PS 166

What is political incorporation?

- "...the process through which immigrants come to take part in politics and have their interests represented, while Americans come to accept the newcomer's participation and representation." (Williamson 10) -"Political incorporation is the process through which immigrants and their descendants come to think of themselves as Americans with political rights and with a voice in politics, should they come to exercise it." (Gerstle 110)

sojourner mentality

- characterizes those immigrants who saw their time in the United States as temporary -Many sojourning laborers had left their wives and children behind in their homelands, intending to work in America for a few years and return to their families.

Citizenship Clause of the 14th Amendment

-"All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." -The amendment nullified a Supreme Court decision that held that those descended from slaves could not be citizens.

How does the federal government accommodate immigrant assimilation?

-"Beyond mandated duties related to education, health, language access, and law enforcement, the federal government provides little guidance and limited resources for immigrant incorporation." (Williamson 8) -Two noteable exceptions are policies on assisting refugees in resettlement into localities, and on assisting immigrant victims of sexual assault and sex trafficking -The fed requires municipalities to serve immigrants in substantial ways. Yet, mixed signals and limited guidance allow localities considerable latitude to craft their own responses to immigrant residents. -At least 5 states and 633 counties have sanctuary policies in 2017

A Different Mobilizing Movement Between 1st and 2nd Generations?

-"The second generation reacts to a perceived lack of meritocracy with a strengthened sense of ethnic group identification, which in turn motivates an interest in doing something to change the situation," (Deaux 195) -In contrast, among the 1st gen, a belief in the promise of meritocracy may be directly related to more support for collective action, even if the link is relatively weak

How do Latinos think of immigration? How do age and partisanship influence their views?

-59% of Latinos lean toward the Democratic party, while 30% lean toward Republican -younger latinos were 13 percentage points less likely than those age 30+ to say there are too many immigrants -there are significant opinion age gaps among latinos on immigration: The average age of latinos is 29 -young latinos were found to be more likely to talk about the immigration policy debate with family, friends or coworkers than older latinos were -also younger latinos were more likely to say they have participated in a protest or demonstration to support immigrant rights since the start of trump administration -more latino Democrats than Republicans say the US government has done a bad job handling asylum seekers from Central America -there are generational differences but they are stronger among Republicans: -more than half of the millennial republicans (58%) say immigrants have strengthened the country

What is the "immigrant/integration" paradox?

-A curious phenomenon in the unexpectedly disadvantageous behavioral outcome of the 2nd generation, when compared to first generation immigrants -This is contrary to predictions of straight-line assimilation and acculturation when the US-born are expected to do better than the foreign-born (in education, health, and occupational prestige) -Among Black and Latina immigrants, first-gen. are less susceptible to negative effects of racial stereotyping (and believe more in meritocracy) than the 2nd gen. -Whereas 2nd gen. Asian Americans are less susceptible to stereotype trends, their legitimacy as Americans by nationality can still be questioned A different path of incorporation for immigrants of color? -Issues of ethnic and national identity, prejudice and discrimination, and beliefs about meritocracy and values of social diversity will continue impacting the process of legal, cultural, and institutional incorporation of immigrants of color beyond the 1st or 2nd gen. -The differential outcomes across immigrant groups cannot be attributed only to group characteristics, but may take into account the climate of reception

What is the "immigrant/integration" paradox? 1. How does it apply to Black, Latino, and Asian American immigrants and their US-born children?

-A phenomenon that explains the unexpectedly disadvantageous outcome of the 2nd generation compared to 1st generation immigrants -This contradicts the predictions of straight-line assimilation/acculturation by the way that US-born are expected to do better than foreign-born (in education, health, & occupational prestige) -Among Black and Latina immigrants, 1st gen are less susceptible to racial stereotyping and believe more in meritocracy -Asian Americans are less susceptible to stereotype trends but their legitimacy as Americans is still questioned -The differential outcomes across immigrant groups can be attributed to group characteristics and climate of reception

What are some examples of direct federal guidance on local governments to serve immigrants?

-Lau v. Nichols (1974): A unanimous Supreme Court decision whereby public schools are found to violate the civil rights of students with limited English proficiency if failing to provide supplemental language instruction -Plyler v. Doe (1982): decision by the Supreme Court holding that states cannot constitutionally deny students a free public education on account of their immigration status -Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act (EMTALA): Enacted in 1986, it is a federal law that requires anyone coming to the almost any emergency department be stabilized and treated, regardless of their insurance policy or ability to pay. -Section 203 of the Voting Rights Act: requires that localities with large language minority populations provide bilingual voting materials

When and how did (White) immigrants turn Democrats? What is the New Deal Coalition?

-By urban machines or local party organizations developed in the 1840's and 1960's in big cities in the North by professional politicians to control local politics through alliances built with labor unions, small business associations, and civic organizations of co-ethnic immigrants -Largely Democratic machines delivered housing, jobs, and welfare to immigrants in exchange for votes -After a Republican victory, the Democratic party actively pursued and organized votes from women, young voters, & white immigrants at local, state, and national levels -Their inclusion during the Depression helped explain the Democratic landslide in 1932 and 1936 (FDR) -The New Deal coalition that put FDR in the White House and the Democratic Party in control of Congress combined support from the working class and various ethnic and minority groups with already existing strength in the South. -The party's economic liberalism combat the Depression and proposed programs to benefit disadvantaged groups made this the basis of the Democratic appeal to white blue-collar workers, low-income natives, and recent immigrant groups (largely Catholics and Jews from S. and E Europe) -Today, despite signs of erosion in many localities and regions, Democrats remain the party that favors bigger government, more spending on domestic programs, and helps those at the bottom of the economic ladder.

How did (white) immigrants turn Democrats?

-By urban machines or local party organizations developed in the 1840's and 1960's in big cities in the North by professional politicians to control local politics through alliances built with labor unions, small business associations, and civic organizations of co-ethnic immigrants -Largely Democratic, machines delivered housing, jobs, and welfare to immigrants in exchange for their votes -The Democratic party actively pursued and organized votes from women, young voters, and white immigrants at local, state, and national levels -Their inclusion during the Depression helped explain the Democratic landslide in 1932 and 1936 -1932 Presidential Election: FDR won 472/531 or 89% of the EC votes -1936: FDR won 523/531 (98%) of EC votes

What are the key elements in the contextual development of immigrant insurgency, 1965-2005? What explains the nationalization of the Latino population after the mid-1990s?

-Changes in US immigration policy (termination of the Bracero Program in 1964 & creation of immigration cap for Western Hemisphere in 1965) resulted in a sharp rise of illegal Mexican migrants. -Neoliberal economic restructuring in Mexico, with rapid privatization of state-owned enterprises and aggressive deregulation of foreign investment flows, contributed to a decrease in wages and increase in poverty and income inequality. -These effects were aggravated by the signing of NAFTA. Unemployed farm workers moved north for work. -US foreign-policy against Communist or Socialist regimes from the Cold War era and the War on Drugs introduced a continuous influx of refugees from Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, and Central America. --Neoliberal economic restructuring in the US in the 1980s resulted in massive outsourcing and bifurcated economy with growth of jobs in high tech/professional and low-wage service sectors—where immigrant laborers are ready to meet the demands. -Undocumented Mexican immigrants more than doubled between 1990 and 2000. -Rather than settling in California, Latino immigrants started to move Eastward and to the Southern states after the mid-1990s. -Major reasons for their internal migration: the end of the Cold War recession and cutbacks in defense industry, Prop. 187 in California, militarization of the US-Mexico border, increased costs and risks of border crossing, rise of legalized migrants by IRCA's amnesty provision, economic boom in the South.

What is the difference between civic nationalism and ethnic nationalism?

-Civic nationalism emphasizes belonging to the entire state and tolerance for the ethnonational diversity of all its citizens -Ethnic nationalism emphasizes blood-connection or roots in an ethnonational community

Reactive identity (ethnicity)

-Contrary to predictions by the assimilation theory, US-born children of immigrants may form a greater sense of identification with one's ethnic group than the foreign-born -This ethnic identity is called reactive ethnicity, for it was forged involuntarily by the negative experiences associated with one's perceived gorp origin in the host society -Yet, earlier in US history, among the foreign-born native prejudice against their ethnic/racial traits has helped create ethnic consciousness among the largely apolitical white Europeans

Some immigrants did not want to become incorporated. Why?

-Immigrants who remain sojourners are those who view their migration as temporary and instrumental (i.e. to save enough money to buy land in their homeland villages). Their ultimate goal is to return to their homeland villages

What are factors influencing immigrants' levels and types of transnational political engagement?

-Immigrants' own commitment to stay or return -immigrants' own level of skills and resources -Length (in years) of settlement and immigration generation -Degrees of development and openness in both sending and receiving societies -Relationships between sending and receiving states

Diaspora

-It typically refers to both people who live inside of the homeland (expatriates) and the transnational communities they occupy -People in the diaspora are connected by the common experience of migration, or collective memories of the homeland, and a shared sense of kinship. They maintain continuing ties to the homeland and their group consciousness does not subside over time -Since the 1990's, many countries have established wide-ranging policies and institutions aiming to promote relations with diasporas and to incorporate diaspora populations into a variety of domains

How can a political candidate win the Latino vote? Why did Latinos vote for Sanders? How can Biden win over Latinos?

In the 2020 Democratic primaries, Sanders won 53% of the Latino vote in Nevada caucuses. He won 49% in CA, 39% in TX, and 36% of the Latino vote across 11-states on Super Tuesday when Sanders enjoyed 11-13 points advantage over Biden. -However, Sanders voted against an immigration overhaul bill in 2007. His praise of socialist governments in Latin America risks alienating not only Cuban Americans but also Venezuelans, Colombians and Nicaraguans. -Sanders' personal story as the son of a Polish immigrant who came to America without any money or knowledge of the English language. -Although Sanders won the youngest Latino voters, the analysis found, his support declined steadily among older generations. -Many young Latino supporters say they are drawn to his promise of Medicare for All and free college tuition. But another major part of his appeal is his ambitious immigration platform. -Sanders has vowed to reverse all of Trump's executive actions on immigration on "day one", including ending his "zerotolerance" policies and restoring the DACA program for young undocumented people Trump's administration cancelled. -He has also promised to place a moratorium on deportations until further review, end raids by Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) and pass comprehensive immigration reform with a pathway to citizenship for some of the nearly 11 million undocumented immigrants in the US. -Both in 2008 and 2016, Latinos came together to provide a critical mass of support for Sen. Hilary Clinton. -In the campaign for 2020, Latino voters have not rallied around one of their own as a candidate Juan Castro, who failed to crack the top tier even in heavily Latino states such California and Nevada. -Biden apologized for the Obama deportations in an interview with Univision of some 3 million undocumented immigrants. -Biden won the endorsement from the chairman of the Congressional Hispanic Caucus.

How can nationals abroad impact sending countries or homeland politics?

-Making financial contributions to political campaigns, either to sustain or to overturn the ruling government -Making phone calls to friends and relatives to lobby support for a certain candidate in the homeland -Signing online petitions to show support for a policy position involving the homeland government -Creating philanthropic or political action committees for a political issue -Sending remittances back home for infrastructure building -Making direct foreign investments: wartime or disaster relief efforts

Williamson's theory of municipal response to immigrant incorporation

-Municipal responses to immigration may depend on who local officials perceive as immigrants. If they make frames of immigrants as deserving protection as clients of federally mandated services and contributors to the local economy, then they are likely to respond with more friendly practices of accommodation -On the other hand, referring to immigrants as outsiders, dependents, and "illegal aliens" are likely to respond with restrictive or discriminatory practices

Do political parties have an interest in incorporating immigrants? Under what conditions will parties welcome new (immigrant) voters in the present day?

-Neither party wants to incorporate new immigrant groups; today, parties do not have consistent strategies/programs that bring immigrants into politics -Parties calculate the political risks of immigrant incorporation -Party organizations will only reach out to potential new voters when they help that party win elections, and without losing votes from established members -Non-native English speaking immigrants of color and refugees from non-Christian, Muslim countries are considered unknown and risky to parties. The conditions are: 1. Parties are in a competitive situation (need swing votes) 2. Immigrant groups become visible to the parties- either by the size/growth or by community elite efforts to gain access (too big to miss) 3. Perceived sympathy of immigrant groups to party philosophy (bloc vote potential) 4. potential benefits of incorporating outweighs potential costs of losing core members

Is immigrant transnationalism a new phenomenon?

-No, but immigrants' transborder activities have become significantly more common than before due to innovations in transportation and communication technologies which facilitate international travel and permit instant and constant exchange of information and ideas

Can political parties be expected to incorporate new immigrants? Why or why not? What are the role of urban party organizations ("machines")?

-Not really. The mobilization of likely voters by political parties has resulted in a deprivation of an important stream of political information and other resources of new and low propensity voters. -However, parties may be more motivated to engage in new immigrants when they need, "to expand their base, head off an electoral threat, or increase the size and strength of their coalition." (18). -Through the offering of public education, citizenship, voter training programs, and GOTV drives, urban party organizations ("machines") served as intermediaries between immigrants and the political system in the early 20th century.

Difference between long-distance nationalism and transnationalism

-Politically active immigrants who remain loyal to their country of origin and are interested only in their country political affairs are called nationalists -Their practice of political activism from afar and oriented towards the country of origin is called long-distance nationalism -Their activities are trans-border, not transnational, in nature, for they only invoke the country of origin (i.e. sending money)

What are some factors influencing subnational policy activism targeting immigrants?

-Rapid demographic change -Perceived overcrowding due to Latino and undocumented immigration -Perceived economic stress and wage depression -Perceived language and cultural threats -Nationalism anti-immigrant rhetoric -Conservative shift in partisanship of suburban/rural residents

What is tectonic incorporation? How does it describe the incorporation of undocumented youth such as described in Silver (2018)?

-The process for undocumented immigrant youth to seek basic incorporation (ex: getting affordable higher education, driving privileges, jobs, income, etc. if not legal status) in a context of constantly shifting and often contradicting policies at local, institutional, state, and federal levels -Both anti- and pro- immigration elements in this context are tectonically interacting with each other to create a state of instability and constant fear and need for readjustment for not only the 1.5 generation youth but also their second generation -The US-born, 2nd gen youth did not face the same barriers to advancement as their undocumented peers -However, they frequently faced assumptions of foreign birth and illegality as a result of racial profiling and affinity to the unauthorized youth

Are political parties in decline or opting out in the business of immigrant incorporation in the present day? What are the role of nonparty groups?

-Today, parties are no longer the engines for incorporating nonimmigrants into the system. -Reasons for the "decline" of parties include: loss of patronage, jobs, rise of candidate-centered campaigns, institutionalization of state/local welfare systems, presence of nonprofit service providers, and lack of party identification by new immigrants of color -Parties have now shifted their focus to supporting candidates with services/funds for their campaigns -Both parties also played active roles in legislating immigration policies at both national and state levels in order to appeal to their base -Religious groups, ethnic associations, and other voluntary and nonprofit organizations have continued to facilitate political/social incorporation of the foreign-born -They offer citizenship classes, voter education programs, voter registration drives, get-out-the-vote drives, (absentee) ballot-harvesting, and other immigrant services (ESL classes, legal education) that may not be political in nature -Historically, labor unions have played an active role in supporting anti-immigrant legislation in order to protect the jobs of natives

Do parties want to incorporate immigrants?

-Unlike before, today's parties do not have consistent strategies or programs to bring new immigrants into politics -Neither are parties eager to incorporate any new immigrant groups -Parties calculate the political risks of immigrant incorporation -Party organizations will only reach out to potential new voters when the latter are likely to help the party win elections, and without costing votes of established members -Non-native English speaking immigrants of color, and especially refugees from non-Christian, Muslim countries, are considered unknown and risky quantities by parties.

What is the 2006 wave of the immigrant rights movement? How was it triggered and with what political consequences?

-Unprecedented mass mobilization of Latinos—legal and illegal immigrants and the US born—and non-Latinos in a coordinated wave of nationwide protests between March and May in 2006. -It was triggered by the passage of H.R. 4437, which threatened to raise penalties for illegal immigration and classify undocumented immigrants and anyone who helped them enter or remain in the US as felons. In addition, it would significantly enhance border control and interior immigration enforcement measures. -It stopped the Senate from passing a similar bill. The protest coalition helped elect President Obama in Nov. 2008 -Seen as a historic turning point in Latino politics regarding the political influence of immigrant civic participation, esp. by the undocumented and other working-class immigrant workers. -Businesses were stopped on May 1, 2006, when in "A Day Without Immigrants" Latino janitors, nannies, gardeners, restaurant workers, and other service workers took the streets and joined likely the largest civil rights actions in US history.

Why do countries of origin engage migrants and diasporas?

-Utilitarian explanations see diasporas as sources of material power such as remittances and direct investments -Identity-based explanations see diasporas as sources of symbolic power. Examples include language schools, transnational media, homeland visits, and commemorative events -Governance approach examines state-sending engagement with diasporas through bilateral treaties and cooperation with international organizations -Socio-spatial approach considers how actors within and beyond sending states engage migrant and diaspora groups abroad for partisan and self-preservation reasons

What is transnationalism, according to Tsuda (2012)? How is it different from long-distance nationalism and trans-border engagement? What are the four types of transnational engagements?

-an alternative to the immigrant assimilation/incorporation paradigm -phenomenon where immigrants do not sever their ties to the homeland or sending society when they simultaneously seek incorporation into the host or receiving society -To maintain dual engagement with both the sending and receiving societies is an essential component -To be truly transnational, "immigrants" transborder practices "must have simultaneous, bi-directional impact on both the sending and receiving nation-states," (633-634). -In this sense, to become assimilated/ incorporated (into the receiving state) and to maintain transborder engagement (with the sending state) are the same, interrelated transnational space -The two processes are not necessarily incompatible with one another The four types of engagements are: 1. Zero-sum relationship: increased immigrant engagement in one society reduces or discourages participation in the other 2. Co-existing relationship: increased immigrant engagement in one society has no real systematic relationship to (or does not counteract) engagement in the other 3. Positively reinforcing: increasing immigration engagement in one society simultaneously encourages or enables increased engagement with the other 4. Negatively reinforcing: decreased immigrant engagement with one society causes disengagement with the other

Program for Mexican Communities Abroad (PCME)

-established in 1990 to strengthen ties to Mexicans abroad

Institute of Mexicans Abroad (IME)

-formed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1990 to promote the involvement of Mexican communities abroad and provide information and services in the areas of health, education, culture, and community organizations -IME helped organize the election of Mexicans abroad to serve on its Consultative Council

Remittances

-money or goods that migrants send back to family and friends in origin countries -they do not need to be about money

Under what conditions will parties welcome new (immigrant) groups in the present day?

1. Parties are in a competitive situation (need swing votes) 2. Immigrant groups become visible to the parties- either by the size/growth or by community elite efforts to gain access (too big to miss) 3. Perceived sympathy of immigrant groups to party philosophy (bloc vote potential) 4. Perceived benefits of incorporating immigrants outweigh potential costs to core co-participants

rule of jus soli

According to this principle, citizenship of a person is determined by the place where a person was born.

What explains the rise and fall of the immigrant rights movement of 2006? Why is the formation of group consciousness and linked fate important to Latino political mobilization?

For movement participants, H.R. 4437 was a legislative threat that derived from a single source and was looming, highly visible, and broad in scope. 1. H.R. 4437 was a single-source threat with a broad scope that would have "radically altered the daily lives, relations, and routine functions of several sectors of society that interact with immigrant communities," particularly Latinos whether undocumented or not (Zepeda-Millan 2017, p. 10). 2. Sluggishness in the legislative process created ample time for building a broad coalition across a diverse spectrum of organizations and groups. 3. Widespread ethnic media coverage made the threat highly visible for awareness-raising and political mobilization. -Visibility can be double-edged sword. Media reporting of the dramatic and widespread rise of federal and local enforcement measures can frighten immigrants and contributed to the fall or demobilization of the movement. -Anti-immigrant measures such as raids, deportations, and nativist state/local bills are dispersed threats that come from multiple sources and are narrow in impact.

1.5 generation

Individuals who immigrated to the United States as a child or an adolescent

United States vs. Wong Kim Ark (1898)

Supreme Court ruling that determined the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution granted birthright citizenship to all persons born in the United States regardless of race or nationality

immigrant bureaucratic incorporation

The idea that local bureaucrats (and some elected officials) would be involved in serving immigrants (by providing services or acting as advocates) before there is political pressure to do so

CA SB54 of 2017

also known as the California Values Act that prevents local law and state agencies from using their resources on behalf of federal immigration enforcement agencies

rule of jus sanguinus

is a principle of nationality law by which citizenship is determined or acquired by the nationality or ethnicity of one or both parents.