PS 348 Exam 2 Study Guide

1) What are the responsibilities of the European Central Bank?

The European Central Bank (ECB) is the central bank of the European Union (EU) and is responsible for the formulation and implementation of monetary policy in the member states that have adopted the euro as their currency. This means that the ECB is responsible for managing the money supply and setting interest rates in the euro area, with the goal of achieving price stability and supporting the overall objectives of the EU.

1) What is a "preliminary ruling" by the Court of Justice of the European Union and what is an "infringement case" on which the Court is asked to rule?

A "preliminary ruling" by the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) is a decision issued by the court on the interpretation or the application of EU law. A preliminary ruling is issued at the request of a national court or tribunal, and it is binding on the court or tribunal that made the request. A preliminary ruling is a key mechanism for the interpretation and the application of EU law, and it plays a crucial role in ensuring the consistency and the uniformity of EU law across the EU. A preliminary ruling is issued in the context of a specific case that is pending before a national court or tribunal, and it is issued to provide guidance and assistance to the court or tribunal on the interpretation or the application of EU law. An "infringement case" on which the Court of Justice of the EU is asked to rule is a case in which the European Commission initiates proceedings against a member-state of the EU for failure to comply with its obligations under EU law. An infringement case is a formal procedure that is initiated by the European Commission, and it is aimed at ensuring the respect and the enforcement of EU law. An infringement case may be initiated by the European Commission if it has reasonable grounds to believe that a member-state of the EU has breached from its obligations under EU law. The European Commission will then send a letter of formal notice to the member-state concerned, requesting it to submit its observations on the allegations made by the commission. If the member-state does not comply with its obligations, the European Commission may then decide to refer the case to the Court of Justice of the EU. The Court of Justice of the EU will then be asked to rule on the infringement case, and it will issue a decision on the merits of the case. The Court of Justice of the EU may impose fines and penalties on the member-state concerned, and it may order the member-state to take specific measures to comply with its obligations under EU law. An infringement case is a key mechanism for the enforcement of EU law, and it is an essential tool for the protection of the rights and the interests of the EU and its citizens.

What is a constitution?

A constitution is a set of fundamental laws and principles that establish the rules and principles for the operation of a political system. A constitution typically defines the powers and responsibilities of the different branches of government, the rights and duties of citizens, and the relationship between the government and the people. A constitution is often considered to be the supreme law of the land, and it is the basis for all other laws and policies in a country. In many countries, the constitution is considered to be a living document that can be amended or revised over time to reflect changing political, social, and economic conditions. Constitutions are an important feature of many political systems and are considered to be crucial for protecting the rule of law, individual rights and freedoms, and the democratic principles of a country.

What is a constructive vote of no confidence? Which countries have it?

A constructive vote of no confidence is a type of vote of no confidence in which the parliament can express its dissatisfaction with the government, but also propose an alternative candidate to lead the government. This type of vote allows the parliament to remove the current government from power without triggering new elections. Instead, the proposed candidate becomes the new head of government and forms a new government.

What is minority government?

A minority government is a type of government that is formed when a political party or coalition of parties does not have a majority of seats in the parliament. In a minority government, the ruling party or coalition does not have enough seats in the parliament to pass legislation on its own and must rely on the support of other parties in order to pass laws and implement policies. Minority governments are typically less stable than majority governments, as the ruling party or coalition must constantly negotiate with other parties in order to pass legislation and avoid being voted out of office. Minority governments are common in parliamentary systems where the voting system encourages the formation of multiple political parties.

What is a party/ideological family?

A party or ideological family is a group of political parties that share a similar ideology or set of beliefs and values. Political parties within an ideological family will often have similar policy positions and may cooperate and coordinate with one another in order to advance their shared goals and principles. Ideological families can be broad and inclusive, encompassing parties with a wide range of beliefs, or they can be more narrowly focused, representing a specific ideology or set of ideas. Examples of ideological families in Western Europe include the center-right European People's Party (EPP) and the center-left Party of European Socialists (PES).

What is a political cleavage, and which are the main political cleavages in Western Europe?

A political cleavage is a fundamental divide or distinction within a society or political system that shapes political attitudes and behavior. Political cleavages often reflect differences in social, economic, or cultural factors, such as class, religion, or ethnicity, and can have a significant impact on the formation and operation of political parties and the outcome of elections. Some of the main political cleavages in Western Europe include:Left-right divide: This cleavage is based on economic ideologies and reflects the differences between political parties that advocate for more government intervention in the economy (left-wing parties) and those that support a more laissez-faire approach (right-wing parties).Religious divide: This cleavage is based on religious beliefs and can be seen in the differences between parties that are affiliated with religious institutions or that advocate for a greater role for religion in public life (religious parties) and those that are secular or that support the separation of church and state (secular parties).Nationalist-federalist divide: This cleavage is based on attitudes towards national sovereignty and regional autonomy, and can be seen in the differences between parties that support greater autonomy or independence for regions within a country (regionalist or nationalist parties) and those that support a strong central government and a federal system of governance (federalist parties).

What is the difference between a unicameral and a bicameral legislature? Which of the two is more common in Western Europe?

A unicameral legislature is a parliamentary system in which there is only one chamber or house of parliament. A bicameral legislature is a parliamentary system in which there are two chambers or houses of parliament. Bicameral legislatures are more common in Western Europe, where many countries have a lower house (usually called the House of Commons or the Chamber of Deputies) and an upper house (usually called the Senate or the House of Lords). These two houses often have different powers and responsibilities, with the lower house typically having more influence over legislation and the budget.

What are the four phases of the French Fifth Republic, according to the article by Grossman and Sauger?

According to Grossman and Sauger, the four phases of the French Fifth Republic are: The "De Gaulle Era" (1958-1969), characterized by strong presidential leadership and a focus on national unity and modernization. The "Pompidou and Giscard d'Estaing Years" (1969-1981), marked by economic growth and social modernisation, but also growing tensions over issues such as the rights of immigrants and minorities. The "Mitterrand Era" (1981-1995), which saw a shift towards a more social democratic orientation, with increased state intervention in the economy and a focus on reducing inequalities. The "Chirac and Sarkozy Years" (1995-2012), characterized by a return to more conservative policies and a focus on globalization, market liberalization, and European integration.

1) What is the difference between a federal union and a federal state, according to Fabbrini? How is this distinction relevant to a potential future transformation of the EU to a parliamentary government?

According to Sergio Fabbrini, the difference between a federal union and a federal state is a crucial distinction, which has important implications for a potential future transformation of the European Union (EU) to a parliamentary government. Fabbrini argues that the EU is a federal union, but not a federal state, and that this distinction is relevant to a potential future transformation of the EU to a parliamentary government. Fabbrini defines a federal union as a political system that is composed of multiple levels of governance and multiple actors and institutions, and that combines elements of both intergovernmental and supranational governance. A federal union is characterized by a high degree of institutional and political diversity, and it is based on the principles of subsidiarity, proportionality, and solidarity. A federal union is a flexible and adaptive system of governance, which is able to accommodate the needs and the interests of its member-states and its citizens. Fabbrini defines a federal state as a political system that is composed of a single and unified system of government, and that is based on the principles of sovereignty, independence, and legitimacy. A federal state is characterized by a clear and coherent system of representation, accountability, and responsibility, and it is able to exercise the powers and the functions of a state. A federal state is a stable and consolidated system of governance, which is able to protect the rights and the interests of its citizens and its institutions. According to Fabbrini, the EU is a federal union, but not a federal state, because the EU is not a single and unified system of government, and because it does not have the necessary sovereignty, independence, and legitimacy to exercise the powers and the functions of a state. The EU is a complex and diverse political system, which is composed of multiple levels of governance and multiple actors and institutions, and which combines elements of both intergovernmental and supranational governance. The EU is based on the principles of subsidiarity, proportionality, and solidarity, and it is a flexible and adaptive system of governance. Overall, Fabbrini argues that the EU is a federal union, but not a federal state, and that this distinction is relevant to a potential future transformation of the EU to a parliamentary government. Fabbrini argues that the EU is not a federal state, because it does not have the necessary institutional and political conditions to support a parliamentary system of government, and because it requires a different and more flexible approach to governance and democracy.

How does Yves Surel define exclusionary populism and catch-all populism?

According to Surel, exclusionary populism is a type of populism that seeks to exclude certain groups or individuals from the political process, often on the basis of their race, ethnicity, religion, or other factors. Catch-all populism, on the other hand, is a type of populism that seeks to appeal to a broad cross-section of the electorate by taking positions on a wide range of issues and presenting itself as the party that can represent the interests of the greatest number of people.

1) What is their main argument about the persistence of Euroskepticism?

According to Usherwood and Startin, Euroskepticism can be found among a range of actors inside EU countries, including political parties, movements, and individual citizens. The authors argue that Euroskepticism is a complex and dynamic phenomenon, and that it reflects the diversity of opinions and perspectives on the EU and its future. They also argue that Euroskepticism can be found among a range of political parties and movements across Europe, and that it can take various forms, such as right-wing populism, left-wing nationalism, and libertarianism. Overall, Euroskepticism is a pervasive and persistent phenomenon, and it is likely to continue to shape the debate and the future of the EU.

What is an electoral threshold and what is its effect on election outcomes?

An electoral threshold is the minimum percentage of votes that a political party or candidate must receive in order to be awarded seats in a legislature or other decision-making body. This is intended to ensure that parties and candidates with little or no support do not gain representation, but it can also have the effect of excluding smaller parties from the political process and limiting the diversity of views represented in the legislature.

What is consensual government? Examples from Western Europe?

Consensual government is a system of governance in which decision-making power is distributed among multiple parties or factions, and agreements must be reached through negotiation and compromise.

Is constitutional review present in code law and common law systems

Both code law systems and common law systems may include a system of constitutional review, although the specific details of how this process is carried out can vary depending on the country or legal system in question. In code law systems, constitutional review is often a formal and structured process, with specific procedures and rules for how the constitutionality of a law or government action is evaluated. In common law systems, constitutional review may be less formal and may be carried out on a case-by-case basis, with the courts interpreting and applying the constitution as needed in specific cases. However, in both types of systems, the power of constitutional review gives the courts an important role in protecting the rule of law and ensuring that the government and other branches of government operate within the bounds of the constitution.

What is the difference between a catch-all and a single-issue party? Ex: in W Europe

Catch-all parties and single-issue parties are two different types of political parties that can be found in many countries, including in Western Europe. Catch-all parties are parties that try to appeal to a broad cross-section of the electorate by taking positions on a wide range of issues and presenting themselves as the party that can represent the interests of the greatest number of people. Single-issue parties, on the other hand, focus on a specific issue or set of issues and are often more ideological in nature. Catch-all parties: Examples of catch-all parties in Western Europe include the Christian Democratic Union in Germany and the Labour Party in the United Kingdom. Single-issue parties: Examples of single-issue parties in Western Europe include the Green Party, which focuses on environmental issues, and the Pirate Party, which focuses on digital rights and internet freedom.

Which are the main party/ideological families in Western Europe? What are the main positions of each ideological family? Be prepared to give examples of parties from different ideological families.

Center-left parties: These parties generally advocate for a mixed economy, with a balance of private enterprise and government intervention, and a focus on social justice and equality. Examples of center-left parties in Western Europe include the Social Democratic Party in Germany and the Labour Party in the United Kingdom. Center-right parties: These parties generally support a market-based economy, with a focus on individual freedom and responsibility, and may also support traditional values and social conservatism. Examples of center-right parties in Western Europe include the Christian Democratic Union in Germany and the Conservative Party in the United Kingdom. Left-wing parties: These parties advocate for more government intervention in the economy and for greater social and economic equality. Examples of left-wing parties in Western Europe include the Left Party in Germany and the Green Party in the United Kingdom. Right-wing parties: These parties support a limited role for government in the economy and may also advocate for traditional values and social conservatism. Examples of right-wing parties in Western Europe include the Alternative for Germany (AfD) and the UK Independence Party (UKIP). Liberal parties: These parties support individual liberty and personal freedom, and may also advocate for a market-based economy and limited government intervention. Examples of liberal parties in Western Europe include the Free Democratic Party in Germany and the Liberal Democrats in the United Kingdom. Green parties: These parties focus on environmental issues and may also support social justice and other progressive causes. Examples of green parties in Western Europe include the German Green Party and the Green Party of England and Wales.

What is constitutional review?

Constitutional review is a process by which the constitutionality of a law or government action is evaluated by a court or other judicial body. This process is similar to judicial review, but it is more focused on the specific provisions of the constitution and the extent to which a law or action is in compliance with the constitution. In countries with a system of constitutional review, the courts or other judicial bodies are responsible for interpreting the constitution and determining whether a law or government action is consistent with the constitution. This power gives the courts an important role in ensuring that the government and other branches of government operate within the bounds of the constitution and protects the rights and freedoms of individuals. Like judicial review, constitutional review is a key feature of many legal systems, including those that are based on the code law tradition and those that have been influenced by the code law tradition.

What is de-alignment/decoupling?

De-alignment (also known as decoupling) is a term used in political science to describe a shift in the political attitudes and behavior of voters. It refers to a situation in which voters become less attached to political parties and less likely to consistently support the same party over time. This can be the result of a number of factors, including changes in the political landscape, disillusionment with the political system, or a decline in the relevance or credibility of political parties. De-alignment can lead to increased volatility in election results and can make it more difficult for political parties to establish and maintain a stable base of support.

What are the main functions of a constitution?

Defining the powers and responsibilities of the different branches of government, such as the executive, legislative, and judicial branches Establishing the rights and duties of citizens, such as the right to vote, the freedom of speech, and the protection from arbitrary detention Providing a framework for the creation and operation of the institutions of government, such as the presidency, the parliament, and the courts Establishing the rules for the amendment or revision of the constitution, to ensure that it can adapt to changing political, social, and economic conditions Protecting the rule of law and the democratic principles of the country, such as the separation of powers, the rule of law, and the protection of individual rights and freedoms Providing a basis for the interpretation and application of the law, and serving as a reference point for legal decisions and disputes.

What changes occurred to the French presidency during each one of these phases?

During the "De Gaulle Era" (1958-1969), the French presidency became more powerful and influential, with Charles de Gaulle exercising strong leadership and centralizing decision-making within the executive branch. During the "Pompidou and Giscard d'Estaing Years" (1969-1981), the French presidency continued to be a strong and influential institution, but there was a greater emphasis on consensus-building and consultation with other branches of government and political parties. During the "Mitterrand Era" (1981-1995), the French presidency became more focused on social and economic issues, with a greater emphasis on state intervention and redistribution of wealth. During the "Chirac and Sarkozy Years" (1995-2012), the French presidency returned to more conservative policies, with a focus on market liberalization and European integration. However, the powers and influence of the presidency were somewhat constrained by the rise of other political actors and institutions, such as the European Union and regional governments.

What does Duverger's law say about the relationship between electoral systems and party systems?

Duverger's law is a political science principle that states that the type of electoral system in place has a significant impact on the number and type of political parties that emerge in a given country. Specifically, the law states that plurality voting systems (also known as first-past-the-post systems) tend to produce two dominant political parties, while proportional representation systems tend to produce a larger number of political parties with more diverse ideologies. This is because plurality systems tend to favor the formation of two dominant parties that can capture a majority of the votes, while proportional systems allow for more diverse parties to gain representation in proportion to their share of the vote.

1) What are some of the current challenges facing the EU?

Economic and monetary union: The economic and monetary union (EMU) is one of the key achievements of the EU, but it has faced a number of challenges in recent years. The EMU is based on the shared use of the euro as a common currency, and it involves the coordination of monetary and fiscal policies among the member-states of the EU. However, the global financial crisis of 2008-2009 revealed some of the weaknesses of the EMU, such as the lack of a common fiscal policy and the lack of a mechanism to deal with sovereign debt crises. These challenges have led to calls for a deeper and more integrated EMU, but they have also raised concerns about the loss of national sovereignty and the potential risks to the stability of the euro. Brexit: The United Kingdom (UK) voted to leave the EU in a referendum in June 2016, and this process is known as Brexit. The UK is the first country to leave the EU, and the negotiations over the terms of its withdrawal have been complex and contentious. The main issues at stake in the Brexit negotiations include the rights of EU citizens living in the UK, the future relationship between the UK and the EU, and the status of the UK's contributions to the EU budget. The Brexit process has raised concerns about the potential impact on the UK economy and on the political stability of the UK, and it has also raised questions about the future of the EU and its ability to respond to the challenges of the 21st century. Immigration: Immigration has been a contentious issue in the EU for many years, and it has become even more so in recent times. The large influx of refugees and migrants from the Middle East and North Africa has put pressure on the EU's migration and asylum policies, and it has led to a rise in anti-immigrant sentiment among some EU citizens. This has led to calls for stricter controls on immigration, and it has also raised concerns about the EU's commitment to the principles of free movement and solidarity. The immigration challenge has also highlighted the need for a more effective and coordinated approach to migration and asylum policies at the EU level, in order to address the underlying causes of the migration crisis and to ensure the protection of the rights of refugees and migrants. Security and defense: The security and defense of the EU has become a more pressing concern in recent times, due to the rise of terrorism and the increasing assertiveness of Russia. The terrorist attacks in Paris in 2015 and in Brussels in 2016 demonstrated the need for better coordination among the member-states of the EU in the fight against terrorism. The situation in Ukraine and the annexation of Crimea by Russia have also raised questions about the EU's ability to respond to external threats and to defend its interests and values. These challenges have led to calls for the EU to

1) What are the main accomplishments of the EU?

Economic and political integration: The EU has facilitated the process of economic and political integration among its member-states, and it has helped to create a single market for goods, services, capital, and people. This has brought economic benefits to the member-states of the EU, and it has facilitated the creation of a more dynamic and competitive economy. The EU has also helped to promote cooperation and dialogue among its member-states, and it has facilitated the resolution of conflicts and disputes. The euro: The euro is the common currency of the EU, and it is used by 19 of its member-states. The introduction of the euro has brought economic benefits to the member-states of the EU, and it has facilitated the creation of a more integrated and stable monetary system. The euro has also enhanced the economic and political power of the EU, and it has helped to promote the growth and competitiveness of the European economy. Enlargement: The EU has undergone several rounds of enlargement over the years, and this has allowed for the admission of new member-states into the union. Enlargement has expanded the scope of the EU to include a broader range of countries and regions, and it has helped to promote peace and stability in Europe. Enlargement has also enhanced the economic and political power of the EU, and it has facilitated the expansion of the European Single Market, which has brought economic benefits to the member-states of the EU. Common foreign and security policy: The EU has developed a common foreign and security policy, which aims to promote the interests and values of the EU on the global stage. This has allowed for the coordination of the foreign and security policies of the member-states of the EU, and it has facilitated the development of a more effective and coherent approach to global challenges. The EU has also played a significant role in the promotion of peace and stability in Europe and around the world, and it has helped to resolve conflicts and disputes through dialogue and cooperation. Environmental protection: The EU has adopted a number of policies and initiatives to protect the environment, and it has helped to reduce pollution and to promote sustainable development. The EU has played a key role in the fight against climate change, and it has adopted ambitious targets for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The EU has also introduced a number of environmental regulations and standards, which have helped to improve the quality of the air, water, and soil in Europe. Overall, the EU has made significant contributions to the protection of the environment, and it has helped to promote a more sustainable future for Europe and the world.

What is "European integration"?

European integration refers to the process of creating closer economic, political, and social ties among the countries of Europe. This process has been ongoing for many decades, and has been driven by a variety of factors, including the desire to promote peace and stability in Europe, the desire to create a more competitive and efficient economy, and the desire to enhance the influence and power of European countries on the global stage.

1) What is Euroskepticism, according to the article by Usherwood and Startin?

Euroskepticism refers to a range of attitudes and beliefs that are critical of the European Union (EU) and its policies. According to the article by Usherwood and Startin, Euroskepticism is characterized by a belief that the EU is a threat to national sovereignty and identity, and that it is a source of economic and social problems. Euroskeptics often oppose the further integration of the EU, and they advocate for the withdrawal of their country from the union. Euroskepticism can be found among a range of political parties and movements across Europe, and it can take various forms, such as right-wing populism, left-wing nationalism, and libertarianism. Overall, Euroskepticism is a complex and dynamic phenomenon, and it reflects the diversity of opinions and perspectives on the EU and its future.

What are the powers of the UK Supreme Court? Does it exercise constitutional review?

Hearing appeals from lower courts on civil and criminal matters Deciding on points of law that are of public importance Protecting the rule of law and the rights and freedoms of individuals Ensuring that the government and other branches of government operate within the bounds of the law Interpreting and applying the law, including the Human Rights Act and the European Convention on Human Rights. Yes, the UK Supreme Court exercises constitutional review as part of its responsibilities. The court has the power to review the constitutionality of laws and government actions and to declare them unlawful if they are found to violate the provisions of the law. This gives the court an important role in protecting the rule of law and ensuring that the government and other branches of government operate within the bounds of the law.

What are the powers of the German Constitutional Court? Does it exercise constitutional review?

Hearing cases involving the constitutionality of laws or government actions Interpreting the constitution and other legal provisions Protecting the fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals Reviewing the decisions of other courts to ensure compliance with the constitution Ensuring that the government and other branches of government operate within the bounds of the constitution Deciding on the constitutionality of treaties and other international agreements. Yes, the German Constitutional Court exercises constitutional review as part of its responsibilities. The court has the power to review the constitutionality of laws and government actions and to declare them unconstitutional if they are found to violate the provisions of the constitution. This gives the court an important role in protecting the rule of law and ensuring that the government and other branches of government operate within the bounds of the constitution.

Which chamber is typically more powerful in European bicameral legislatures? What are some exceptions?

In European bicameral legislatures, the lower chamber (House of Commons or Chamber of Deputies) is typically more powerful. This is because the lower chamber is often directly elected by the people and is therefore seen as having more democratic legitimacy. The lower chamber is also typically responsible for passing legislation and overseeing the budget, giving it significant influence over the policy-making process. There are some exceptions to this general rule. In some countries, such as Sweden and Denmark, the upper chamber (Senate or House of Lords) is more powerful, as it has the ability to veto or delay legislation passed by the lower chamber. In other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the two chambers are considered to be equally powerful, with both houses having an equal role in the legislative process.

What is the relationship between the executive and the legislature in parliamentary government and in semi-presidential government?

In a parliamentary system, the executive and the legislature are closely linked. The head of government, who is the leader of the executive branch, is chosen by the members of the parliament. This means that the executive is accountable to the legislature, and the government is expected to have the support of the majority of the parliament in order to remain in power. In a semi-presidential system, the relationship between the executive and the legislature is more complex. The president, who is a member of the executive branch, is elected directly by the people and has some executive powers. However, the head of government, who is also a member of the executive branch, is responsible for implementing policies and decisions. The head of government is accountable to the parliament, and the government is expected to have the support of the majority of the parliament in order to remain in power.

What are the main features of parliamentary and semi-presidential government?

In a parliamentary system, the head of government is a member of the legislature and is chosen by the members of the parliament. The parliament also has the power to remove the head of government from office through a vote of no confidence. In a semi-presidential system, there is both a head of government and a president. The president is elected directly by the people and has some executive powers, such as the ability to veto legislation. However, the head of government is responsible for implementing policies and decisions. Both parliamentary and semi-presidential systems have a system of checks and balances to prevent any one branch of government from gaining too much power.

How are the head of state and the head of government selected in parliamentary government?

In a parliamentary system, the head of state is typically a symbolic figure who represents the nation to the outside world. The head of state is usually chosen by the parliament or by a ceremonial process, such as a hereditary monarchy. The head of government, on the other hand, is the leader of the country's government and is responsible for implementing policies and decisions. In a parliamentary system, the head of government is typically chosen by the members of the parliament. This is typically done through a vote in which the members of the parliament choose the candidate who they believe is best suited to lead the government. Once the head of government is selected, they will choose a cabinet of high-level government officials to help them implement policies and decisions.

What is cohabitation in the context of semi-presidential government?

In a semi-presidential system, cohabitation is a situation in which the president and the head of government belong to different political parties. This can occur when the president is elected directly by the people and the head of government is chosen by the parliament. In a cohabitation situation, the president and the head of government may have different policy agendas and may be unable to agree on key decisions. This can lead to conflicts between the two branches of government and can make it difficult for the government to function effectively. Cohabitation is more likely to occur in semi-presidential systems where the president has significant powers, such as the ability to veto legislation.

How are they selected in semi-presidential government?

In a semi-presidential system, the head of state and the head of government are selected in different ways. The head of state, also known as the president, is typically elected directly by the people through a popular vote. The president serves a fixed term and has some executive powers, such as the ability to veto legislation. The head of government, on the other hand, is typically chosen by the president and is responsible for implementing policies and decisions. The head of government is accountable to the parliament and is expected to have the support of the majority of the parliament in order to remain in power. Once the head of government is selected, they will choose a cabinet of high-level government officials to help them implement policies and decisions.

What is majoritarian government? Examples in Western Europe?

Majoritarian government refers to a system of governance in which the majority party or coalition of parties in a legislative body has the power to make decisions on behalf of the entire population.

What is the principle of ministerial responsibility in parliamentary and semi-presidential government?

In parliamentary and semi-presidential systems, the principle of ministerial responsibility is the idea that individual members of the government, known as ministers, are responsible for the actions of their departments and are accountable to the parliament for those actions. This means that ministers must answer to the parliament for their department's policies and decisions, and can be held accountable for any failures or mistakes. The principle of ministerial responsibility is an important aspect of parliamentary and semi-presidential systems, as it helps to ensure that the government is accountable to the people and that individual ministers can be held accountable for their actions.

Which institution has the right of parliamentary initiative in parliamentary and semi-presidential government?

In parliamentary and semi-presidential systems, the right of parliamentary initiative is the power of the parliament to propose new laws and policies. This power is typically held by the members of the parliament, who can introduce bills and motions for consideration by the parliament. The parliament can also establish committees to study issues and propose legislation on specific topics. In some cases, the government may also have the right of parliamentary initiative, and may be able to propose legislation for consideration by the parliament. Overall, the right of parliamentary initiative is an important aspect of parliamentary and semi-presidential systems, as it allows the parliament to play a key role in the lawmaking process.

What is the function of the vote of confidence and of the vote of no confidence in parliamentary and semi-presidential systems?

In parliamentary and semi-presidential systems, the vote of confidence and the vote of no confidence are important tools for holding the government accountable to the parliament. A vote of confidence is a vote in which the members of the parliament express their support for the government and its policies. In a parliamentary system, a vote of confidence is typically held after a general election or after a change in government, and is used to determine whether the government has the support of the majority of the parliament. If the government loses a vote of confidence, it may be forced to resign and call for new elections.

1) Who is responsible for fiscal policy in the Economic and Monetary Union?

In the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), fiscal policy is the responsibility of the individual member states, in consultation with the European Commission and the European Council. Fiscal policy refers to the government's decisions regarding taxation and spending, and it plays a crucial role in shaping a country's economic performance and in achieving the goals of EMU.

1) Who is responsible for monetary policy in the Economic and Monetary Union?

In the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), monetary policy is the responsibility of the European Central Bank (ECB). Monetary policy refers to the management of a country's money supply and interest rates, and it plays a crucial role in achieving the goals of EMU, such as price stability and economic growth.

What is judicial review?

Judicial review is the power of a court to review and interpret the laws and constitution of a country, and to determine their constitutionality and legality. In countries with a system of judicial review, the courts have the authority to declare a law or government action unconstitutional or illegal if it is found to violate the provisions of the constitution or other higher laws. This power gives the courts an important role in protecting the rule of law and ensuring that the government and other branches of government operate within the bounds of the law. Judicial review is a key feature of many legal systems, including those that are based on the common law tradition and those that have been influenced by the common law tradition.

What is the difference between majoritarian and consensual legislatures?

Majoritarian legislatures are parliamentary systems in which the majority party or coalition has a strong and dominant position, and can pass legislation with relatively little opposition or consensus-building. Consensual legislatures, on the other hand, are parliamentary systems in which parties and politicians are more likely to work together to reach consensus and compromise on key issues. Majoritarian legislatures are more common in countries with a two-party system, where one party usually has a clear majority in parliament. These systems tend to be more stable and efficient, as the majority party can pass legislation without needing to negotiate with other parties. However, they can also be less inclusive and more polarizing, as the minority party is often marginalized and excluded from decision-making. Consensual legislatures, on the other hand, are more common in countries with a multiparty system, where no single party has a clear majority. These systems tend to be more inclusive and consensus-oriented, as parties and politicians are more likely to work together to find common ground and reach agreements on legislation. However, they can also be less efficient and more unpredictable, as it can be more difficult to pass legislation without broad support from multiple parties.

1) What is the difference between net beneficiary and net contributor countries in the EU?

Net beneficiary countries are those that receive more in funding from the European Union (EU) budget than they contribute, while net contributor countries are those that contribute more to the EU budget than they receive. The distribution of funds from the EU budget is based on a number of factors, including the size of a country's economy, the level of development in its regions, and the specific needs and challenges faced by its citizens. As a result, some countries, such as those with less developed regions or higher levels of unemployment, may receive more in funding from the EU budget than they contribute, while other countries, such as those with strong economies and low levels of unemployment, may contribute more to the EU budget than they receive. The concept of net beneficiaries and net contributors is important because it affects the distribution of funds from the EU budget and can sometimes be a source of tension between member states. Some net contributor countries have argued that they should not have to pay for the development of other countries, while net beneficiary countries have argued that they need the funding to address their specific challenges and to catch up with more developed regions of the EU.

What are the main functions of political parties?

Nominating and supporting candidates for public office Developing and promoting party platforms and policy positions Mobilizing voters and encouraging participation in the political process Organizing and coordinating political campaigns Providing a way for like-minded individuals to come together and advocate for their shared interests and beliefs Facilitating communication and dialogue between the government and the public Playing a role in the formation and operation of governments, by providing a basis for coalitions and alliances among parties.

What is party discipline and what is its effect on law-making and on the control of the executive in European legislatures?

Party discipline is the practice of party members voting according to the party line on parliamentary votes. This means that members of a political party are expected to support the party's position on legislation, rather than voting according to their own beliefs or the wishes of their constituents. Party discipline has several effects on law-making and the control of the executive in European legislatures. First, it helps to maintain party unity and cohesion, as party members are more likely to support each other on key votes. This can make it easier for a party to pass its agenda and achieve its goals. Second, party discipline can also make it easier for the government to control the legislative process, as it ensures that the majority party has a solid block of votes on key issues. This can make it more difficult for opposition parties to block legislation or challenge the government's agenda. Third, party discipline can also limit the ability of individual legislators to represent the interests of their constituents, as they are expected to vote according to the party line. This can reduce the accountability of elected representatives and make it more difficult for constituents to hold their representatives accountable.

What is the connection between political cleavages and political parties?

Political cleavages and political parties are closely connected, as political parties often develop and organize themselves along the lines of the main cleavages in a society. Political parties that represent different sides of a cleavage will often have different policy positions and ideologies, and voters who feel strongly about a particular cleavage are more likely to support the party that aligns with their views on that issue. In this way, political cleavages can provide a basis for the formation and support of political parties, and can shape the political landscape and the outcome of elections. Try again

What is a priory constitutional review? Where is it practiced?

Priority constitutional review is a process by which the constitutionality of a law or government action is evaluated before it is enacted or implemented. In countries with a system of priority constitutional review, the courts or other judicial bodies have the power to review the constitutionality of a proposed law or action and to declare it unconstitutional before it becomes effective. This gives the courts an important role in protecting the rule of law and ensuring that the government and other branches of government do not violate the constitution. Priority constitutional review is practiced in a number of countries, including Germany, Belgium, and Italy, which have systems of code law and have been influenced by the code law tradition. In these countries, the courts have the power to review the constitutionality of a proposed law before it is enacted, and to declare it unconstitutional if it is found to violate the provisions of the constitution.

Does Sergio Fabbrini think that the EU can be transformed into a parliamentary system of government? Why does he think so?

Sergio Fabbrini does not think that the European Union (EU) can be transformed into a parliamentary system of government. In his book "Democratic Governance of the European Union," Fabbrini argues that the EU is not a federal state, and that it does not have the necessary institutional and political conditions to support a parliamentary system of government. According to Fabbrini, the EU is a unique and complex political system, which is composed of multiple levels of governance and multiple actors and institutions. The EU is a hybrid system, which combines elements of both intergovernmental and supranational governance, and it is characterized by a high degree of institutional and political diversity. Fabbrini argues that the EU does not have the necessary institutional and political conditions to support a parliamentary system of government, because the EU is not a federal state, and because it does not have a clear and coherent system of representation, accountability, and responsibility. The EU is not a federal state, because it does not have a single and unified system of government, and because it does not have a single and unified system of citizenship and identity. Furthermore, Fabbrini argues that the EU does not have the necessary institutional and political conditions to support a parliamentary system of government, because the EU is not a state, and because it does not have the necessary legitimacy and authority to exercise the powers and the functions of a state. The EU is not a state, because it does not have the necessary sovereignty, independence, and legitimacy to exercise the powers and the functions of a state. Overall, Sergio Fabbrini does not think that the EU can be transformed into a parliamentary system of government, because the EU is not a federal state, and because it does not have the necessary institutional and political conditions to support a parliamentary system of government. Fabbrini argues that the EU is a unique and complex political system, which is characterized by a high degree of institutional and political diversity, and that it requires a different and more flexible approach to governance and democracy.

What is special about constitutional review in Switzerland?

Switzerland is unique in that it has a system of direct democracy, which allows citizens to have a direct say in the laws and policies of the country through the use of referendums and other mechanisms. This means that the power of constitutional review is not vested solely in the courts, but is also shared with the people of Switzerland. In Switzerland, the courts have the power to review the constitutionality of laws and government actions, but the people also have the power to challenge the constitutionality of a law through a popular initiative, which allows them to propose a new law or constitutional amendment and to collect signatures in support of it. If a popular initiative is successful, it can be put to a vote in a referendum, and if a majority of voters approve it, it becomes part of the constitution. This unique system of constitutional review gives the people of Switzerland an important role in shaping the laws and policies of the country.

What was the "Schuman plan," and what was its main outcome?

The "Schuman plan" was a proposal put forward by the French foreign minister, Robert Schuman, in 1950, which aimed to promote peace and stability in Europe by creating a common market for coal and steel, the two key raw materials needed for the production of weapons. The Schuman plan was an important step in the process of European integration, and it led to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952. The main outcome of the Schuman plan was the establishment of the ECSC, which was a supranational organization that brought together the coal and steel industries of six European countries: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. The ECSC was based on the principle of supranationalism, which means that the member-states ceded some of their national sovereignty in order to create a common market for coal and steel. This allowed for the free movement of these goods among the member-states, and it helped to promote cooperation and interdependence among the participating countries. The ECSC was seen as a major achievement, as it was the first supranational organization in Europe, and it helped to lay the foundations for further European integration. The success of the ECSC led to the signing of the Treaty of Rome in 1957, which established the European Economic Community (EEC), and it paved the way for the creation of the European Union (EU) in 1992. Overall, the main outcome of the Schuman plan was the establishment of the ECSC, which was a major step in the process of European integration.

Lech Garlicki also explains the "constitutional complaint procedure" and the "incidental review procedure." What does each procedure entail?

The "constitutional complaint procedure" and the "incidental review procedure" are two different ways in which individuals and organizations can challenge the constitutionality of a law or government action. These procedures are often used in countries with a system of constitutional review, where the courts have the power to review the constitutionality of laws and actions and to declare them unconstitutional if they are found to violate the provisions of the constitution. The "constitutional complaint procedure" is a formal process through which individuals and organizations can challenge the constitutionality of a law or government action. In countries with this procedure, individuals or organizations can file a constitutional complaint with the constitutional court, alleging that a law or action is unconstitutional and asking the court to review it. The court will then consider the complaint and decide whether to hear the case and decide on its constitutionality. If the court finds that the law or action is unconstitutional, it can declare it void and order the government to take corrective action. The "incidental review procedure" is a less formal way of challenging the constitutionality of a law or government action. In countries with this procedure, individuals or organizations can raise the issue of constitutionality before a lower court, either as part of a case that is being heard by the court or as a separate issue. If the lower court believes that the constitutionality of the law or action is in doubt, it can refer the issue to the constitutional court for review. The constitutional court will then decide on the constitutionality of the law or action, and its decision will be binding on the lower court and all other courts in the country.

What is the effect of each procedure on relations between different types of supreme courts?

The "constitutional complaint procedure" and the "incidental review procedure" can have different effects on the relations between different types of supreme courts, depending on the specific legal system and the way in which these procedures are implemented. In some legal systems, the "constitutional complaint procedure" may lead to closer cooperation between the traditional supreme court and the constitutional court, as the two courts work together to review constitutional complaints and decide on the constitutionality of laws and government actions. This can help to promote harmony and coordination between the two courts and can facilitate the consistent application of the constitution across the legal system. In other legal systems, the "incidental review procedure" may lead to greater independence and autonomy for the constitutional court, as the court is not dependent on receiving constitutional complaints in order to exercise its powers of constitutional review. This can give the constitutional court more flexibility and discretion in deciding when and how to review the constitutionality of laws and government actions, and can allow the court to take a more proactive role in protecting the rule of law and the rights and freedoms of individuals.

1) What were the recent reforms of the Common Agricultural Policy?

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has undergone several reforms in recent years, with the most recent reforms being agreed upon in 2013 and coming into effect in 2014. These reforms introduced several changes to the policy, including a shift towards a more environmentally-friendly and sustainable approach to agriculture, as well as an emphasis on the economic viability of the agricultural sector. One of the key changes introduced by the reforms was the partial decoupling of direct payments to farmers, which means that a portion of the payments will no longer be tied to the production of specific crops. This change is intended to encourage farmers to adopt more sustainable and environmentally-friendly practices, without negatively impacting their income. The reforms also introduced the concept of "greening," which requires farmers to implement certain environmental measures in order to receive direct payments. These measures include maintaining permanent grassland, establishing crop diversification, and implementing measures to reduce soil erosion and protect water quality.

1) What are the functions and responsibilities of the European Council, the Council of the EU, the European Commission, the European Parliament and the Court of Justice of the EU?

The European Council is the institution that brings together the heads of state or government of the member-states of the EU, along with the President of the European Council and the President of the European Commission. The European Council is responsible for providing political guidance and direction to the EU, and it is a key forum for the discussion and resolution of major issues facing the EU. The Council of the EU is the institution that brings together the ministers of the member-states of the EU, depending on the policy area under discussion. The Council of the EU is responsible for the adoption of EU laws and policies, and it is a key player in the legislative process of the EU. The European Commission is the institution that represents the interests of the EU as a whole, and it is composed of 28 Commissioners, one from each member-state of the EU. The European Commission is responsible for the proposal of EU laws and policies, and it is the guardian of the treaties of the EU. The European Parliament is the institution that represents the interests of the citizens of the EU, and it is composed of 705 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs), who are elected by the citizens of the EU. The European Parliament is responsible for the co-decision of EU laws and policies, and it is a key player in the democratic process of the EU. The Court of Justice of the EU is the institution that is responsible for the interpretation and application of EU law, and it is composed of three courts: the Court of Justice, the General Court, and the Civil Service Tribunal. The Court of Justice of the EU is responsible for ensuring that EU law is consistent and uniform across the EU, and it is the ultimate arbiter of the legality of EU actions and decisions.

1) What is the Eurozone?

The Eurozone, also known as the euro area, is a group of 19 member states of the European Union (EU) that have adopted the euro as their currency. The Eurozone was created as part of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), which was established by the Treaty on European Union (TEU) in 1992.

1) What are the rules of the Stability and Growth Pact, and what is the pact's role for Economic and Monetary Union?

The Stability and Growth Pact (SGP) is a set of rules and guidelines that were adopted by the European Union (EU) in 1997 with the aim of ensuring the fiscal stability of the member states of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). The SGP sets out the criteria that member states must meet in order to maintain fiscal stability and avoid excessive deficits and debt levels. The rules of the SGP include the requirement that member states maintain a government deficit that is no higher than 3% of their gross domestic product (GDP), and a government debt level that is no higher than 60% of GDP. The SGP also includes provisions for the coordination of fiscal policies among member states, as well as mechanisms for monitoring and enforcing compliance with the rules of the pact. The SGP is an important part of the framework for EMU, as it helps to ensure the stability of public finances in the member states and supports the overall goal of promoting economic stability and growth in the euro area. By setting clear rules and guidelines for fiscal policy, the SGP helps to prevent the build-up of excessive levels of government debt, which can lead to economic instability and financial crisis. Overall, the Stability and Growth Pact is a key part of the framework for EMU, as it helps to ensure the fiscal stability of the member states and supports the achievement of the goals of the EMU.

Which are the main accomplishments of the Treaty of Rome (1952), the Single European Act, and the Treaty of Maastricht (1992)?

The Treaty of Rome (1952) was one of the first major steps in the process of European integration, and it established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC), and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). The ECSC was the first supranational organization in Europe, and it brought together the coal and steel industries of six European countries: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. The EEC expanded the scope of cooperation among the member-states of the ECSC, and it created a common market for goods, services, capital, and people. The Euratom was responsible for the development of the European nuclear industry, and it played a key role in the creation of the European research reactor network. Overall, the Treaty of Rome (1952) was a major step in the process of European integration, and it laid the foundations for the creation of the EU. The Single European Act (SEA) was signed in 1986, and it marked a major step in the process of European integration. The SEA created the European Single Market, which allowed for the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people among the member-states of the EU. This helped to create a more dynamic and competitive economy, and it facilitated the creation of a single market among the member-states of the EU. The SEA also introduced the principle of qualified majority voting in the Council of the EU, which allowed for the adoption of certain decisions without the need for unanimous agreement among the member-states. This helped to speed up the decision-making process in the EU, and it allowed for the adoption of more ambitious policies and initiatives. Overall, the Single European Act (SEA) was a major accomplishment of European integration, and it helped to enhance the effectiveness and competitiveness of the EU. The Treaty of Maastricht (1992) was another major step in the process of European integration, and it established the European Union (EU) as a political and economic union among the member-states of the EU. The Treaty of Maastricht (1992) expanded the scope of cooperation among the member-states of the EU, and it introduced new policies and initiatives in areas such as economic and monetary union, foreign and security policy, and justice and home affairs. The Treaty of Maastricht (1992) also introduced the concept of European citizenship, which gave citizens of the member-states of the EU certain rights and privileges, such as the right to free movement and the right to vote and stand as a candidate in local and European elections. Overall, the Treaty of Maastricht (1992) was a major accomplishment of European integration, and it helped to enhance the effectiveness and legitimacy of the EU.

1) Which EU treaty mandated the creation of the Economic and Monetary Union?

The creation of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) was mandated by the Treaty on European Union (TEU), also known as the Maastricht Treaty. This treaty, which was signed in 1992 and came into force in 1993, established the legal framework for the creation of EMU and set out the steps that member states would need to take in order to participate in the single currency and the common monetary policy.

Where is each tradition practiced?

The code law tradition and the common law tradition are both practiced in many countries around the world, although each tradition has its own geographic distribution and is more prevalent in certain regions. The code law tradition is more common in continental Europe and other parts of the world that were influenced by European legal systems, such as Latin America, Africa, and Asia. The common law tradition, on the other hand, is more prevalent in English-speaking countries, particularly in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. However, both traditions have also influenced legal systems in many other countries, and there are many examples of countries that have blended elements of both traditions in their legal systems.

What are the differences between these two legal traditions?

The code law tradition and the common law tradition are two different legal traditions that have developed over time and have some significant differences. Some of the main differences between these two legal traditions include: The primary sources of law: The code law tradition is based on written codes and statutes as the primary sources of law, while the common law tradition relies on judicial precedent and case-by-case decisions. The approach to legal reasoning: The code law tradition is characterized by a systematic and logical approach to legal reasoning, with a focus on legal precedent and the application of clear and objective rules, while the common law tradition is more flexible and adaptable, with the ability to evolve and develop in response to changing circumstances. The role of judges: In the code law tradition, judges are primarily responsible for interpreting and applying the law as it is written in the codes and statutes, while in the common law tradition, judges play a more active role in shaping and interpreting the law through their decisions. The role of legal professionals: In the code law tradition, legal professionals such as lawyers and judges play a more formal and impersonal role in the legal process, while in the common law tradition, they are more involved in the development of the law and are often expected to be advocates for their clients.

What are the main features of the code law tradition?

The code law tradition is a legal tradition that originated in Europe and is characterized by a focus on written codes and statutes as the primary sources of law. In this tradition, the law is considered to be a set of written rules and principles that are codified in a comprehensive legal code, and the courts are responsible for interpreting and applying these rules to specific cases. Some of the main features of the code law tradition include: Emphasis on written codes and statutes as the primary sources of law Clear and precise legal rules that are carefully drafted and organized into a comprehensive code Systematic and logical approach to legal reasoning, with a focus on legal precedent and the application of clear and objective rules Formal and impersonal legal process, with a strong emphasis on the rule of law and legal certainty Separation of powers and the independence of the judiciary.

What are the main features of the common law tradition?

The common law tradition is a legal tradition that originated in England and is characterized by a reliance on judicial precedent and the development of law through case-by-case decisions. In this tradition, the law is not considered to be a set of written codes or statutes, but rather a body of principles and rules that are derived from the decisions of courts and other judicial bodies. Some of the main features of the common law tradition include: Emphasis on judicial precedent and the development of law through case-by-case decisions Flexible and adaptable legal system, with the ability to evolve and develop in response to changing circumstances Strong emphasis on the role of judges in shaping and interpreting the law Importance of fairness and justice in legal decision-making, with a focus on the specific facts and circumstances of each case Role of legal professionals, such as lawyers and barristers, in interpreting and applying the law Separation of powers and the independence of the judiciary.

What were the historical and political reasons behind the start of European integration?

The desire to promote peace and stability in Europe: European integration has its roots in the aftermath of World War II, when European leaders were determined to prevent future conflicts and to build a more peaceful and stable continent. The creation of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952 was one of the first steps in this process, as it aimed to create a common market for coal and steel, the two key raw materials needed for the production of weapons. By encouraging cooperation and interdependence among European countries, European integration was seen as a way to prevent future wars and to promote peace and stability in Europe. The desire to create a more competitive and efficient economy: European integration has also been driven by the desire to create a more competitive and efficient economy. The signing of the Treaty of Rome in 1957, which established the European Economic Community (EEC), was a major step in this process, as it created a common market among the member-states of the EEC. This allowed for the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people among the member-states, which helped to increase trade and investment, and to create a more dynamic and competitive economy. The desire to enhance the influence and power of European countries on the global stage: European integration has also been driven by the desire of European countries to enhance their influence and power on the global stage. By creating a larger and more united market, European countries have been able to negotiate more effectively with other countries and regions around the world. In addition, by creating a common set of rules and policies, European countries have been able to speak with a single voice on a range of global issues, such as trade, climate change, and security. This has helped to increase the influence and power of European countries on the global stage.

What is an electoral system?

The electoral systems used in Western Europe vary depending on the country. Some common electoral systems in Western European countries include: First-past-the-post (FPTP): This system is used in the United Kingdom, where voters cast a single vote for the candidate or party of their choice, and the candidate or party that wins the most votes wins the election. Proportional representation (PR): This system is used in countries such as Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands, where voters cast a vote for a political party, and the number of seats that party wins in parliament is proportional to the number of votes it receives. Overall, most Western European countries use some form of proportional representation to ensure that the composition of parliament reflects the popular vote. This helps to ensure that the views and interests of a diverse range of political parties are represented in the legislative process.

Which countries were the first six members of the European Communities?

The first six members of the European Communities were Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. These six countries were the founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which was established by the Treaty of Paris in 1951. They were also the founding members of the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), which were established by the Treaty of Rome in 1957.

Which were the four waves of enlargement in the European Union?

The first wave of enlargement: This took place in the 1970s and 1980s, and it involved the admission of Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom into the EU. These three countries became members of the EU in 1973, and they joined the existing six member-states of the European Economic Community (EEC): Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. This first wave of enlargement was seen as a major step in the process of European integration, as it allowed for the expansion of the EU to include a broader range of countries and regions. The second wave of enlargement: This took place in the 1990s, and it involved the admission of Austria, Finland, and Sweden into the EU. These three countries became members of the EU in 1995, and they joined the existing twelve member-states of the EU: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, the United Kingdom, and Greece. This second wave of enlargement was seen as a key step in the process of European integration, as it allowed for the expansion of the EU to include countries from Northern Europe. The third wave of enlargement: This took place in the early 2000s, and it involved the admission of Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia into the EU. These ten countries became members of the EU in 2004, and they joined the existing fifteen member-states of the EU: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, the United Kingdom, Greece, Austria, Finland, and Sweden. This third wave of enlargement was seen as a major step in the process of European integration, as it allowed for the expansion of the EU to include countries from Central and Eastern Europe that had previously been part of the Soviet bloc. The fourth wave of enlargement: This took place in the 2010s, and it involved the admission of Bulgaria, Croatia, and Romania into the EU. These three countries became members of the EU in 2013, and they joined the existing twenty-seven member-states of the EU: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, the United Kingdom, Greece, Austria, Finland, Sweden, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. This fourth wave of enlargement was seen as a continuation of the process of

1) What are the four freedoms of the single market? What does each one entail?

The four freedoms of the single market are the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people within the European Union (EU). These freedoms are designed to enable the free flow of goods, services, and people within the EU, thus promoting trade and economic growth. The freedom of movement of goods means that goods can be bought and sold freely within the EU without the need for tariffs or other trade barriers. This enables manufacturers and other businesses to sell their products throughout the EU without facing additional costs or restrictions. The freedom of movement of services allows businesses to provide services to customers in other EU countries without facing additional regulatory hurdles or other obstacles. This can include services such as financial services, telecommunications, and professional services. The freedom of movement of capital allows individuals and businesses to move their money freely within the EU, enabling them to invest in other countries and take advantage of economic opportunities. The freedom of movement of people allows EU citizens to live and work in other EU countries without facing restrictions or discrimination. This allows individuals to take advantage of job opportunities and seek out new experiences in other countries.

1) What is the goal of the Common Agricultural Policy, and what are its main instruments?

The goal of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is to ensure a stable supply of high-quality agricultural products in the European Union (EU), while also supporting the economic viability of the agricultural sector and promoting rural development. The CAP is one of the EU's oldest and most expensive policies, and it accounts for a significant portion of the EU budget. The main instruments of the CAP are market support measures, which aim to stabilize prices and incomes in the agricultural sector, and rural development measures, which support the modernization and diversification of agriculture and the development of rural areas. The CAP also includes a system of direct payments to farmers, which are intended to compensate for the additional costs and risks associated with farming. These payments are funded through the EU budget and are distributed to farmers based on the amount of land they cultivate.

What are the roles of the main institutions of the executive branch (head of state, head of government, the cabinet, the civil service)?

The head of state is the symbolic leader of the country and represents the nation to the outside world. The head of government, also known as the prime minister, is the leader of the country's government and is responsible for implementing policies and decisions. The cabinet is a group of high-level government officials who are responsible for advising the head of government and implementing policies. The civil service is the group of government employees who are responsible for carrying out the day-to-day tasks of the government. Together, these institutions work to implement the policies and decisions of the government.

1) Which actors inside EU countries hold Euroskepetic views, according to Usherwood and Startin?

The main argument of Usherwood and Startin's article about the persistence of Euroskepticism is that it is a response to the changing nature of the European Union (EU) and its policies. According to the authors, Euroskepticism has persisted over time because the EU has evolved from a community of states into a supranational entity with a growing range of powers and competences. This has led to a sense of unease and uncertainty among some EU citizens, who feel that the EU is a threat to their national sovereignty and identity, and that it is a source of economic and social problems. The authors argue that Euroskepticism is a reflection of the changing nature of the EU, and that it is a response to the challenges and opportunities that the EU faces in the 21st century. They also argue that Euroskepticism is a dynamic and evolving phenomenon, and that it is likely to continue to shape the debate and the future of the EU.

What are the main functions of a legislature?

The main functions of a legislature in Western Europe are to represent the people, to make laws, to oversee the executive branch of government, and to hold the government accountable. Legislatures in Western Europe typically consist of elected representatives from different political parties, who work together to debate and pass laws that reflect the interests and concerns of the people they represent. Legislatures also have the power to approve or reject budgets proposed by the government, and to hold the executive branch accountable through mechanisms such as parliamentary committees, question periods, and debates.

1) What is the main goal of Economic and Monetary Union?

The main goal of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) is to enhance economic cooperation and integration among the member states of the European Union (EU) by creating a single currency (the euro) and a common monetary policy. The objective of EMU is to promote economic stability and growth, by reducing the risk of economic shocks and making it easier for businesses and individuals to trade and conduct business across national borders.

What are the main political, economic and social goals of European integration?

The main political, economic, and social goals of European integration are to promote peace and stability in Europe, to create a more competitive and efficient economy, and to enhance the influence and power of European countries on the global stage. These goals have been at the heart of the European integration process for many decades, and they have been pursued through a variety of different initiatives and steps. Some of the key political goals of European integration include: Promoting peace and stability in Europe: European integration has its roots in the aftermath of World War II, when European leaders were determined to prevent future conflicts and to build a more peaceful and stable continent. The creation of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952 was one of the first steps in this process, as it aimed to create a common market for coal and steel, the two key raw materials needed for the production of weapons. By encouraging cooperation and interdependence among European countries, European integration was seen as a way to prevent future wars and to promote peace and stability in Europe. Creating a more united and democratic Europe: European integration has also been driven by the desire to create a more united and democratic Europe. The signing of the Treaty of Rome in 1957, which established the European Economic Community (EEC), was a major step in this process, as it created a common market among the member-states of the EEC. This allowed for the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people among the member-states, which helped to promote economic and social integration, and to create a more united and democratic Europe. Enhancing the influence and power of European countries on the global stage: European integration has also been driven by the desire of European countries to enhance their influence and power on the global stage. By creating a larger and more united market, European countries have been able to negotiate more effectively with other countries and regions around the world. In addition, by creating a common set of rules and policies, European countries have been able to speak with a single voice on a range of global issues, such as trade, climate change, and security. This has helped to increase the influence and power of European countries on the global stage. Some of the key economic goals of European integration include: Creating a more competitive and efficient economy: European integration has also been driven by the desire to create a more competitive and efficient economy. The signing of the Treaty of Rome in 1957, which established the European Economic Community (EEC), was a major step in this process, as it created a common market among the member-states of the EEC. This allowed for the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people among the member-states, which helped to increase trade and investment, and to create a more dynamic and competitive economy. Facilitating the creation of the European Single Market: The European Single Market is a key economic goal of European integration, and it refers to the creation of a single market among the member-states of the EU. The European Single Market

1) What are the main sources of revenue and the main items of expenditure in the EU budget?

The main sources of revenue for the EU budget are customs duties on imports from outside the EU, a portion of the value added tax (VAT) collected by member states, and a contribution based on the gross national income (GNI) of each member state. The main items of expenditure in the EU budget include funding for the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the Cohesion Fund, which supports economic development and convergence in disadvantaged regions of the EU; the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), which supports infrastructure development and investment in small and medium-sized enterprises; and the European Social Fund (ESF), which supports employment and social inclusion. The EU budget also includes funding for specific programs and initiatives, such as the Horizon 2020 research and innovation program and the Erasmus+ program, which supports education, training, and youth development. Additionally, the EU budget covers the administrative costs of the European Commission and other EU institutions.

1) How are the members of each EU institution selected or appointed

The members of the institutions of the European Union (EU) are selected or appointed through a range of processes, which are determined by the specific rules and procedures of each institution. In general, the members of the EU institutions are selected or appointed through a combination of national and European processes, and they are subject to various criteria and qualifications. The European Council is composed of the heads of state or government of the member-states of the EU, along with the President of the European Council and the President of the European Commission. The members of the European Council are selected or appointed by the national governments of the member-states of the EU, and they are subject to the rules and procedures of their respective countries. The Council of the EU is composed of the ministers of the member-states of the EU, depending on the policy area under discussion. The members of the Council of the EU are selected or appointed by the national governments of the member-states of the EU, and they are subject to the rules and procedures of their respective countries. The European Commission is composed of 28 Commissioners, one from each member-state of the EU. The members of the European Commission are selected or appointed through a process known as the "Spitzenkandidat" system, which involves the nomination of candidates by the European political parties. The members of the European Commission are then appointed by the European Council, subject to the approval of the European Parliament. The European Parliament is composed of 705 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs), who are elected by the citizens of the EU. The members of the European Parliament are selected through direct elections, which are held every five years. The members of the European Parliament are elected according to the rules and procedures of their respective countries, and they are subject to the principle of proportional representation. The Court of Justice of the EU is composed of three courts: the Court of Justice, the General Court, and the Civil Service Tribunal. The members of the Court of Justice of the EU are selected or appointed through a process known as the "nomination procedure," which involves the participation of the national governments of the member-states of the EU, the European Parliament, and the European Commission. The members of the Court of Justice of the EU are subject to various criteria and qualifications, and they are appointed by the European Council, subject to the approval of the European Parliament. Overall, the members of the EU institutions are selected or appointed through a range of processes, which reflect the diversity and complexity of the EU.

1) How is the presidency of the European Council and the Council of the EU organized? What is the role of the presidency in each institution?

The presidency of the European Council and the Council of the EU is organized through a system of rotating presidency, which is based on the principle of equal representation of the member-states of the European Union (EU). The presidency of the European Council and the Council of the EU plays a crucial role in the decision-making process of the EU, and it is responsible for the coordination and the implementation of the EU's policies and priorities. The European Council is composed of the heads of state or government of the member-states of the EU, along with the President of the European Council and the President of the European Commission. The European Council is responsible for providing political guidance and direction to the EU, and it is a key forum for the discussion and resolution of major issues facing the EU. The presidency of the European Council is organized through a system of rotating presidency, which is held by the head of state or government of one of the member-states of the EU for a period of six months. The presidency of the European Council is responsible for the organization and the preparation of the meetings of the European Council, and it is a key player in the decision-making process of the EU. The Council of the EU is composed of the ministers of the member-states of the EU, depending on the policy area under discussion. The Council of the EU is responsible for the adoption of EU laws and policies, and it is a key player in the legislative process of the EU. The presidency of the Council of the EU is organized through a system of rotating presidency, which is held by one of the member-states of the EU for a period of six months. The presidency of the Council of the EU is responsible for the organization and the preparation of the meetings of the Council, and it is a key player in the implementation and enforcement of EU laws and policies.

1) What is the purpose of the EU competition policy, and which are its two main components?

The purpose of the EU competition policy is to ensure that companies operating within the European Union (EU) do not engage in anti-competitive practices that could damage the single market and harm consumers. The policy has two main components: the prohibition of anticompetitive agreements and the control of mergers and acquisitions that could lead to the creation of a dominant market position. The goal of these measures is to promote fair competition and allow businesses to operate on a level playing field, ultimately benefiting consumers through the provision of better products and services at lower prices.

1) What is the purpose of the EU regional policy, and what are its main instruments?

The purpose of the EU regional policy is to reduce economic and social disparities between different regions of the European Union (EU) and to promote sustainable development in all parts of the EU. The policy is based on the principle of solidarity, which means that more prosperous regions help support less developed regions through the provision of financial assistance. The main instruments of the EU regional policy are structural and investment funds, which provide funding for specific projects and programs aimed at boosting economic growth and employment in disadvantaged regions. These funds include the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), the European Social Fund (ESF), and the Cohesion Fund, among others. The funds are managed at the national or regional level, and the allocation of funds is based on specific criteria and targets set out in EU regulations.

What is the relationship between European Union law and the law of EU member-states? Which is supreme over the other?

The relationship between European Union (EU) law and the law of EU member-states is complex and can vary depending on the specific legal provisions and context in question. In general, EU law takes precedence over the national laws of EU member-states, which means that if there is a conflict between EU law and national law, EU law will prevail. This is known as the principle of supremacy of EU law, and it is a fundamental principle of the EU legal system. However, the supremacy of EU law is not absolute, and there are some cases in which national law can take precedence over EU law. For example, national constitutions and human rights laws may provide greater protection for certain rights and freedoms than EU law, and in these cases, national law will prevail. In addition, EU law only applies to the extent that it has been implemented by the member-states, and in cases where a member-state has not fully implemented EU law, national law may continue to apply.

1) What does the term democratic deficit of the EU mean? What are some specific illustrations of this problem?

The term "democratic deficit of the EU" refers to the perceived lack of democracy or accountability in the decision-making process of the European Union (EU). The democratic deficit of the EU is a longstanding issue, and it has been a source of concern and criticism among scholars, politicians, and citizens of the EU. The democratic deficit of the EU is a complex and multifaceted problem, and it can be illustrated through several specific examples. For instance, the democratic deficit of the EU can be seen in the lack of direct election of the key decision-makers of the EU, such as the members of the European Commission, the President of the European Council, and the President of the European Commission. The democratic deficit of the EU can also be seen in the limited role of the European Parliament in the legislative process of the EU, and in the lack of transparency and accountability of the EU's institutions and agencies. The democratic deficit of the EU can also be seen in the lack of public participation and consultation in the decision-making process of the EU, and in the limited ability of citizens to influence the policies and the priorities of the EU. The democratic deficit of the EU can also be seen in the lack of accountability and control over the EU's budget and spending, and in the lack of transparency and oversight of the EU's decision-making process.

Which were the three original European Communities?

The three original European Communities were the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC), and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). These three communities were established by the Treaties of Paris and Rome, which were signed in 1951 and 1957, respectively.

As Lech Garlicki explains, there are more than one supreme court in each Western European country. Which are the three main types of supreme courts?

The traditional supreme court is the highest court in the judicial system of a country and is responsible for hearing appeals from lower courts on civil and criminal matters. In many Western European countries, the traditional supreme court is organized according to the principles of the common law tradition, with a hierarchical structure and a focus on judicial precedent. The constitutional court is a specialized court that is responsible for interpreting and enforcing the constitution of a country. In many Western European countries, the constitutional court has the power to review the constitutionality of laws and government actions and to declare them unconstitutional if they are found to violate the provisions of the constitution. The constitutional court is often considered to be the highest authority on constitutional matters and has a key role in protecting the rule of law and the rights and freedoms of individuals. The court of justice is the highest court of the European Union and is responsible for interpreting and enforcing EU law. The court of justice has the power to review the legality of actions taken by the institutions of the EU and to ensure that they are in compliance with EU law. The court of justice also has the power to interpret and apply EU law, and its decisions are binding on all EU member-states.

What are the two main classifications of executives in Western Government?

The two main classifications of executives in Western governments are political executives and bureaucratic executives. Political executives are elected officials who are responsible for making policy decisions and representing the government to the public. Examples of political executives include the president, the prime minister, and other high-level elected officials. Bureaucratic executives, on the other hand, are appointed officials who are responsible for implementing the policies and decisions of the government. They typically work in the civil service and include department heads, agency directors, and other high-level government employees.

Which are the two main variations of plurality systems?

There are many different types of plurality systems, but the two main variations are known as majoritarian and proportional systems. Majoritarian systems are designed to give the majority party or candidate a clear advantage, while proportional systems aim to provide representation in proportion to the number of votes each party or candidate receives.

What is the role of treaty revision and enlargement for European integration and the European Union?

Treaty revision and enlargement are two key processes that have played a significant role in the evolution of European integration and the European Union (EU). Treaty revision refers to the process of modifying the treaties that form the legal basis of the EU, in order to adapt to changing circumstances and to respond to new challenges and opportunities. Enlargement, on the other hand, refers to the process of admitting new member-states into the EU, in order to expand the scope of European integration and to promote peace and stability in Europe. Treaty revision has played an important role in the development of the EU, as it has allowed for the integration process to adapt and evolve over time. Some of the key treaty revisions that have taken place over the years include the signing of the Single European Act in 1986, which created the European Single Market, the signing of the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, which established the EU, and the signing of the Lisbon Treaty in 2009, which reformulated the institutions and decision-making processes of the EU. These treaty revisions have helped to enhance the effectiveness and legitimacy of the EU, and they have allowed for the integration process to adapt to changing circumstances and to respond to new challenges and opportunities. Enlargement has also played a significant role in the evolution of the EU, as it has allowed for the admission of new member-states into the union. The EU has undergone several rounds of enlargement over the years, with the most recent one taking place in 2013, when Croatia became the 28th member-state of the EU. Enlargement has allowed for the expansion of the EU to include a broader range of countries and regions, and it has helped to promote peace and stability in Europe by bringing former Communist countries into the European mainstream. Enlargement has also helped to enhance the economic and political power of the EU, and it has allowed for the expansion of the European Single Market, which has brought economic benefits to the member-states of the EU.

What is universal jurisdiction of courts? Where can we find it?

Universal jurisdiction is a principle of international law that allows national courts to exercise jurisdiction over certain crimes, regardless of where they were committed or the nationality of the perpetrator. This means that national courts have the power to investigate and prosecute crimes that are considered to be so serious and grave that they are considered to be crimes against humanity, and to hold individuals accountable for these crimes, regardless of where they were committed. Universal jurisdiction is typically applied in cases involving genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and other serious offenses that are considered to be grave breaches of international law. Universal jurisdiction is recognized by many countries and is implemented through national laws and treaties. For example, the International Criminal Court (ICC) is a permanent court that has the power to exercise universal jurisdiction over certain crimes, and many countries have ratified the Rome Statute, which established the ICC and granted it this authority. In addition, many national courts have the power to exercise universal jurisdiction, either through domestic laws or through their membership in international organizations like the ICC. Examples of countries that have implemented universal jurisdiction through their national courts include Spain, Belgium, and Sweden.

What are the main features of plurality systems?

Voters cast a single vote for the candidate or party of their choice. The candidate or party that wins the most votes wins the election. Plurality systems are often used in single-member district elections, where each district elects only one representative to parliament. These systems tend to favor larger parties and may result in a parliament that does not accurately reflect the overall distribution of votes. Plurality systems can also result in a lack of representation for minority parties and may lead to a more polarized political landscape.

What are the main features of proportional representation?

Voters cast a vote for a political party, rather than for a specific candidate. The number of seats that each party wins in parliament is proportional to the number of votes it receives. Parties are often required to meet a certain threshold of votes in order to win seats in parliament. Additional seats may be allocated to parties to ensure that the overall composition of parliament reflects the popular vote. Proportional representation systems are designed to ensure that the views and interests of a diverse range of political parties are represented in the legislative process.

1) What do we mean when we say that there are different formations of the Council of the EU?

When we say that there are different formations of the Council of the EU, we are referring to the fact that the Council of the European Union (EU) is composed of different groups of ministers, depending on the policy area under discussion. The Council of the EU is a flexible and dynamic institution, and it is able to adapt to the changing priorities and needs of the EU. The Council of the EU is composed of ministers from the member-states of the EU, who are selected or appointed by the national governments of the member-states. The ministers of the Council of the EU are responsible for representing the interests of their respective countries, and they are responsible for the adoption of EU laws and policies. The ministers of the Council of the EU are organized into different formations, depending on the policy area under discussion. For example, the General Affairs Council is the formation of the Council of the EU that is responsible for the coordination of the EU's external relations, the preparation of the meetings of the European Council, and the supervision of the work of the EU's institutions. The Economic and Financial Affairs Council is the formation of the Council of the EU that is responsible for the coordination of the economic and monetary policies of the EU, the supervision of the euro area, and the implementation of the EU's financial framework.

1) What is the difference between intergovernmental and supranational institutions?

ntergovernmental and supranational institutions are two different types of organizations that are involved in the decision-making process of the European Union (EU). The main difference between these two types of institutions is their level of autonomy and their relationship with the member-states of the EU. Intergovernmental institutions are organizations that are composed of representatives of the member-states of the EU, and they are based on the principle of national sovereignty. Intergovernmental institutions are characterized by a high degree of autonomy and independence, and they are responsible for the coordination and cooperation among the member-states of the EU. Examples of intergovernmental institutions in the EU include the European Council, the Council of the European Union, and the European Commission. Supranational institutions are organizations that are independent of the member-states of the EU, and they are based on the principle of European integration. Supranational institutions are characterized by a high degree of integration and integration, and they are responsible for the implementation of EU policies and regulations. Examples of supranational institutions in the EU include the European Court of Justice, the European Central Bank, and the European Parliament.