PSY 240 exam 3 ch. 9-12

Pile on Principle: Persistent-Oppressive-Pervasive

-Daily prejudice and discrimination in the past, in the present, and likely, in the future •Not occasional insults based on one's race that one rarely encounters. -Thus, those in the majority position are, relatively speaking, unlikely to face day-to-day prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination •Sue (2014): "Whites are not subjected to racism; African Americans are."

interdependence theory

the idea that satisfaction, investments, and perceived alternatives are critical in determining commitment to a particular relationship

Rusbult's Interdependence Theory

the idea that satisfaction, investments, and perceived alternatives are critical in determining commitment to a particular relationship •Commitment: sense of allegiance individuals develop toward the objects of their dependence, including: -intent to persist; -psychological attachment to the partner; and -long-term orientation toward therelationship.

displacement:

the redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. ex: kicking wall after losing a poker game -generally the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target

Neoteny:

the retention of juvenile features in the adult -youthful= reproductively healthy -baby-like features: round mouth, full lips, big eyes

Bystandard Effect (Gaertner and dovidio)

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present -Increasing number of people around will decrease the willingness to help someone in need

Just-world phenomenon:

the tendency of ppl to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get -these ppl Blame the victim -these type of people believe that: >rape victims must have behaved seductively >poor ppl don't deserve better >teens who are bullied online deserve it

Social-exchange theory: Homans 1961

the theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs -costs: time, effort, money, safety -rewards: internal (feeling good about oneself; avoiding bad feeling) & external (adoration, fame, money)

Realistic Group Conflict Theory:

the theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources -leads to inter-group hostility and conflict

Social Learning Theory of aggression Bandura:

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished -aggression is learned, not innate -learned either directly through reinforcement OR by modeling others who are behaving aggressively >observed aggressive behavior must be rewarded >observed aggressive behavior must be seen as real

Reward theory of Attraction

the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events

Contrast effect/ Gain- Loss (Aronson)

we like ppl who start off not liking us, and then come to like us over time, more than those who always liked us (reciprocal liking)

Byrne 1971: "The attraction Paradigm"

we like those whose attitudes are similar to ours. -ratio, not absolute number of similarities -Similarity/complementarity

The Own-Race Bias:

white subjects more accurately recognize the face of whites than of blacks; black subjects more accurately recognize the faces of blacks than of whites -when looking at face of another racial group we often attend, fist, to group (that man is black/white) rather than individual features. -when viewing someone of our own group, we are less attentive to the race category and more attentive to individual details

Symmetry:

•Attractive faces (and things in general) are more symmetrical. --> symmetry is a marker for health, free from defects -Features are equal distance from the middle points

Gottman's 3 Myths of Satisfying long-lasting relationships

•Better communication always works -couples were still distressed after trying active listening techniques. Couples that were helped relapsed within a year. "Active listening asks couples to perform Olympic-level emotional gymnastics when their relationship can barely walk." •Avoid fighting at all costs -Being conflict-avoidant doesn't help. On the other hand, some things might be not worth fighting about, especially if one or more of the Four Horseman characterize the fight. •Reciprocity; tit-for-tat is good Score keeping

Terror Management:

according to "terror management theory" people's self-protective emotional and cog responses (including adhering more strongly to their cultural worldviews and prejudices) when confronted with reminders of their mortality

Zajonc's Attitudinal Effects of Mere Exposure:

"Mirror exposure" - we like our reflection view better than the view that others see of us; and vice versa

Ethological Perspective of Aggression: (Konrad Lorenz)

-Aggression is natural and functional -Is adaptive and was selected for In animals, aggression only occurs under certain circumstances -Is triggered by an external stimulus -The stimulus, however, isn't sufficient, to cause aggression. There must also be arousal **Two factors: arousal and external trigger •Male stickleback fish: protect egg, see dot, aggress

Correll, Park, Judd, & Wittenbrink (2002): Videogame study

-Created a videogame where African American or White targets held guns, cell phones, or wallets. Participants were instructed to "shoot the bad guy, don't shoot the good guy. RESULTS: Study 1: Participants fired on an armed target more quickly when he was African American Study 2: Participants failed to shoot armed White target more than armed African American target; shot unarmed African American target more. Study 3: Effects stronger for participants who hold stronger African-American+aggression associations.

Physical attrctiveness stereotypes in western and eastern cultures:

-Different for cultures, but still positive within each culture (Wheeler) •Western cultures (high in individualism) attribute potency to physically attractive people (assertive and dominant) •Eastern cultures (high in collectivism and group harmony) attribute high concern for others and integrity to attractive people -But, there are stable factors that cross cultures •Waist-to-hip ratio: ~.75 (25in waist; 34inch hips or 86cm hips to 63cm waist) --> more likely to be healthy, health is a predictive of reproductive success •Men also prefer neotenous (child-like) characteristics in women. --> youthful is a marker for better chances of healthy reproduction -women prefer V-shaped men --> strength, fitness is a marker for health and security

Minimal Groups (Tajfel 1970):

-Irrespective of personality, arbitrary assignment to groups leads to •In-group favoritism/Out-group derogation •Out-group homogeneity Biased resource allocation People show in-group favoritism even when group membership is randomly determined. -Not only do they favor in group and immediately like you, and the other group become stupid/obnoxious/immoral.

The Eye of the Storm 1968

-Jane Elliot, Elementary teacher in Iowa -Blue eyes vs Brown Eyes exercise -anti-racism activist -teaches students about racial prejudice

Evolutionary Psychology: Altruism (risking or giving up one's life to save another) -Kin protection -reciprocity

-Kin protection •Genetic relatedness predicts helping -Kin selection-Idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one's close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes -Reciprocity •Predicted by genetic self-interest (ensures benefits to individual that will facilitate mating/survival) •Works best in small isolated groups, where tit-for-tat is more of a certainty.

Why is physical attractiveness so powerful? -*learning -*halo effect -kernal of truth -rewarded by association -*evolutionary psychology

-Learning - we are taught that what is beautiful is good. Good witches are pretty; bad witches are ugly... -Halo effect - we are attracted to the positive characteristics that we associate with physical attractiveness. Implicit personality theories. >stereotypes, but positive >ppl think that physically attractive ppl are: warm, caring, competent, smart, and healthier -Kernel of truth - attractive people are treated better, and thus, have higher self-concepts, better mental health, are more assertive and more confident. Preferred even on telephone! -Rewarded by association - if we are with a physically attractive person, we'll be rewarded, too -Evolutionary Psychology - We are attracted to that which is evolutionarily related to reproductive success and successful rearing of the children. Physical attraction matters with lower animals, too.

Batson 1986: Attributional Ambiguity Study

-Participants are told they are to select a room in which they will watch a brief film. -½ are told both rooms are showing same film -½ are told each room is showing a different film •All enter a room and see an African American "participant" already seated Result: There was a significant preference for choosing the other room only when it was showing a different film.

Festinger, Schachter, and Back (1959): "Social pressures in informal groups: A study of human factors in housing"

-Randomly assigned students to housing -Determined who liked who after several months -We like the people who live closer; who we run into more often.

Muzafer and Sherif Cave study: -Sherif's Robbers Cave Study 1954 -functional theory of inter-group behavior -realistic group conflict theory

-Stage 1: In-group formation -Stage 2: Friction phase -Stage 3: Integration phase (reducing friction) -Stage 4: Superordinate goals (broken water main) -**a study conducted by Muzafer Sherif where he created two groups of boys that had to compete to get a reward. He found that these groups started insulting one another, and it later progressed to theft and vandalism. When the groups were forced to work together, they made common ground and liked each other a whole lot more Take home message: Groups in competition is the key Cooperation on super-ordinate goals (goals that can only be achieved by cooperation) reduced conflict, etc. ****Sherif's functional theory of inter-group behavior - presumed to be from positive interdependence in pursuit of common goals, whereas inter-group relations are characterized by competition and negative interdependence. ***Realistic Group Conflict Theory - competition over scare resources leads to inter-group hostility & conflict.

Walster, Aronson, Abrahams, & Rottman (1966): Computer Dating Paradigm

-Take a battery of measures of •personality •SES •interests •physical attractiveness -Randomly pair college students with person of opposite sex. -Asked them to rate their date -**Only one factor predicted liking and intention to ask out again...physical attractiveness (for males & females!)

Emotion Theories: Altruism

-Viewing or hearing another in need can cause distress •Distress can lead to attempts to help >To reduce distress >Empathy -Mood Congruency •Feel good, do good >Positive mood can dramatically boost helping •Feel bad-do good? >Only occurs only with people whose attention is on others (and not on self) e.g.: feeling bad about others

Cyberbulling:

-Willful and repeated harm inflicted through the use of computers, cell phones, and other electronic devices

Sherif's Robbers Cave Study

-a study conducted by Muzafer Sherif where he created two groups of boys that had to compete to get a reward. He found that these groups started insulting one another, and it later progressed to theft and vandalism. When the groups were forced to work together, they made common ground and liked each other a whole lot more

What are the motivational sources of Prejudice?

-people's motivations affect prejudice. Frustrations breeds hostility, which ppl sometimes vent on scapegoats and sometimes express more directly against competing groups -ppl motivated to view themselves and their groups as superior to other groups. -Threat to self-image heightens such ingroup favoritism, as does the need to belong

Gottman's Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse:

1. Criticism -Attacking your partner's personality or character, usually with the intent of making someone right and someone wrong: -Generalizations: "you always..." "you never...""you're the type of person who ..." "why are you so ..." 2. Contempt •Attacking your partner's sense of self with the intention to insult or psychologically abuse him/her: •Insults and name-calling: "bitch, bastard, wimp, fat, stupid, ugly, slob, lazy..." •Hostile humor, sarcasm, or mockery •Body language & tone of voice: sneering, rolling your eyes, curling your upper lip 3. Defensiveness -Seeing self as the victim, warding off a perceived attack -Making excuses (e.g., external circumstances beyond your control forced you to act in a certain way) "It's not my fault...", "I didn't..." -Cross-complaining: meeting your partner's complaint, or criticism with a complaint of your own, ignoring what your partner said -Disagreeing and then cross-complaining "That's not true, you're the one who ..." "I did this because you did that..." -Yes-butting: start off agreeing but end up disagreeing -Repeating yourself without paying attention to what the other person is saying -Whining "It's not fair." 4. Stonewalling -Withdrawing from the relationship as a way to avoid conflict. Partners may think they are trying to be "neutral" but stonewalling conveys disapproval, icy distance, separation, disconnection, and/or smugness: -Stony silence -Monosyllabic mutterings -Changing the subject -Removing yourself physically -Silent treatment, cold shoulder

three theoretical perspectives on aggression:

1. Psychodynamic (Freud) 2. Ethological/Evolutionary Psychology (Lorenz) 3. Learning -two factor theory (berkowitz) -social learning theory (bandura) -general aggressional model (anderson) -I3 theory (Finkel)

When does in-group love become out-group hate?

1.Moral superiority increases 2.Perceived threat increases 3.Common goals / interdependence decreases 4.Common values & social comparison decrease 5.Power politics increases

Dehumanization: -uniquely human -human nature

A belief that others (usually outgroup members) are less than human (also called infrahumanization) •Two major dimensions of dehumanization, set forth by Nick Haslam (2006): 1. Uniquely human: as compared to animals •Impulsive, not rational 2. Human nature: as compared to automatons •Mechanistic, unfeeling

Alliance Building (Mobbing):

A relationship between two or more people with the intent to exclude or act aggressively toward another person Why? -We seek others out who will stick with us through thick and thin, to be supportive (need to belong) -Sometimes, however, we use friends to build power bases and intimidation. -We enlist others to shame, belittle, exclude a targeted individual •Alliances can spread and build -Normative influence (bandwagon effect) -Being on the right side means you're less likely to be the target, so you go along with the maliciousness for self-protection.

Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love

A theory that sees love as having three elements: intimacy, passion, and commitment Intimacy: closeness, bondedness, connectedness -sharing of inner thoughts and feelings Passion: arousal, sexual attraction Decision/commitment: -short-term decision that one loves the other -long-term commitment to maintain the love

Job Resume study Bertrand and Mullainathan 2004:

Applicants with White names would need to send out about 10 résumés to get 1 callback, whereas applicants with Black names would need to send out about 15. Additionally, a White name yields as many callbacks as an additional 8 years of experience on a Black applicant's résumé. applicants with White-sounding names had a significant advantage over applicants with Black-sounding names, and this advantage increased as the quality of résumé increased.

two-factor theory of emotion:

Arousal x its label= emotion -the idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it. --> theories suggests that being aroused by any source should intensify passionate feelings—provided that the mind is free to attribute some of the arousals to a romantic stimulus

Authoritarian Personality:

Authoritarian Personality: A personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of out-groups and those lower in status x

Dual Attitude System:

Differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (consciously controlled) attitudes toward the same object. Verbalized explicit attitudes may change with education and persuasion; implicit attitudes change slowly, with practice that forms new habits.

Gossip: Rumors:

Gossip: An aggressive or untruthful statement told about another person Rumors: False information about a person spread to a number of other people

The Result of Minimal Group Assignment

INGROUP FAVORITISM: -We are better than them (evaluation/prejudice) •As measured by assessing the average personality of ingroup members and outgroup members OUTGROUP HOMOGENEITY: -They are more similar to each other than we in our ingroup are to each other. •We are more heterogeneous than they are (beliefs/stereotypes) •Individuating ingroup members; lumping outgroup members BIASED RESOURCE ALLOCATION: -If asked to distribute rewards, I will give more to my ingroup than to my outgroup (behavior/discrimination)

Allport-Postman (1945)Rumor Transmission:

In a classic study, Gordan Allport and Postman (1945) conducted a version of the "telephone game," wherein participants were shown a picture of a White man on a bus, holding a switch blade and talking with a Black man. The first participant studied the picture described it to another person, beginning a chain of other participants who described the picture to each other in succession. After the description of the picture had been passed down the chain, the final participants often reported that the Black man was holding the switch blade. Seven retellings led to half the reports including the *weapon migration effect*.

Ingroups: Outgroups: ingroups bias:

Ingroups: "Us" -- group of ppl who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity Outgroups: "Them" -- group that ppl perceive as distinctively different from or apart from their ingroup Ingroups bias: the tendency to favor one's own group -supports a pos self-concept -feeds favortism

Michelangelo phenomenon: Pygmalion Effect:

Michelangelo: partners sculpt (support and interpret) one another's dispositions, motives, and behavioral tendencies to allow each person's ideal self to emerge. Pygmalion: molding other into one's own desires -"Ideal similarity" is important. The extent to which the partner possesses a similar ideal to the other: (e.g., "My partner possesses the qualities that I ideally would like to possess"; "I wish I could be more like my partner";

Micro-Aggressions: -microassault -microinsult -microinvalidation

Microassault -Blatant verbal, nonverbal, or environmental attacks intentionally discriminatory or biased. Microinsult -Unintentional behaviors or verbal comments conveying rudeness or insensitivity. Microinvalidation -Verbal comments or behaviors that exclude, negate, or dismiss experiences.

Lust on a Bridge; Dutton and Aron 1974

Misattribution of Arousal: --IV(?): low or high bridge -DV: sexual attraction •TAT •Phone call More males contacted the female experimenter when they had just walked down the suspension bridge, which was thought to be due to their misattribution of their arousal (they believed that they were feeling sexual arousal at the sight of the female instead of feeling the leftover physiological arousal from the fear of walking across the suspension bridge). This was interpreted by the researchers to mean that the men found the woman more attractive when they had more anxiety about crossing the bridge. There were no significant differences on either bridge when the researchers used a male confederate to give the Thematic Apperception Test and his phone number for any further questions about the experiment.

Morality Salience (increases stereotypes and prejudice)

Mortality Salience: Primed thoughts of death: Terror management -People's self-protective emotional and cognitive responses kick in when confronted with reminders of their mortality -After reminders of death, they are more likely to engage in stereotyping and prejudice -And to adhere more closely with their traditional values, like religion.

Does in-group love mean out-group hate?

Much in-group bias and inter-group discrimination is motivated by preferential treatment of in-group members rather than direct hostility toward out-group members (Allport, 1954; Brewer, 1999)

Sternberg's 8 combinations of love:

Nonlove (absence of all three) - casual interactions Liking (intimacy only) - in absence, miss, but not dwell Infatuated love (passion only) - love at first sight; easy for others to spot Empty love (decision/commitment only) - found in stagnant relationships Romantic love (Intimacy & passion) - liking and being 'turned-on" by the other Companionate love (Intimacy & Decision/Commitment) - long-term committed friendship after passion fades Fatuous love (Passion & Decision/Commitment)- "Hollywood" romance; burns out quickly Consummate love (all three) - difficult to maintain, must work at it

Old-Fashioned Racism: Modern/Symbolic Racism: Aversive Racism:

Old-Fashioned Racism -Openly expressed prejudice & negativity toward other racial group Modern/Symbolic Racism -Negatively expressed in terms of threats other racial groups pose to important social values; "it's really a matter of some people not trying hard enough; if blacks would only try harder they could be just as well off as whites" -Emphasizes that beliefs about individualism and meritocracy motivate opposition to policies, not race. Ideologies justify racism. Applies mostly to conservatives. Aversive Racism -feeling of racism feels aversive. Consciously iknowing, and professing that all ppl are equal yet subconsciously treating and judging some groups (races, genders, ethnicities) differently •People often profess egalitarian beliefs, and deny racially motivated behavior; nevertheless they change their behavior when dealing with a member of a minority group. -Aversive racists sympathize with victims of past injustice, support the principle of racial equality, and regard themselves as non-prejudiced, BUT at the same time, possess negative feelings and beliefs about blacks, which may be unconscious. -Negatively arousing to be near Blacks (not so with other forms of racism) -May be more pro-white than anti-black -Applies mostly to liberals.

Prejudice: -stereotypes -discrimination

Prejudice: Preconceived judgment (evaluations) of a group and its individual members -it's an attitude: a combo of feelings inclinations to act, and beliefs -characterized as assuming that people who share some grouping characteristic are highly similar to each other -supported by stereotypes & leads to discrimination stereotypes: BELIEFS about the personal attributes of a group of people -sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new info (and sometimes accurate) Discrimination: BEHAVIORS. preventing access to members of stereotyped groups -unjustified neg behavior toward a group or its members

Gestalt Perspective of Perception-- Laws of: Proximity: Similarity: Pragnanz: Continutity: Closure: Common Region:

Proximity: The Gestalt principle that we tend to group objects together when they are near each other. Similarity: The Gestalt principle that we tend to group similar objects together in our perceptions. we tend to group objects that are similar together Pragnanz: the overarching Gestalt idea that experience will be organized as meaningful, symmetrical, and simple whenever possible. Continutity: The Gestalt principle that we prefer perceptions of connected and continuous figures to disconnected and disjointed ones. Closure: when a space is enclosed by a group of lines, it is perceived as a complete or closed line Common Region: tendency to group objects together if they are found within a common region

Teasing/Taunting:

Teasing -A playful way of joking between peers (Keltner,1998; 2008) •Can be fun; can actually bond people (especially males). •It reflects interpersonal closeness and comfortableness (not "walking on eggshells") Taunting -a hurtful, aggressive statement often implying the taunter has power over the taunted.

Secure attachment: Avoidant Attachment: Anxious Attachment:

Secure attachment: Attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy Avoidant Attachment: attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others. an insecure attachment style Anxious Attachment: attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. an insecure attachment style

Self-disclosure: Disclosure reciprocity:

Self-Disclosure: revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others Disclosure reciprocity: the tendency for one person's intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner

Sexism: -benevolent vs hostile sexism

Sexism: the belief that one sex is innately superior to the other -differs from racism in the sense that the sexes are biologically attracted to each other, and biologically connected for the purposes of protection Benevolent vs hostile sexism: praising/protecting women who fit the gender role while punishing women who don't fit gender roles Benevolent sexism: represents evaluations of women that may appear subjectively positive, but are actually damaging to women and gender equity more broadly -putting women on a pedestal -the belief that women are purer women need to be protected by men Hostile Sexism: reflects overtly negative evaluations and stereotypes about women (e.g., women are incompetent and inferior to men - like old-fashioned racism questions).

Social Identity Theory Turner and Taifel:

Social identity is the portion of an individual's self-concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group Turner and Taifel Observed that: -We CATEGORIZE: we find it useful to put people, ourselves included, into categories. -We IDENTIFY: we associate ourselves with certain groups (our ingroups) and gain self-esteem by doing so -We COMPARE: we contrast our groups with other groups (outgroups) with a favorable bias twoard our own group

Cognitive Associations and Evaluations of Performance: Stone 1997

Stereotypes are dangerous because they can affect how we interpret identical behavior depending on the group membership of the actor. In one study by Jeff Stone and colleagues, Ps listened to a college basketball game and evaluated one particular player. Half were led to believe that the player was Black (shown photo); half were led to believe that the player was White. Consistent with their stereotypes, Ps perceived the player as having more physical ability if they thought he was Black and as having more court smarts when they thought he was White

Priming Tasks can reveal implicit biases:

This study used both police officers and undergraduates to determine whether automatic responses, in this case visual processing, can be influenced by prejudice. Participants were either primed with black faces or white faces and then shown very fuzzy images of crime relevant or crime irrelevant images, such as guns and brooms. The images became clearer at equal rates and participants were asked to shout out what the object was the very second they recognized it. Results reveal that people primed with black, but not white, faces were able to detect the crime related objects faster much faster than participants primed with white faces, and faster than participants not primed at all. Participants primed with white faces were less quick at identifying crime related objects than the control condition. There was no effect at all of crime-irrelevant objects. This study lends support to the idea that prejudice effects even automatic responses, such as attention and perception, which of course can have implications for decision making and behavior.

Psychodynamic Perspective of aggresion (Freud):

We possesses two innate and inescapable drives: -Sex (Eros = love) -Aggression (Thanatos = death) Society deems these urges unacceptable, so we seek acceptable expressions -Sex: Creativity, the arts -Aggression: Sports, competition founded on the assumption that human behavior is propelled by thoughts and feelings that lie in our sub conscious mind. Hydraulic Model: aggressive tendencies build up over time and must be released (catharsis) --> catharsis can be achieved by "watching violence"

Short-trem casual sexual relations: What characteristics are valued? Is Physical attractiveness regarded as a necessity or luxery?

What characteristics are valued (by survey and mate $)? -A strong preference for physical attractiveness for both sexes; it is more important as hypothetical relationship becomes shorter -Warmth and trustworthiness are also important. -High status/resources least important •Is physical attractiveness regarded as a necessity or luxury -Necessity: an item that is initially desirable but, once obtained in sufficient quantity, yields to other items -Luxury: Becomes important once sufficient levels of necessities have been obtained *By using forced choice method, Li & Kenrick concluded that physical attractiveness was a necessity for both males and females for short-term partners

Discontinuity Effect:

When individuals interact with individuals, they are generally trusting, cooperative, and pro-social (Insko et al, 2003). •When groups interact with groups, the individuals in each group are... -Less trusting -Less cooperative -More aggressive -Rely more on stereotypes and prejudices groups are more extreme, and often more hostile, than individuals

equity:

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it -equitable outcomes needn't always be equal outcomes

Need to Belong:

a motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions -when it's prevented such as through exclusion or ostracism, ppl feel stressed and lose self-control -social pain mimics physical pain

Social Dominance Orientation:

a motivation to have one's group dominate other social groups

Altruism: (prosocial behavior)--> helping

a motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interests --> engaging in costly behavior to benefit another -Genuine altruism is unlikely/rare -True altruism is sacrificing one's life for another -Implicit in altruism is that it is selfless -But, our willingness to help is influenced by self-serving and selfless considerations

Ostracism:

acts of excluding or ignoring -treats person as if they don't even exist at all -deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups -this hurts even when it comes from a despised group, even when it's expected and even when it's online or via social media

Ethnocentric:

believing in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultural group, and having a corresponding disdain for all other groups

Love:

characterized by components of intimacy, passion, and commitment (those components makeup "consummate love") passion love: is experienced as a bewildering confusion of ecstasy and anxiety, elation and pain companionate love: the initial passionate high settles to a steadier, more affectionate relationship (companionate love) -most likely to occur when both partners feel the partnership is equitable, with both perceiving themselves receiving from the relationship in proportion to what they contribute to it -reward of this love= opportunity for intimate self-disclosure/disclosure reciprocity

jigsaw classroom

educational approach designed to minimize prejudice by requiring all children to make independent contributions to a shared project

hostile expectation bias: Hostile attribution bias:

expectation: the tendency to assume that people will react to potential conflicts with aggression attribution: the tendency to perceive hostile intent in others

group-serving bias:

explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one's own group)

Attributional Ambiguity

members of stigmatized groups may be uncertain if the treatment they receive is due to themselves personally or due to their group membership

mirror exposure effect

people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them

Aggression:

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone -in laboratory experiments, this might mean delivering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt another's feelings

Social Norms (Sociological perspective): -reciprocity norm: -social-responsibility norm -norms to help women -violating helping norms can be disruptive and threatening

reciprocity norm: an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them social-responsibility: an expectation that people will help those needing their help norms to help women: -women offer help equally to males and females -men offer more help when the persons in need are women Violating helping norms can be disruptive and threatening: -McCarty and Kelly: opening doors for men lowers their self-esteem and self-efficacy

relational/social aggression physical aggression: hostile aggression: instrumental aggression: indirect and direct:

relational/social: Hurting someone else's feelings or threatening their relationships. Sometimes called relational aggression, it includes cyberbullying and some forms of in-person bullying. physical: hurting someone else's body hostile: aggression that springs from anger; its goal is to injure -driven by anger instrumental: aggression that aims to injure, but only as a means to some other end -to achieve another outcome direct: direct confrontation indirect: exclusion/ostracism/silent treatment/gossip -verbal: insult, name-calling, derogation -physical (hitting, pushing, shoving, etc.) -relational/social -mobbing -excluding/shunning -bullying

________ refers to accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by thinking of them as "exceptions to the rule."

subtyping

Implicit Association Task (Greenwald):

test designed to examine participants' associations between concepts that they are not aware of. Words appear on screen, and participants indicate if they are related to a concept (e.g., "math") and a gender (e.g., "male") using the same or different keys. -Related to both discriminatory behavior and explicit measures of prejudice (McConnell & Leibold, 2001). -Criticisms: •Knowledge of cultural stereotype does not mean personal endorsement (hard to disentangle individual from culture). •Pro-white does not mean anti-black.

General Aggression Model (Anderson): (learning perspective)

•Carrying out aggression is based mostly on knowledge structures (i.e. scripts/schemas/biased beliefs) created by social learning -Three internal aspects •Cognitions (biased aggressive beliefs) •Affect (positive/negative) •Arousal (high/low) **These three internal aspects are interrelated, and activating one will activate the others Aggressive Cognitions: Inner biases that lead to aggression •Expect others to act aggressive •View ambiguous acts as aggressive •Assume when someone does something to hurt or offend them, it was deliberate and intended to harm. •Aggressive people assume aggression will make them feel better.

Sex differences in Short-term mating: -cultural and evolutionary factors

•Cultural factors -Societal norms influence men to be more agentic and women to be more passive across all behaviors, including sex (but why did these norms develop?) -Cultural double-standard, with promiscuous sexuality more acceptable for men than women (but why did this double-standard come about?) -Recent research suggests these differences in acceptability are closing •Evolutionary factors -Minimum obligatory parental investment (Trivers, 1972) •Men are physiologically required to contribute only a few sex cells to offspring, women must provide substantial pre- and postnatal resources if offspring are to survive •Short term mating has higher cost-to-benefit ratio for women than it does for men •Men more likely to have unrestricted socio-sexual orientation (sex without emotional bonds) (Simpson & Gangestad, 1991).

Berkowitz's Two-Factor Theory of Aggression (learning perspective):

•Evolved from frustration-aggression hypothesis: "frustration causes aggression" -Table shaking study -Frustration is the blocking of goal-directed behavior -Triggers a readiness to aggress or displacement •Original theory overstated the frustration-aggression connection -Frustration produces anger, an emotional readiness to aggress -But, it can cause helplessness or persistence, too. -Other things cause aggression that aren't frustrating **Two factors must co-occur in order to produce aggression: 1. arousal (hormonal or externally induced.. or frustration) + 2. external cue (learned association with aggression) -BOTH must be present for aggression to occur examples: -Rifle study (lab) --> presence of rifle + insult led to high intensity of electric shock given to target (BOTH PRESENT) -dunking both study (field) --> guns and saloon + insult led to higher number of bean bags thrown at dunk tank

Measures of Prejudice: -explicit -disguised -implicit

•Explicit -"Dominative racism" (Kovel, 1970) - the type who acts out bigoted beliefs—he represents the open flame of racial hatred" (p. 54) -Bogardus social distance scale (mentioned earlier) -"old fashioned" measures -Problem with this method is that people become aware of what is not appropriate to say (PC concerns) •Disguised measures that are less obvious -Modern Racism -Aversive Racism -Benevolent Sexism •Implicit measures -IAT, AMP, Go-NoGo

Aggression and Violent video games:

•Generally agreed upon that playing violent videogames increases: -Aggressive behaviors -Aggressive cognitions -Physiological arousal (during the game and soon after) •Reduces -Prosocial behavior -Empathy to others in pain •Bottom line is that the effect sizes, while reliable, are not big, leading some to question the importance of this question.

Aggression influenced by gender and culture:

•Girls and women more often use relational aggression -More socially acceptable (less able to be caught and punished for it) •Grown women often behave in patterns learned from childhood/adolescence •Cultures that are tolerant of women expressing anger experience less relational aggression •Often used on "tall poppies" -Females who stand out among her peers.

Face Morphing (Hugenberg and Bodenhausen)

•Hugenberg & Bodenhausen, 2003 -African American or White faces morphing from anger to happiness -Anger "lingers longer" for African American faces -This effect is more pronounced for participants who show implicit prejudice.

Bushman -- Testing Catharsis

•IV 1: Insult vs. Control •IV 2: Catharsis vs. Control •DV: Hot Sauce Allocation •Results: Insult led to aggression, but the MOST aggression came from those who punched the pillow. **Insult led to aggression, but the MOST aggression came from those who punched the pillow

Short Term Mate Selection

•Males are more likely to report that they would enter into a short-term sexual relationship than are females. •The sexes are more similar in what they prioritize in their partners for short-term relationships. •Five studies (Li & Kenrick, JPSP, 2006) -Men and women given "mate budgets" to design short-term mates, and asked whether they would actually mate with their constructed partner. -Mate screening paradigm -Reported reasons for having casual sex. Men have lower thresholds for entering into short-term mating relationships -More willing than women to engage in sexual relations after any length of acquaintance

Bandura's Bobo Doll Studies:

•Participants were normal children •Watched violent TV episode or various "control" episodes that were not violent...discuss •Manipulated whether aggressor in video was rewarded or not •Observed children in play area after they watched video •Aggression defined as number of times the children hit the bobo doll Results: •Viewing rewarded violence increases violent behaviors in children. •Viewing unrewarded violence does not necessarily increase violence •Choice of control groups are very important when conducting this research

Initial Attraction: -Propinquity -physical attractiveness -similarity/complementarity -responsiveness -reciprocal liking

•Propinquity (we like those who live/work near us; mere exposure) -1st predictor of whether any two ppl are friends -is conducive to repeated exposure and interaction which enables us to discover similarities and to feel each other's liking •Physical Attractiveness (we like those who are physically attractive; halo, rewards, kernel of truth; evolutionary signs of health and reproductive advantage) -2nd determinant of initial attraction -physical attractiveness stereotype--> what is beautiful is good •Similarity/Complementarity (we like those who are similar to us—it's rewarding; complementarity of needs) •Responsiveness (we like those who are responsive to us; signals belonging, worth, and control) •Reciprocal liking (we like those who like us—it's rewarding) -we also.. comply more, help more, attribute more pos characteristics to them, and judge their actions more favorably -Dai 2013 playing hard to get during speed dating lowers liking but motivates pursuit

I3 (i cubed) theory of aggression (learning perspective): Finkel -Instigating forces -Impelling forces -Inhibiting forces

•This theory presents a structure by which aggression can be predicted. -Instigating forces: Situational factors that induce aggression •Ex: Direct provocation, goal obstruction, rejection -Impelling forces: Factors that determine the strength of the aggressive impulse •Ex: Hostility, narcissism, testosterone, jealousy, high temperature) -Inhibiting forces: Factors that reduce tendencies to aggress •Ex: Self-control, beliefs that aggression leads to poor outcomes,, being sober, thoughtful.

Adorno's Theory (1947) of the Authoritarian Personality: -Freudian Perspective

•Traits that individuals possess that lead them to be highly prejudiced •"Potentially fascistic individual" -Developed the F-scale Adorno and Collegues discovered that hostility toward jews often coexisted with hostility towards minorities. In those who were strongly prejudiced, prejudice appeared to be an entire way of thinking about those who are different or marginalized. --> These ETHOCENTRIC people shared certain tendencies: an intolerance for weakness, a punitive attitude, and a submissive respect for their groups' authorities, as reflected in their agreement with such statements "obedience and respect for authority are the most important virtues children should learn" -The resulting intrapsychic conflicts cause personal insecurities, resulting in that person's superego to adhere to externally imposed conventional norms (conventionalism), and to the authorities who impose these norms (authoritarian submission). •*Freudian perspective* -Weak Ego, Strong super-ego, poorly controlled id. -Strong adherence to externally imposed conventional norms, and to authorities who impose these norms •Child rearing practices à Authoritarian Personality à Fascism à Prejudice against out-groups

Bogardus Social Distance Scale (1925)

•Used to measure prejudice -Affective distance between members of two groups •The scale asks people the extent to which they would be accepting of each group (a score of 1.00 for a group is taken to indicate no social distance): 1.As close relatives by marriage. 2.As my close personal friends. 3.As neighbors on the same street. 4.As co-workers in the same occupation. 5.As citizens in my country. 6. As only visitors in my country. Would exclude from my country -his repeated research shows the extent of social distancing in the US is decreasing slightly and fewer distinctions are being made among groups

The Gestalt Perspective on Perception

•We naturally group items based on their -Proximity -Similarity •Recent research shows that even infants group things according to similarity and proximity •Grouping is functional, it simplifies our complex world. -It gives us a sense of control. •It can, however, have negative consequences. •Everyone has the basic foundations for being "prejudiced." •The better question is: "When are we more or less likely to feel, think, and act according to these prejudices?"

Biases that Affect Evaluation of Applicants and Performances

•When rating the quality of verbal skills as indicated by vocabulary definitions, evaluators rated the skills lower if they were told an African American provided the definitions than if they were told that a white person provided them (Biernat & Manis, 1994). •Randomly assigning different names to résumés showed that job applicants with "white-sounding names" were more likely to be interviewed for open positions than were equally qualified applicants with "African American sounding name" (Bertrand & Senhil, 2004) •When symphony orchestras adopted "blind" auditions by using a screen to conceal candidates' identities, the hiring of women musicians increased. Blind auditions fostered impartiality by preventing assumptions that women musicians have "smaller techniques" and produce "poorer sound" from influencing the evaluations (Goldin & Rouse, 2000). Later, they had to remove the shoes of the person auditioning, because judges could hear the clicking of heals, guessed the person was female, and this resulted once again in lower evaluations. •Incongruities between perceptions of female gender roles and leadership roles cause evaluators to assume that women will be less competent leaders. •When women leaders provide clear evidence of their competence, thus violating traditional gender norms, evaluators perceive them to be less likeable and are less likely to recommend them for hiring or promotion (Eagly & Karau, 2002). •Science faculty rated the male applicant as more competent and hirable than the identical female applicant. •They also selected a higher starting salary and offered more career mentoring to the male applicant (Moss-Racusin, Dovidio, Brescoli, Graham, & Handelsman, 2012). •A study of over 300 recommendation letters for medical faculty hired by a large US medical school found that letters for female applicants were shorter, provide "minimal assurance" rather than solid recommendation, raised more doubts, portrayed women as students and teachers while portraying men as researchers and professionals, and more frequently mentioned women's personal lives (Trix & Psenka, 2003). •In a national study, 238 academic psychologists (120 female) evaluated a curriculum vitae randomly assigned to a male or female name. Vitae with male names received better evaluations for teaching, research, and service experience and were more likely to be hired (Steinpreis et al, 1999). •In a recent study here at Purdue, female faculty received lower course evaluations ("Overall, I would rate the instructor as..." [excellent to very poor] than males. •Female faculty members were expected to be more friendly, likeable, nurturing, understanding, caring, and pretty (Ai et al, 2014) •A study of postdoctoral fellowships awarded by the Medical Research Council of Sweden found that women candidates needed substantially more publications to achieve the same rating as men, unless they personally knew someone on the panel (Wennerås & Wold, 1997)

Common social assumptions and expectations:

•When shown photographs of people of the same height, evaluators overestimated the heights of male subjects and underestimated the heights of female subjects, even though a reference point, such as a doorway, was provided (Biernat et al., 1991). •When shown photographs of men with similar athletic abilities, evaluators rated the athletic ability of African American men higher than that of white men (Biernat & Manis, 1994). •When asked to choose counselors from among a group of equally competent applicants who were neither exceptionally qualified for the position, students more often chose white candidates than African American candidates, indicating their willingness to give the majority group the benefit of the doubt (Dovidio & Gaertner, 2000). **These studies show that we often apply generalizations that may or may not be valid to the evaluation of individuals.