P/S MCAT studying

Brain goes through sleep cycle in __ minutes Stage 1: dominated by ____ waves, can have ________ hallucinations or _____ effect (seeing things/feeling like what you experienced before sleep ex feeling like on water), _____ jerks (muscle twitches) Stage 2: more _____ waves as well as _____ ______ (bursts of brain activity) and _-______ (suppress cortical arousal to stay asleep, also helps with memory consolidation) Stage 3: characterized by _____ waves, _____ memory consolidation REM: some _____ and ____ waves, eyes move rapidly but other muscles paralyzed; when most ______ occurs, most important for memory consolidation/formation of _______ memories

90, theta, hypnagonic, Tetris, theta, sleep spindles, k-complexes, delta, declarative, beta, alpha, dreaming, episodic

3 types of nerve fibers _-____ fibers: fast, thick, covered in myelin, less resistance, high conductance _-____ fibers: smaller in diameter, less myelin, slower than above _ fibers: small diameter, unmyelinated, slowest

A-beta, A-delta, C

________ ______of sensation: minimum intensity of a stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

Absolute threshold

In animals, there is a special part of olfactory epithelium called _______ olfactory epithelium which sends signals to olfactory bulb, then to brain

Accessory

Basal forebrain is made up of nucleus _____, nucleus ______, and ______ _____ nuclei

Accumbens, basalis, medial septal nuclei

Orienting attention is ability to change focus of attention from one stimulus to another, predominately modulated by _______ produce in the _____ _______

Acetylcholine, basal forebrain

Drug that leads to decrease in cognitive control, lack of coordination, slurring speech, disrupts REM sleep (and thus formation of memories)

Alcohol

Pathway of olfaction: olfactory bulb -> ______ and ______ cortex -> _________ cortex

Amygdala, piriform, orbitofrontal

Attention attracted by motion of an object or stimulus

Attentional capture

Drugs that induce sleep or reduce anxiety, depresses CNA, used as anesthetics or anticonvulsant, reduce seizures; can lead to reduced memory, judgement concentration

Barbiturates

Hair cells at the ____ of the cochlea activated by ____ frequency sounds Hair cells at the ____ of the cochlea activated by ____ frequency sounds

Base, high, apex, low

Drugs that are used as sleep aides, anti-anxiety, or seizures, depress CNS via increased response to GABA

Benzodiazepines

In decreasing order of frequency: ___ wave: associated with awake/concentration _____ wave: daydreaming state, lower frequency than beta waves ____ wave: drowsiness, light sleep slower/lower frequency than above waves ____ wave: deep sleep or coma, slow/lower than above

Beta, alpha, theta, delta

Processing that begins with stimulus, no preconceived cognitive constructs of the stimulus, data driven, inductive reasoning, always correct

Bottom-up processing

Information processing model: take input, process it, output decision; _____-__ or ______ driven model, assumes limited storage/attention capacity in brain, assumes serial processing in brain

Bottom-up, stimulus

___: psychological treatment that can be used for drug addiction, lean to recognize problematic thought patterns, develop better thought patterns and coping behaviors

CBT

_______ blindness: fail to notice change from previous to current state of something in environment Ex: don't notice new hair cut, videos where person giving direction is changed

Change

Cochlear implants: transmitter outside of skull that has microphone, sends information to receiver inside of head which sends info to stimulator which informs the ______

Cochlea

3 parts of feature detection: Color: cell is _____ Form: ________ pathway, cells responsible are _____, good at spatial resolution, detail, shape, form and color, but poor temporal info Motion: _________ pathway, cells responsible are _____, good for temporal resolution/motion, poor spatial resolution, no color

Cone, parvocellular, cones, magnocellular, rods

Retina: Macula: part of retina rich in ______ Fovea: part of macula where there is only _____, __ ____ _______: pigmented black in humans, blood vessels that nourish the retina ______: whites of the eye, cornea is anterior 1/6, this covers posterior 5/6 of eyeball, is attachment point for muscles, lined with conjunctiva

Cones, cones, no rods, choroid, sclera

______: layer of cells that lines inside of eyelids from eye ______: starts to bend light, first part of the eye the light hits ______ ______: space filled with aqueous humor, pressure maintains shape of eyeball _____: gives eye color, muscle that contracts and relaxes to change size of the pupil ______: opening in middle of the iris which contracts and relaxes to change the shape of this, modulates amount of light able to enter the eyeball ____: bends light so it goes to back of eyeball, focuses light on ____ of the retina, changes shape via the ______ ______, which are attached to the ______ _______, both of which form the _____ _____ that secretes aqueous humor _______ ______: area behind iris to back of lens, filled with aqueous humor _______ _____: filled with own humor, jelly-like substance that provides pressure to eyeball, gives nutrients ______: back area of eyeball where physical waveform of light converted to electrochemical impulse for brain to interpret

Conjunctiva, cornea, anterior chamber, iris, pupil, lens, fovea, suspension ligaments, ciliary muscle, ciliary body, posterior chamber, vitreous chamber, retina

3 firing timings for neurons: non-adapting: neuron consistency fires at ______ rate Slow-adapting: fires in _______ of stimulus, then _____ Fast-adapting: fires when stimulus _____, then _____

Constant, beginning, slows, starts, stops

_____ through which stimuli presented and processes of perceptual organization contributes to how people perceive stimuli, can also influence how stimuli are organized

Contextual effects

_______ ________: bringing spotlight of attention on an object without body or eye movement

Covert orienting

_______ ____ separates olfactory epithelium from the brain; bone with small holes Above this is _______ ____, which is bundle of nerves that sends projections through plate to olfactory epithelium Each receptor is sensitive to one type of molecule, when it binds, it will send signal to corresponding _______ in olfactory bulb, where all cells sensitive to that type of molecule send information At glomerulus, receptors then synapse on _____/______ cell that goes to brain

Cribriform plate, olfactory bulb, glomerulus, mitral/tufted

Reduction in efficacy or responsiveness to a new drug due to a common CNS target

Cross-tolerance

Sight adaptation up regulation is for ____, pupils ____, rods and cones _________ ____ sensitive molecules Down regulation is for _____, pupils ______, rods and cones _________ to light

Darkness, dilate, synthesize light, brightness, constrict, desensitize

________: drugs that lower body's basic functions and neural activity, decrease HR, decrease BP, processing/reaction time 3 categories: ______, _______, _____________

Depressants, alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines

Convergence: gives us a sense of _____; far away, muscles are _______, close to us, muscles are __________

Depth, relaxed, contracted

Attention focused sustainably on single task

Directed attention

______ stimuli: stimuli out in world around you, aware of and respond to it ________ stimuli: patterns of stimuli from the objects that actually reach senses, ex: light actually falling on the retina

Distal, proximal

Performing two tasks at once which require attention

Divided attention

Reward pathway in brain: Brain releases _____ which is produced in the ___ in the midbrain This goes to the ______ (emotions), _____ _______ (motor functions) _______ _____ (focus, attention) and ________ (involved in memory formation) All but prefrontal cortex are part of the _______ pathway

Dopamine, VTA, amygdala, nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, mesolimbic

Stimulants Cocaine blocks _______ reuptake Amphetamines increase release of ______ from _______ membrane Caffeine inhibits the enzyme that breaks down ____/inhibits _______ receptors Nicotine acts on _________ THS increases ________ and ____ activity

Dopamine, dopamine, presynaptic cAMP, adenosine, acetylcholine, dopamine, GABA

Hallucinogens: Ecstasy/MDMA/Molly: increases ______ and ______ release LSD: interferes with _______, usually ______ hallucinations Marijuana: active chemical is ___, can disrupt memory formation and short-term recall, can be used to relieve pain and nausea

Dopamine, serotonin, serotonin, visual, THC

_______ cue: driven by bottom-up processing or external events, "pop-out" effect ________ cue: driven by top-down processing, requires internal knowledge to understand cue and intention to follow it, ex: arrow in mouse maze, mouse would need knowledge of the arrow in order to follow cue _______ _____ effect: you can hear your name in a crowd, example of endogenous cute

Exogenous, endogenous, cocktail party

Front 2/3 of tongue carries information via 7th (_________) cranial nerve via ______ ______ Posterior 1/3 of tongue carries info via 9th (___________) and 10th (______) cranial nerves

Facial, chorda tympani, glossopharyngeal, vagus

______ _______: memories that incorporate hypnotizer's expectations even when not intended 2 theories on hypnotism ______ theory: extreme form of divided consciousness ______ ______ theory: people do and report what is expected of them

False memories, dissociation, social influence

Benzodiazepines work by enhancing brain's response to ______ Open __ channels making neurons more negatively charge, short and intermediate types used for _____, long acting used for _______ -______ or -______

GABA, Cl, sleep, anxiety, zelam, zolam

Sweet, umami, and bitter cells rely on _____ receptors Sour and salty relies on ___ channels

GPCR, ion

Executive attention: involved in ____-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal process, anticipating effects of ______; _____ from ___ is associated with this

Goal, behavior, dopamine, VTA

Signal was present and subject was affirmative: _____ Signal not present but subject said affirmative: _____ Signal not present, subject said no: _____ Signal was present, subject said no: ____ Strength of signal: __; hit>miss when there is ____ signal, miss>hit when there is ____ signal Strategy: _; ____ strategy: always say no unless 100% sure there was a signal ____ strategy: always say yes even if you'll have false alarms

Hit, false alarm, correct rejection, miss, d', strong, weak, c, conservative, liberal

__-________ blindness aka _______ blindness: not aware of things that are not in our visual field when attention is focused elsewhere in the filed Inability to recognize unexpected object, event, stimulus that is in 'plain site' ; problem with attention rather than sensory perception

In-attentional, perceptual

For the Signal Detection Theory, you make a graph with ____ on x axis and two curves of signal distribution and noise distribution (background noise) d' is the ________ between the ______ of each, so larger signal means d' bigger, easier to detect

Intensity, difference, means

When drug enters the body and exerts effect on someone, refers to behavioral and psychological effects on person; drug-specific

Intoxication

Weber's Law: _____/_____ _____=____

JND, initial intensity, constant

Focusing attention on an object by two separate individuals

Joint attention

Threshold where you can notice a change in sensation 50% or the time; Weber

Just noticeable difference

_______: movement of the body, proprioception is _________ while this is _______

Kinaesthesia, cognitive, behavioral

_____-____ theory of olfaction: each receptor responds to specific stimuli directly linked to the brain ____ theory: frequency of molecule gives molecule its specific odor profile ______ theory: odors fit into receptors similar to lock-and-key, based on shape ______: cannot perceive odor

Labeled-line, vibrational, steric, anosmia

Tend to group similar objects together that share a common motion or destination For example, if array of dots, half dots moving upward while other are moving downward, we would assume the upward and downward moving dots are two distinct units; Gestalt principle

Law of common fate

Implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience.

Law of past experiences

substance use disorder: results in significant impairment in functioning ____ including work, school, home Look at _____: increasingly large amounts, stronger cravings, more time recovering, can't cut back Then _________: sign that you are physiologically dependent For alcohol, peak of symptoms maxes around __ days after stopping and continue through day __

Life, usage, withdrawal, 2, 5

Freud's theory of dreams: _____ content is literal meaning, _______ content is hidden meaning Dreams have meaning and interpreting helps us resolve and identify hidden conflict

Manifest, latent

________: training people to self-regulate awareness and attention, more alpha waves than normal relaxation, deep can have theta waves No long term studies, has seen increased activity in PFC, right hippocampus, and right _______ _____-increased attention control

Meditation, anterior insula

Circadian rhythm: regular body rhythms, controlled by _______ produced by ________ _____

Melatonin, pineal gland

______ activates opiate receptors, acts more slowly, eases withdrawal, if person relapses they don't have as much of a high because medication is long-acting

Methadone

Things far away move slower, things closer move faster

Motion parallax

________ __________: work with patient to find intrinsic motivation for change, goal-directed therapy

Motivational interviewing

When damage to the brain causes change or loss in capacity of spatial dimension of divided attention

Neglect syndrome

Neurotransmitter modulation of alerting attention network is associated with ________ produce in the _____ ________

Norepinephrine, locus ceruleus

Phototransduction cascade-bipolar cells When rod is ____, on center of bipolar cells is _____, off center is _____ When on center of bipolar cell is active, this activated on-center of ______ cell which sends signals to ______ ____ and brain When rod is ____, off center of bipolar cells is ____ which ________ firing of off center of ganglion cells

Off, active, inactive, ganglion, optic nerve, on, active, increases

____ __ _____ splits cochlea into 2, upper and lower membranes Upper membrane: hair cells/cilia are called the ____ _____, made of filaments called ________ At tip of each is a ___ ____, gated by __ channel When endolymph moves (sound is coming into ear), link is stretched and K+ channels open so potassium flows ___; potassium triggers ____ to flow into cell as well, this causes AP AP activates _____ _______ cell which activates the _________ nerve

Organ of corti, hair bundle, kinocilium, tip link, K+, in, Ca2+, spiral ganglion, auditory

______ _________: person turns all or part of body to alter or maximize sensory impact of the event

Overt orienting

______ vision: occurs at levels of high light _______ vision: dawn or dusk, involves both rods and cones ________ vision: low levels of light

Phototopic, Mesopic, scotopic

What occurs when light hits the retina. Steps: light turns a rod off (rod is normally on), causing bipolar cell to turn on, which turns on a retinal ganglion cell, which is connected to the optic nerve.

Phototransduction cascade

Acute withdrawal: mainly ______ symptoms, different for each person, lasts for few weeks Post-acute withdrawal: more _______/______ symptoms, everyone generally experiences same PAWS: symptoms change quickly, then longer periods of good, but bad symptoms can be back just as intense, usually lasts for _ years

Physical, emotional, psychological, 2

External ear: _____ and __ Middle ear: _____ _____ Inner ear: _____ and _________ _____

Pinna, TM, three ossicles, cochlea, semicircular canals

Pathway of sound in the ear: Outer ear (_____), through auditory canal aka ____ _____ _____, then hits TM which vibrates and moves/vibrates 3 bones: _______, ______, _______, this vibrates the _____ window aka _____ window, pushes fluid inside the ______, fluid then drains through the _______ window due to the organ of ______ (_______ membrane and ______ membrane), fluid causes hair cells aka ____ to move which creates electric impulse and sends info through _______ nerve to the brain

Pinna, external auditory meats, malleus, incus, stapes, oval, elliptical, cochlea, round, corti, basilar, tectorial, cilia, auditory

Activity in _______ cortex is decreased during REM sleep, why dreams are weird

Prefrontal

_______ ________ _____: location in brain that receives information from cochlea; areas organization is ________

Primary auditory cortex, tonotopical

______ drugs: drugs that alter consciousness, perceptions, mood

Psychoactive

Activation synthesis hypothesis of dreaming: brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brain stem which is sometimes interpreted by frontal cortex, dreaming is simply trying to find meaning from _______ brain activity

Random

3 types of cones Light is an EM wave: visible light is in middle of EM spectrum, highest to lowest wavelength: ______

Red, green, blue, ROYGBIV

_______ model of attention: We have a limited pool of resources on which to draw when performing tasks. Practicing a task diminishes task resource demand

Resource

Binocular cues

Retinal disparity and convergence

Main protein of rods: _____ Main protein of cones: _____

Rhodopsin, photopsin

Phototransduction cascade-rods: Inside rods are optic disks stacked on one another with proteins on them, one of these is _______ which is a multimeric protein with 7 discs, has small molecule called _______ (__-___ ______) When light hits the small molecule, it becomes __-_____ ______, causes change in conformation for both molecule and protein Molecule called _____ made of alpha, beta, and gamma parts is usually attached to rhodopsin, but when conformation changes, this breaks off and _____ subunit binds to another disk protein called _________ (PDE) which converts ____ to ___ ____ is usually bound to __ channels to keep them open and allow sodium in, but when cGMP disappears and is converted to GMP, those channels are closed, less sodium enters cell and cell becomes hyper polarized and is turned ___

Rhodopsin, retinal, 11-cis retinal, 11-trans retinal, transducin, alpha, phosphodiesterase, cGMP to GMP, cGMP, Na, off

Dividing attention on one task between 2 tasks, can maintain attention while being presented with masking or interfering stimuli

Selective attention

Broadbent's early selection theory: sensory info goes to sensory register which takes in everything, then goes through ______ ______ which pushes through info you want to be attending to, then through _______ processses like assigning meaning, recognition of voice, then you can engage in other cognitive processes Deutch&Deutch's Late selection theory: believes that you have perceptual processing of all sensory information and then ______ _____ where you decide what to pass on to consciousness Treisman's attenuation theory: sensory register, then _______ which weakens unimportant info rather than eliminating, so some gets to perceptual processing but not high priority, then you have consciousness of higher priority info first Johnson and Heinz: information attenuator like a _________, location of that attenuator varies bay listener and demand necessitated by task

Selective filter, perceptual, selective filter, attenuator, bottleneck

Inner ear has 3 _________ _____, posterior, lateral and anterior Each is filled with _______; movement of this fluid helps detect rotation Otolithic organs: ______ and ______, helps detect _____ ________ and head positioning Inside the otolithic organs are _____ crystals attached to ____ _____, movement of cells triggers _____ ______

Semicircular canals, endolymph, utricle, saccule, linear acceleration, CaCO3, hair cells, action potential

_____ _______: the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system _____: remember what you see, half second ______: remember what you hear, 3-4 seconds

Sensory memory, iconic, echoic

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

Signal detection theory

3 factors that affect ability to multitask Task ________: harder to multitask if tasks are more similar Task ________: harder tasks require more focus _______: activities that we have done before can become automatic, can occur without need for attention

Similarity, difficulty, practice

Gestalt principles of organization/grouping _______: group things that are similar together ________: reality organized into simplest form, ex: Olympic symbol is 5 rings, not more complex shapes ________: things close together are grouped together ________: lines seen in smoothest path ________: objects grouped together seen as whole, mind fills in missing info ________: mind perceives objects as forming around center point, equal on either side

Similarity, pragnanz, proximity, continuity, closure, symmetry

rods have ___ recovery time, cones have ___ recovery time

Slow, fast

Proprioception: small receptor called _____ located in muscles and sends info to brain, has protein that is sensitive to ______ Also contracts with muscles so we can tell level of contraction/relaxation of muscles

Spindle, stretch

_______ model of attention: selective attention takes info from all 5 senses, but we don't pay attention to everything; awareness of certain things on unconscious level ______: exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus even if not consciously paying attention to it, like hearing name

Spotlight, priming

Drugs that excite CNS, increase HR/BP, alertness, more awake

Stimulants

Taste receptors located in ______ ____ which are located in ______ Taste buds concentrated at anterior tongue, can be _______ (anterior) mushroom-shaped, _____ (side) folded structures or ___________ (back) flat mound structures Each taste bud contains cells specialized for each of the 5 tastes ________ papillae do not contain taste buds, located at center of tongue _______: substance that stimulates taste ________: protein associated with sensation of taste

Taste buds, papillae, fungiform, foliate, circumvallate, filiform, tastant, gustducin

Signal detection theory strategies Strategy B: choose _____ (ex 2), so anything >2 hit, <2 miss Strategy D: __-_; anything above will say yes, anything below will say no Strategy C: _____ _______ when C=0, C=_-__/_; anything above says yes, anything below says no; if C>1, _____ strategy, if C<1, ____ strategy Beta strategy: __ ____=__ x _

Threshold, d'-B, ideal observer, B-d'/2, conservative, liberal, ln beta, d'xC

You become used to a drug so you need more of it to achieve same effect; shift in dose-response curve

Tolerance

Processing that uses background knowledge which influences perception of stimulus, theory driven, deductive reasoning, not always correct

Top-down processsing

_______ theory of color vision: can see red, green, and blue and we combine input for all colors we can see ________ _______ theory of color vision: we have 4 cones that sense red vs green, blue vs yellow, black vs white; only one color dominates at a time

Trichromatic, opponent processing

In order to sense temperature and also pain, we rely on the _____ receptor Heat as well as damage to other cells causes _________ change in protein,

TrypV1, conformational

Dream theories Freud: dreams are ________ ______ and ______ that need to be interpreted Evolutionary biology: _______ _______, prepares for real world

Unconscious thought and desires, threat simulation

_______ ______ and signal detection; processes that attempt to detect signal or target of interest, allows responses to be primed, quick actions taken in response to signal Ex: you see a pothole, avoidance actions undertaken

Vigilance attention

Within accessory olfactory epithelium (animals and humans), there is the _______ system which contains _____ cells and _____ cells. Molecule activates receptor on one of those cells sends info through axon to olfactory ____ or ______, then to _____ or ______ cell which eventually goes to the ________

Vomeronasal, basil, apical, bulb, glomerulus, mitral, tufted, amygdala

Opiates mimic which neurotransmitter

endorphins

Place theory: perception of sound depends on where each component _____ produces vibrations along the ______ membrane States pitch of musical tone is based on frequencies corresponding to ________ organization of ________ ________ ______

frequency, basilar, tonotopic, primary auditory neurons