strengths/weaknesses of each politician and their policies Media outlets have used horse-race journalism to make elections more competitive and thus increase the odds of gaining larger audiences while covering election campaigns - Involves politically handicapping stronger candidates and hyping dark horse contenders who are widely regarded as underdogs when election cycles begin

Speaker of the House

Centralized authority in the House to help deal to organized the House and keep minorities from holding up legislation through endless procedural delays. Elected by the reigning majority Has the authority to appoint committees, make rules, and manage the legislative process on the majority party's behalf Speaker Nancy Pelosi (2006-2008) was crucial to Obama's major legislative victories on economic stimulus, health care reform, and economic regulation legislation Current speaker : John Boehner

Counter-Majoritarian Difficulty

Claims judicial review is illegitimate because it allows unelected judges to overrule the lawmaking of elected representatives, thus undermining the will of the majority. Response : in some cases, elected representatives pass laws that do not reflect the will of the people, and in those cases, judicial review is a valid means by which to correct the democratic process.

President's Professional Reputation

Concerns how the Washingtonians (governors, military leaders, leading politicians, foreign ambassadors and Congress) view the president. The president's reputation comes into play by how reliant the government's infrastructure has been on the president to carry out his legislation. The better the reputation of the president, the easier it will be to facilitate negotiations to implement policy. There are individuals in agencies and departments that have an incredible amount of power and can be a real force to reckon with for the president. The president's professional reputation involves how others expect him to react. Isolated failures are not a problem, but if the failures form a pattern, this will weaken him. In addition to anticipating what the president wants, others also have to assess how hard he will try to get it. Tenacity is important. If a president cannot convince others that he will inevitably win, at least he needs to convince them that it will be costly to cross him. Ex : Eisenhower's secretary of treasury George Humphrey publicly questioned the integrity of some of Eisenhower's changes to the budget for that year of 1957, and caused a national questioning of the budget and coarsely the reputation of Eisenhower. Although Humphrey's allegations may not have been justified, Eisenhower's reputation was scarred nonetheless. The president must act always keeping in mind the interests of those powerful enough to publicly bludgeon or scrutinize his policies to maintain his reputation.

Indexing Hypothesis

Criticism that because of close, cooperative relations between DC reporters and Washington leaders the media relies too heavily on political elites to decide what constitutes "news" - Mass media news professionals overwhelmingly use government elites as official sources because they have power and lend legitimacy to news stories Issues and views that are subject to high-level political debate are most likely to receive news attention that is wide-ranging; issues not subject to debate receive less critical attention. Coverage declines in the absence of internal institutional opposition - As the degree of conflict among officials over some political or policy topic grows, so too does the degree of conflicting views found in news coverage of that topic. - Conversely, when officials are not debating the topic, the range of views included in the news will be correspondingly smaller - The decline of issue coverage does not follow the resolution of a problem, or the disappearance of an issue from the formal agenda. These relationships are symbiotic — all parties benefit - Government officials "go public" through the media in order to gain support for policies, to explain political actions, and to capitalize on "free" publicity

Party Polarization

Divergence of political attitudes to ideological extremes Parties have become more polarized, Republicans and Democrats are further apart ideologically than at any point in recent history. Result : Congress has become more polarized - More collective action problems - Harder to bargain and compromise - Breakdown in bargaining and unilateral action When polarization occurs in a two-party system, moderate voices often lose power and influence. The adoption of more ideologically distinct positions by political parties can cause polarization amongst both elites and the electorate. - Ex : after the passage of the Voting Rights Act, the number of conservative Democrats in Congress decreased, while the number of conservative Republicans increased. Politicians have an incentive to advance and support polarized positions. - Politicians who cater to more extreme groups within their party tend to be more successful, helping them stay in office while simultaneously pulling their constituency toward a polar extreme. - Ex : during the early 1990s, the Republican Party used polarizing tactics to become the majority party in the United States House of Representatives

Party Press

Era from 1780s to 1830s when news editors received patronage from political parties, usually in the form of government printing contracts An editor would readily endorse a party's candidates and champion its principles, typically in line with his own beliefs, and in return would receive support for his six-cent paper. - Little objective reporting - Newspapers were tools of the parties - Circulation was chiefly among political and commercial elites - Gave way in 1900s-20s as journalists became professionalized We are currently returning to a Party Press

Textualism

Focus on meaning of the words in the law/Constitution Scalia - Says that to look at either the purpose or the consequence of a statute is to invite subjectivity and beg the question. - Looks at the Constitution's text and what it meant at the time of the nation's founding. - Said his approach limits judges from imposing their personal preferences and setting policy.

Slander

Forms of false and malicious information that damage another person's reputation

Delegation Dilemma for Congress

From the beginning, Congress was wary of delegating too much power to the executive The advantages of delegating authority to a unified executive that could energetically and efficiently implement laws were clear. Potential drawback : executives might also pursue ends contrary to those desired by congressional majorities, president has incentive to try to gain more control (since he is held responsible for failures) Delegation breaks the chain of accountability that links the voters to their elected representatives; legislators cannot be held truly responsible for rules that were made by someone else. Congress leveraged its authority to establish executive branch agencies and set their annual budgets as a was to balance the president's power - Many questions of governance require technical expertise, which administrative agencies, but not generalist legislators, possess. As the nation has grown and the range of federal activities expanded, so has the challenge of keeping appointed officials responsive to elected officials, just as elected officials are supposed to be responsive to the citizenry.

Strategic Politicians

Goal oriented actors, primary goal is getting elected Consider effect of action on staying in office Need to bargain, compromise with other strategic-actor politicians Not always strategic - but to succeed, need to be strategic most of the time

Collective good (or public good)

Good that everybody participates in supplying (through taxes for example) and anyone can freely consume, as much as he or she desires Their costs are borne collectively and no one can be excluded from their benefits Examples : freeway, national defense (vs. toll roads and backyard bomb shelters) Citizens count on government to provide public goods but also to control and correct negative public goods (ex: laws controlling pollution) Most of the goods & services that governments provide cannot be easily sorted into either the private or public bin (ex: public education, flu vaccination, etc.) —> externalities Because state cannot fund public goods and services through compulsory contributions, coercion (taxation) is necessary to finance infrastructure, the national defense, etc.

Permanent Campaign

Governing with public approval requires a continuing political campaign. Recent presidents have sometimes been accused of running a permanent campaign, meaning that the president and his staff always operate as if they are running an election campaign. This includes the use of campaign tactics—such as immediate response, staying on message, and photo opportunities—to govern. Every President since Lyndon Johnson has run his Administration from a political consultant's eye view. Untold millions have been spent on polling and focus groups. The pressure to "win" the daily news cycle — to control the news — has overwhelmed the more reflective, statesmanlike aspects of the office." The frenzied, headline-grabbing atmosphere of presidential campaigns is carried over into the office itself, thus creating a permanent campaign that limits the ability of policies to deviate from the perceived will of the people (hence, intensive polling). The changes in American politics from old-style patronage and party organization to that based on the modern technology of computer driven polling and media created a fundamentally new system. He explained that political consultants had replaced the party bosses and brought with them a new model by which campaigning became the forms of governing.

Insider Lobbying Strategy

INFORMATION Interest group activity that includes normal lobbying on Capitol Hill, working closely with members of Congress, and contributing money to incumbents' campaigns Depends on access to officials Provide technical information ("Legislative Subsidy") - Ex : Effects of proposed program Provide political information: - How constituents will react (and how to sell proposal to constituents) - What other politicians are thinking about the issue (help plan strategy)

Dual Principals Problem

In US government, elected officials are the "principal" and the bureau is the "agent." Delegation in U.S. is complicated because two principals : President and Congress President and Congress jointly control design, staffing, funding of bureaucracy

Culture War Thesis

In US politics, the political culture has traditionally been dominated by class conflict Americans are much more politically divided than in past (party polarization) Divisions centered on social or cultural issues rather than economics & class conflicts American politics are no longer about class, race or region; the political body is now faced with a cultural conflict in which values, moral codes and lifestyles are the primary objects of contention. - Conflict between those values considered traditionalist or conservative and those considered progressive or liberal.

Midterm Loss

In midterm elections, the president's party almost always suffers a decline in its share of the congressional vote and a net loss of House seats 2014 elections : Republican party took 9 Senate seats from the Democrats Exceptions: - 2002, under Bush, the Republican party gained 8 House seats and 2 Senate seats - 1998, under Clinton, the Democratic party gained 5 House seats and kept its same amount of Senate seats

Rally-Around-the-Flag Phenomenon

Increased short run popular support of the President of the United States during periods of crisis or war. - Ex : In the wake of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, George W. Bush's approval rating spiked 35 points

Impact of Campaign Donations on Members of Congress

Interest groups can gain access While it hasn't been proven that votes can be bought, limited time and gate keeping power allows congressmen to influence agendas by not actively pursuing an issue Does money buy influence? - NRA gives a member of Congress money. The member then votes for the NRA-backed bill. What can one conclude from this? --> Money DOES buy influence - Why would interest group give money to Congress if it made little to no impact on how members vote? Members of Congress do not want to take highly visible actions that show voters they were "bought." - Instead, money buys member participation -- work for the bill in a committee, draft amendments, etc. - More likely to make a difference for issues that are less visible/salient to regular voters

Earmarks

Money set aside in the federal budget by Congress for projects in the home district of a member of Congress. If Congress earmarks money for a project, district voters receive a big benefit while only paying a tiny share of the costs because the price tag is spread across all districts Because this is such a great deal for any member of Congress, every member wants to make it happen for his or her own district. —> collective action problem Account for less than 0.33 percent of the federal budget, but voters are often outraged when they hear how some of their tax dollars are spent

Core Values

Moral beliefs held by citizens that underlie their attitudes toward political and other issues These beliefs are stable and resistant to change Examples : individualism, support for equal opportunity, moral traditionalism, opposition to big government

Selective Incentive

Most successful organizations circumvent the collective action problem by providing these benefits that can be denied to individuals who do not join and contribute

Rationale for Having Committees

Need for information, coordination problems, resolving conflicts, collective action, transaction costs, and time pressures. Provide information for House and Senate - Consider bills and issues and recommend measures for consideration - Monitor agencies, programs, and activities within their jurisdictions Committees help to organize the most important work of Congress — considering, shaping, and passing laws to govern the nation - 8,000 or so bills go to committee annually, and fewer than 10% of those bills make it out for consideration on the floor. Promote reelection: get on committees that are of special concern to your district Standing committees also conduct investigations, such as the Senate Banking Committee's investigation of President Bill Clinton's Whitewater investments.

President as "clerk"

Neustadt refers to the president as a ...? The president must balance differing interests. Just because the president wants something done does not mean that the others who also possess the power and authority will carry out his wishes. "The president's advantages are checked by the advantages of others. Relationships will pull in both directions. These are relationships of mutual dependence. The president depends upon the persons that he would persuade; he has to reckon with their need or fear of them (Neustadt 31)." The president must interpret to his colleagues how his policy will benefit them as well.

Priming

Occurs when readers/watchers of the news that relates to the criteria with which we evaluate candidates or elected leaders are influenced by what the press covers in a very specific way Media coverage primes the public to weight that issue more heavily in evaluating leaders Called "agenda-setting" when it relates to issues or topics It influences what they think about, not what they think - The press have the power to shape people's priorities, but not to persuade them or change their attitudes about issues or politicians

Minimal Effects Thesis

Political campaigns and media can only marginally persuade and convert voters - Difficult to move direction of public opinion, people have attitudes / predispositions that are hard to move - Need to get people to hear the message (exposure) - But consumers have the ability to select the news / message they want to hear Was associated with the general assumption that voters had clear positions on issues and knew where candidates stood on these issues - But since then research has suggested that voters do have uncertainties about candidates' positions and these uncertainties do influence voters' decisions

Sample vs. Population

Population: entire group of people about which information is wanted Sample: a part or subset of the population that is used to gain information about the whole population - The larger the sample, the more closely the sample's answers will approximate the answers the pollster would get if the entire population could be asked

Forecasting Presidential Elections

Reliable forecasting tools : 1. The state of the economy (real disposable income change; GDP growth; consumer sentiment) 2. The incumbent party president's approval rating - These two variables do better than early polls in forecasting November outcome 3. Party identification has proven to be a strong predictor of the vote in any election in which candidates run under party labels (presidential election) Forecasting models assume both sides are equally professional/strategic. What if one side runs a lousy campaign and the other runs an effective campaign?

Reasons to be Wary of Poll Results

Sampling problems Social Desirability Bias Question wording Political Ignorance Challenge Explanatory Challenge Selective Perception

Rise of Adversarial Journalism

Seeks to reveal wrongdoings of public officials through a variety of premeditated methods Uses interviewing methods designed to entrap interviewees into making statements that are damaging or discreditable to their cause, character, integrity, or reputation. Uses libel and slander Encouraged by Vietnam and Watergate

Logic of agency design (incentives shaping design of bureaucracy in U.S.)

Separation of powers / checks and balances generate a compromise as opponents "help" design agency Many rules and procedures are adopted to ensure fair or at least equal treatment of each citizen by providing unaccountable, arbitrary behavior - Federal agencies procuring goods and services from the private sector are bound by an elaborate set of requirements imposed on them by Congress Empowering bureaucrats on the front lines of service delivery may increase efficiency and customer satisfaction, but also may make it easier for bureaucrats to go astray - When an agency does so, Congress tends to write more elaborate procedures and add another layer of inspectors and auditors to keep it from happening again - Red tape often springs from Congress's desire to control administration - Successful efforts at easing controls could reduce congressional ability to monitor and influence administration, a risk congressional majorities have been reluctant to accept, especially when the other party holds the White House Efficiency stems from using resources in a maximally productive way, so any assessment of efficiency must be based on measures of output - Many agencies' output defies measurement - Ex : Diplomats in the State Department are supposed to pursue long-term security and economic interests of the nation. How do you measure this? Agencies sometimes are assigned conflicting objectives - Ex : IRS —> tough enforcement, or effective customer service? Because an agency's degree of success in accomplishing its vaguely defined ends is often impossible to measure, bureaucrats focus instead on outputs that can be measured. - Focus on process rather than product - Ex : reports completed, cases processed, meetings held, regulations drafted, contracts properly concluded, forms filled out and filed... Deregulating the bureaucracy and empowering frontline bureaucrats would make agencies more efficient, but it would also make them less accountable to elected officials. Bureaucrats face the challenging task of meeting the expectations of courts, Congress, and the president because of the separation of powers

Bradley Effect

Subset of the social desirability effect A theory proposed to explain observed discrepancies between voter opinion polls and election outcomes in some US government elections where a white candidate and a non-white candidate run against each other. White voters tend to tell pollsters they are either undecided or likely to vote for a black candidate, while on election day they vote for the white candidate. Pollsters have suggested that voters may not want to admit to planning to vote against a black candidate, because they fear being perceived as racist, especially when the pollster is black. Named after Los Angeles Mayor Tom Bradley, an African-American who lost the 1982 California governor's race despite being ahead in voter polls going into the elections.

Issue Public

Subsets of the population who are better informed than everybody else about an issue because it touches them more directly and personally - Ex : farmers pay attention to farm programs, retired people keep tabs on Medicare policy, etc. Most policy domains are of concern only to issue publics, so it is usually their opinions, not mass opinion, that matter to politicians. Opinion leaders and issue publics are the main conduits of public opinion in a pluralist political system.

Plural Executive

System of government that limits the power of the executive, which could be a president or governor, by distributing power across several elected leaders. The other elected officials are not required to answer to the executive. This protects the executive from abusing power. There are pros and cons to this system. Historically, state governors were known for abusing their power when appointing friends to political positions or handing them out as favors they would call upon later (Ex: Huey Long). This is why many states switched to the plural executive form of government. The president of the United States still has a cabinet of appointed officials, but most states have changed to elected officials. A major drawback to this form is that it lacks cohesion, leading to political officials chasing after many different goals. The governor has much less power to lead the group in any unified direction. Idea proposed by Madison's Virginia plan was rejected by the Framers b/c they wanted a more reactive executive in times of crisis but also an executive whose powers could recede when there was no crisis.

Access

The ability of privileged outsiders, such as interest group representatives, to obtain a hearing from elected officials or bureaucrats

Casework

The activity undertaken by members of Congress and their staffs to solve constituents' problems with government agencies Congressional staff can intervene to facilitate the appropriate administrative processes, encourage an agency to give a case consideration, and sometimes advocate for a favorable outcome. Examples include cases related to political asylum, Social Security benefits, the military, Veterans' Administration concerns and IRS problems. Members of Congress use casework for credit-claiming, as part of an outreach strategy to build political support Examples : - A congressman assisting a member in the military to get emergency leave - Helping an organization find grants - One constituent tried to get his senator to intercede with the head of the state university's board of regents to raise the C grade his son received in a political science course

Incumbency Advantage

The advantage existing officeholders have in elections against challengers/newcomers High reelection rate, largest surge comes after their first term Enormous financial advantage enjoyed by incumbents : re-election rates are so high because incumbents generally don't have to work as hard to get their name and message out Incumbency advantage did not accrue automatically to officeholders, it stemmed from diligent use of the many resources that come with holding office Realizing that the growth of candidate-centered electoral politics worked to the advantage of incumbents willing to build a personal following, members of Congress voted themselves greater resources for servicing their states and districts (higher allowances for staff, travel, local offices, and communication) Incumbents still work to discourage potential opponents : ambitious, talented people rarely challenge them if they see no chance of winning, and contributors decline to waste money on hopeless causes Counter-example : In 2010, high unemployment and happiness with the Obama administration cost 52 Democratic incumbents their House seats, two-thirds of the defeats coming in districts the Democrats had won in 2006 and 2008 (when disaffection with Bush and the Iraq war caused Republicans to lose their seats). Now, in 2014, the Republicans have taken over Senate.

Expressive Benefits

The benefits of expression voters gain with partisanship in an interest group The benefit a voter feels at having expressed himself - People who join an interest group because of expressive benefits likely joined to express an ideological or moral value that they believe in

Party Brand Name / Label

The concept that a candidate's party identification also implies something about numerous policy realms theoretically unrelated to party identification. Incorporates the policy position and past performance voters attribute to it Provides useful information for both performance voting (voting for the party in control when one thinks the government is performing well or voting for the "outs" when one thinks the party in charge is performing poorly) and issue voting (the typical positions of Republicans and Democrats differ in predictable ways on many issues) Most voters simplify their electoral evaluations and decisions by developing a consistent bias in favor of the candidates of one of the major parties, making the party label the most influential "endorsement" of all

Seniority System / Rule

The congressional practice of appointing as committee or sub-committee chairs the members of the majority with the most years of committee service

Cleavage

The divisions of society that cause people to vote differently Ex : race, religion, social class, etc.

Judicial Review

The doctrine under which legislative and executive actions are subject to review by the judiciary. The court has the authority to declare legislative and executive acts unconstitutional and therefore invalid. While the U.S. Constitution does not explicitly define a "power" of judicial review, the authority for judicial review in the United States has been inferred from the structure, provisions, and history of the Constitution

Social Issues vs. Economic Issues (in elections)

The economy (& job creation) was the most important issue for voters this November - Ebola, gay marriage and marijuana legalization did not fall far behind Party elites polarized on social issues - Geographic divide on social issues more than economic issues, so leads to bigger geographic divide in voting Issues that are more important to Republican voters in 2014 (mostly economic) - Budget deficit - Foreign policy - Immigration - Terrorism - Economy Issues that are more important to Democratic voters in 2014 (mostly social) - Environment - Economic inequality - Birth control - Health care

"Judicialization of Politics"

The reliance on courts and judicial means for addressing core moral predicaments, public policy questions, and political controversies The transfer to courts of contentious issues of an outright political nature and significance Decisions such as Roe v. Wade have proven the court to be a major venue of politics by turning political issues into legal ones and shaping the debate.

Committee Government

The second organizational pillar upholding the institutional power of Congress in the federal system Ultimately subject to majority party Committee and party systems are closely integrated and mutually dependent - Party ratios on committees usually match party ratios in the House and Senate House committees, like House party leaders, are more powerful than their counterparts in the Senate, reflecting the need for tighter organization in the larger body

Aggregate Public Opinion

The sum of all individual opinions Public opinion continues to play a crucial and effective part in American politics because a variety of formal and informal political institutions give it shape and force While individual opinions may be badly informed and unstable, aggregate public opinion is both stable and coherent When there is no obvious reason to expect significant change, the distribution of opinion tends to be highly stable When substantial changes in the distribution of public opinion occur, they reflect intelligible historical trends or responses to changed conditions - Ex : the willingness to vote for presidential candidates without regard to race, religion, and sex has grown steadily over the past decades as public policy and sentiment turned against discrimination - Ex : support for greater defense spending rose in late 1970s and early 1980s in response to crises in Iran and Afghanistan. But by 2004, after a large increase in the defense budget with the Iraq war, public opinion turned against higher defense spending once again Aggregate opinion also varies in coherent ways over the shorter term - Ex : the president's level of public approval typically varies from month to month with economic conditions and international events Aggregate public opinion is given its coherence and focus by opinion leaders, typically based in institutions, whose knowledge, ideas, proposals, and debates define the positions and options from which ordinary citizens adopt their expressed views.

Selection Perception

The tendency to not notice and more quickly forget stimuli that causes emotional discomfort and contradicts our prior beliefs - Ex : overlooking bad things that your favorite politician has done, and not noticing the good things a politician from the opposite party has done.

Commander-in-Chief

The title given to the president by the Constitution and that denotes the president's authority as the head of the national military. In times of war, when quick action is needed, having one person make executive decisions is more efficient than waiting for Congress to make a decision. But, according to the Constitution, the president cannot declare war.

Pluralism

Theory describing a political system in which all significant social interests freely compete with one another for influence over the government's policy decisions Power is distributed among many groups - Pluralist politics created a policy balance that reflected both the distribution of interests in society and the intensity with which they were pursued Interest groups were regarded as essential and valuable participants of the democratic politics of a modern industrial society - Without their participation, policy would be made in far greater ignorance of what citizens actually wanted from their government

Class Voting

Voting by class and by voting group Pattern of a left-voting working class and a right-voting middle class Class voting has been declining - Culture War : class is no longer prominent in American politics, instead politics focus on social and cultural issues

Voter Mobilization

When activists working for parties, candidates, or interest groups ask members of the electorate to vote Recent decline in mobilization - Most candidates and parties have replaced labor-intensive door-to-door campaigns with money-intensive television and direct-mail campaigns - Because media campaigns are so expensive, parties concentrate scarce resources on the tightest races, thereby reducing attempts to mobilize voters in less competitive races

Single-member-district, plurality rule elections

This form of election is used to elect the U.S. House Representatives An area is divided into a number of geographically defined voting districts, each represented by a single elected official. Voters can only vote for their district's representative, with the highest vote-getter winning the election, even if he or she has received less than half of the vote. Problems : - Where the boundaries of districts are drawn can have a huge effect on who is likely to win election. As a result, gerrymandering to protect incumbents or weaken political enemies is common under single member plurality systems. - When more than two viable candidates run and split the vote within a district, the "winner" of an election can often be the candidate whom the majority of voters liked least. Generally, parties will limit the number of candidates running to avoid this scenario, leaving voters with minimal choice.

Unilateral Action

This is the president's formal capacity to act unilaterally and thus to make law on his own. Often presidents do this through executive orders. Sometimes they do it through proclamations or executive agreements or national security directives. The end result is that presidents can and do make new laws without the explicit consent of Congress. The president's powers of unilateral action are a force in American politics precisely because they are not specified in the Constitution. They derive their strength and resilience from the ambiguity of the contract. Presidents have incentives to push this ambiguity relentlessly to expand their own powers - and that, for reasons rooted in the nature of their institutions, neither Congress nor the courts are likely to stop them. Ex : Louisiana Purchase, annexation of Texas, Emancipation Proclamation, desegregation of the military, etc.

Public Opinion

Those opinions held by private persons which governments find it prudent to heed

Scientific Polling

Tool developed in the twentieth century for systematically investigating the opinions of ordinary people, based on random samples How it works: - Select a random sample of the population of interest - Ask the people in the sample appropriate questions about their views - Count up their answers

Free Rider Problem

Type of Prisoner's dilemma To defect from the agreement by withholding a contribution to the group's undertaking while enjoying huge benefits of the collective efforts Arises whenever citizens recognize that their small contribution to the collective enterprise will not affect its success or failure and because contribution is costly, they decide not to make the effort Governments face many of the same free-riding issues as voluntary associations, but generally they solve them not by rewards and plying individuals with selective benefits but rather by sanctions and, if necessary, force

"Costless" Filibuster

Used to be that a single senator could block action by refusing to end debate. In 1975, allowed a three-fifths majority of the Senate to invoke cloture. Cloture minimized the filibuster's expense as they no longer shut down other Senate business This low cost makes the filibuster an attractive option for individual senators bent on extracting legislative concessions as well as killing legislation

Outsider Lobbying Strategy

VOTES Interest group activity designed to influence elected officials by threatening to impose political costs on them if they do not respond. Does not require access Tactics: - Media campaigns - Demonstrations, protests, marches - Threat of campaign contributions to opponents - Electoral mobilization - Mobilize members to send message to politician Delivering votes is a key resource (so it gives a chance for broad-based interest to compete)

Political Ignorance "Challenge"

Voters rely on cues so their opinion is not random / meaningless - but this is not same as being fully informed Modern studies in political science show widespread ignorance among U.S. voters of many policies and politicians, and even ignorance of much of the general policy-making process. Because the probability of being pivotal in a given election is almost always vanishingly low, elections provide voters small inducement to inform themselves even regarding important policy issues. Widespread political ignorance is a serious problem for democracy, one that should lower our confidence in the effectiveness of the modern democratic state as a tool for making important policy decisions

Cross-Cutting Cleavages

When groups on a first cleavage of society overlap among groups on a second cleavage Key to the pluralist theory Example : if a society contained two ethnic groups that had equal proportions of rich and poor it would be cross-cutting - Antonym : reinforcing cleavages —> one of the ethnic groups being all rich and the other all poor Economic divisions are crosscut by religious, racial/ethnic, & geographic divisions. Implications: - Overlapping memberships limit scope of each group's - demands - Shifting coalitions: your enemy today may be your ally tomorrow - No permanent winners or losers; everyone has stake in the system

Party Tides (in Congressional Elections)

When one party has big net seat gain in House / Senate. - Ex : Republicans taking over Senate in 2014 midterm elections What explains tides? - Economy: blame President's party if bad economy (and reward for good economy) - Presidential approval ratings - Midterm loss - There is limited evidence that congressional performance matters (scandals are an exception)

Retrospective Voting

When voters vote based on how they feel about the last term of the incumbent party Similar to performance voting : voting for the party in control when one thinks the government is performing well or voting for the "outs" when one thinks the party in charge is performing poorly