Psy 658 Midterm

Is development continuous or discontinuous?

(a) Some theorists believe that development is a smooth, continuous process. Individuals gradually add more of the same types of skills. (b) Other theorists think that development takes place in discontinuous stages. People change rapidly as they step up to a new level and then change very little for a while. With each new step, the person interprets and responds to the world in a reorganized, qualitatively different way. Other theorists believe that development is characterized by both continuous and discontinuous change.

Effective interventions for childhood obesity & diabetes

Consequences of obesity. Obese children are at risk for lifelong health problems. Symptoms that begin to appear in the early school years—high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, respiratory abnormalities, insulin resistance, and inflammatory reactions—are powerful predictors of heart disease, circulatory difficulties, type 2 diabetes, gallbladder disease, sleep and digestive disorders, many forms of cancer, and premature death. Furthermore, obesity has caused a dramatic rise in cases of diabetes in children, sometimes leading to early, severe complications, including stroke, kidney failure, and circulatory problems that heighten the risk of eventual blindness and leg amputation. treating obesity. In Mona's case, the school nurse suggested that Mona and her obese mother enter a weight-loss pro- gram together. But Mona's mother, unhappily married for many years, had her own reasons for overeating and rejected this idea. In one study, nearly 70 percent of parents judged their overweight or obese children to have a normal weight (Jones et al., 2011). Consistent with these findings, most obese children do not get any treatment. The most effective interventions are family-based and focus on changing weight-related behaviors. In one program, both parent and child revised eating patterns, exercised daily, and reinforced each other with praise and points for progress, which they exchanged for special activities and times together. The more weight parents lost, the more their children lost. Follow-ups after 5 and 10 years showed that children maintained their weight loss more effectively than adults—a finding that underscores the importance of early intervention. Monitoring dietary intake and physical activity is important. Small wireless sensors that sync with mobile devices, enabling individualized goal-setting and tracking of progress through game-like features, are effective. But these interventions work best when parents' and children's weight problems are not severe. Children consume one-third of their daily caloric intake at school. Therefore, schools can help reduce obesity by serving healthier meals and ensuring regular physical activity (Lakshman, Elks, & Ong, 2012). Because obesity is expected to rise further without broad prevention strategies, many U.S. states and cities have passed obesity-reduction legislation. Among measures taken are weight-related school screenings for all children, improved school nutrition standards that include food and beverages sold outside of meals, additional school recess time and physical education, and obesity awareness and weight-reduction programs as part of school curricula. A review of these school-based efforts reported impressive benefits (Waters et al., 2011). Obesity prevention in schools was more successful in reducing 6- to 12-year-olds' BMIs than programs delivered in other community settings, perhaps because schools are better able to provide long-term, comprehensive intervention.

Continuous vs. Discontinuous Development (class lecture & asynch)

Continuous: Gradual process Skills are generalized but consistent Development of additional skills through time - A process of gradual augmenting of skills over time Discontinuous: Stages Qualitative instead of quantitative - A process of new ways and skills emerging at particular times; belief in stages or qualitative changes during periods of development

Peer relationships in middle school Changes physical vs verbal aggression

Development of Aggression Beginning in late infancy, all children display aggression from time to time, and as opportunities to interact with siblings and peers increase, aggressive outbursts occur more often. By the second year, aggressive acts with two distinct purposes emerge. Initially, the most common is proactive (or instrumental ) aggression, in which children act to fulfill a need or desire—to obtain an object, privilege, space, or social reward, such as adult or peer attention—and unemotionally attack a person to achieve their goal. The other type, reactive (or hostile) aggression, is an angry, defensive response to provocation or a blocked goal and is meant to hurt another person. Proactive and reactive aggression come in three forms, which are the focus of most research: ● Physical aggression harms others through physical injury— pushing, hitting, kicking, or punching others, or destroying another's property. ● Verbal aggression harms others through threats of physical aggression, name-calling, or hostile teasing. ● Relational aggression damages another's peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation. Although verbal aggression is always direct, physical and relational aggression can be either direct or indirect. For example, hitting injures a person directly, whereas destroying property inflicts physical harm indirectly. Similarly, saying, "Do what I say, or I won't be your friend," conveys relational aggression directly, while spreading rumors, refusing to talk to a peer, or manipulating friendships by saying behind someone's back, "Don't play with her; she's a nerd," do so indirectly. Physical aggression rises sharply between ages 1 and 3 and then diminishes as verbal aggression replaces it. And proactive aggression declines as preschoolers' improved capacity to delay gratification enables them to resist grabbing others' possessions. But reactive aggression in verbal and relational forms tends to rise over early and middle childhood. Older children are better able to recognize malicious intentions and, as a result, more often retaliate in hostile ways. By age 17 months, boys are more physically aggressive than girls—a difference found throughout childhood in many cultures. The sex difference is due in part to biology—in particular, to male sex hormones (androgens) and temperamental traits (activity level, irritability, impulsivity) on which boys exceed girls. Gender-role conformity is also important. For example, parents respond far more negatively to physical fighting in girls. Although girls have a reputation for being both verbally and relationally more aggressive than boys, the sex difference is small. Beginning in the preschool years, girls concentrate most of their aggressive acts in the relational category. Boys inflict harm in more variable ways. Physically and verbally aggressive boys also tend to be relationally aggressive (Card et al., 2008). Therefore, boys display overall rates of aggression that are much higher than girls'. At the same time, girls more often use indirect relational tactics that—in disrupting intimate bonds especially important to girls—can be particularly mean. Whereas physical attacks are usually brief, acts of indirect relational aggression may extend for hours, weeks, or even months. In one instance, a 6-year-old girl formed a "pretty-girls club" and—for nearly an entire school year—convinced its members to exclude several classmates by saying they were "dirty and smelly." An occasional aggressive exchange between preschoolers is normal. But children who are emotionally negative, impulsive, and disobedient and who score low in cognitive abilities— especially, language and executive function skills necessary for self-regulation—are at risk for early, high rates of physical or relational aggression (or both) that can persist. Persistent aggression, in turn, predicts later internalizing and externalizing difficulties and social skills deficits, including loneliness, anxiety, depression, peer relationship problems, and antisocial activity in middle childhood and adolescence

Major Theoretical Orientations

THEORIES THAT LAID THE FOUNDATION 1. Freud's and Psychoanalytical Perspective - internal conflict (biological drives and social expectations) 2. Behavioral and Social Learning Perspectives - Classical conditioning Associations (Pavlov) - Operant conditioning Positive and Negative Punishment and Reinforcement (Skinner) - Social learning observational learning (Bandura) 3. Five Founding Perspectives of Psychology - Psychodynamic - Behavioral - Cognitive - Humanistic - Biological

Bowlby's Ethological 4 phases of attachment 3. "Clear-cut" attachment phase (6-8 months to 18 months- 2 years)

3. "Clear-cut" attachment phase (6-8 months to 18 months- 2 years). Now attachment to the familiar caregiver is evident. Babies display separation anxiety, becoming upset when their trusted caregiver leaves. Like stranger anxiety (see page 186), separation anxiety does not always occur; it depends on infant temperament and the current situation. But in many cultures, separation anxiety increases between 6 and 15 months. Besides protesting the parent's departure, older infants and toddlers try hard to maintain her presence. They approach, follow, and climb on her in preference to others. And they use the familiar caregiver as a secure base from which to explore

superego

Between 3 and 6 years of age, the superego, or conscience, develops as parents insist that children conform to the values of society. Now the ego faces the increasingly complex task of reconciling the demands of the id, the external world, and conscience —for example, the id impulse to grab an attractive toy from a playmate versus the superego's warning that such behavior is wrong.

Nature vs. Nurture on development (book)

By nature, we mean the hereditary information we receive from our parents at the moment of conception. By nurture, we mean the complex forces of the physical and social world that influence our biological makeup and psychological experiences before and after birth. Although all theories grant roles to both nature and nurture, they vary in emphasis. A theory's position on the roles of nature and nurture affects how it explains individual differences.

FREUD'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES - Genital - (puberty/adolescence onward)

Genital - (puberty/adolescence onward) - Sexual intimacy - Establishing intimate relationships - Contributing to society Genital: With puberty, sexual impulses reappear. Successful development during earlier stages leads to marriage, mature sexuality, and child rearing. Erotic Focus: Genitals - being sexually intimate Key Tasks & experiences: establishing intimate relationships and contributing to society through work

Supporting language development in infancy (babbling/cooing)

Language Development • Nativist perspective—language acquisition device—all children have innate system of grammar/set of rules • Interactionist perspective—inner capacity and external influences • Process—cooing, babbling, joint attention (caregiver directs attention and names object), first words (under-extension and overextension), two-word phrases Support Language Development • Respond to coos and babbles with words • Establish joint attention & comment on what child sees • Play social games • Engage in joint make believe • Engage in conversation • Read and engage in dialogue about picture books

Middle adulthood (40-65 years)

Many people are at the height of their careers and attain leadership positions. They must also help their children begin independent lives and their parents adapt to aging. They become more aware of their own mortality.

Early adulthood (18-40 years)

Most young people leave home, complete their education, and begin full-time work. Major concerns are developing a career, forming an intimate partnership, and marrying, rearing children, or pursuing other lifestyles.

Adolescence (11-18 years)

Puberty leads to an adult-sized body and sexual maturity. Thought becomes abstract and idealistic and school achievement more serious. Adolescents begin to establish autonomy from the family and to define personal values and goals.

ego

The ego, the conscious, rational part of personality, emerges in early infancy to redirect the id's impulses so they are discharged in acceptable ways.

Id

The id, the largest portion of the mind, is the source of basic biological needs and desires.

Middle childhood (6-11 years)

The school years are marked by improved athletic abilities; more logical thought processes; mastery of fundamental reading, writing, math, and other academic knowledge and skills; advances in self‑understanding, morality, and friendship; and the beginnings of peer-group membership.

Behaviorism (lecture and book)

Traditional behaviorism Classical conditioning associations (Pavlov's dogs) Operant conditioning: positive/negative reinforcement & punishment (Skinner) Social learning theory - Observational learning/imitation (Bandura) Behaviorism and social learning theory Continuous: Development involves an increase in learned behaviors. Many possible courses: Behaviors reinforced and modeled may vary from person to person. Emphasis on nurture: Development is the result of conditioning and modeling. Both early and later experiences are important According to behaviorism, directly observable events— stimuli and responses—are the appropriate focus of study. North American behaviorism began in the early twentieth century with the work of John Watson (1878-1958), who wanted to create an objective science of psychology. Traditional Behaviorism. Watson was inspired by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov's studies of animal learning. Pavlov knew that dogs release saliva as an innate reflex when they are given food. But he noticed that his dogs were salivating before they tasted any food—when they saw the trainer who usually fed them. The dogs, Pavlov reasoned, must have learned to associate a neutral stimulus (the trainer) with another stimulus (food) that produces a reflexive response (salivation). Because of this association, the neutral stimulus alone could bring about a response resembling the reflex. Eager to test this idea, Pavlov successfully taught dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by pairing it with the presentation of food. He had discovered classical conditioning. Watson wanted to find out if classical conditioning could be applied to children's behavior. In a historic experiment, he taught Albert, an 11-month-old infant, to fear a neutral stimulus—a soft white rat—by presenting it several times with a sharp, loud sound, which naturally scared the baby. Little Albert, who at first had reached out eagerly to touch the furry rat, began to cry and retreat at the sight of it (Watson & Raynor, 1920). In fact, Albert's fear was so intense that researchers eventually challenged the ethics of studies like this one. Watson concluded that environment is the supreme force in development and that adults can mold children's behavior by carefully controlling stimulus- response associations. He viewed development as continuous—a gradual increase with age in the number and strength of these associations. Another form of behaviorism was B. F. Skinner's (1904- 1990) operant conditioning theory. According to Skinner, the frequency of a behavior can be increased by following it with a wide variety of reinforcers, such as food, praise, or a friendly smile, or decreased through punishment, such as disapproval or withdrawal of privileges. As a result of Skinner's work, operant conditioning became a broadly applied learning principle. Several kinds of social learning theory emerged. The most influential, devised by Albert Bandura (1925- ), emphasizes modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning, as a powerful source of development. The baby who claps her hands after her mother does so, the child who angrily hits a playmate in the same way that he has been punished at home, and the teenager who wears the same clothes and hairstyle as her friends at school are all displaying observational learning. In his early work, Bandura found that diverse factors affect children's motivation to imitate: their own history of reinforcement or punishment for the behavior, the promise of future reinforcement or punishment, and even observations of the model being reinforced or punished.

Possible Contributing Factors to preterm births

• Poor maternal nutritional intake • Poorly functioning placenta • Babies with defects that prevented prenatal growth

disorganized/disoriented attachment

● Disorganized/disoriented attachment. This pattern reflects the greatest insecurity. At reunion, these infants show con- fused, contradictory behaviors—for example, looking away while the parent is holding them or approaching the parent with flat, depressed emotion. Most display a dazed facial expression, and a few cry out unexpectedly after having calmed down or display odd, frozen postures. About 15 per- cent of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern.

Attachment Q-Sort

An alternative method, the Attachment Q-Sort, suitable for children between 1 and 5 years, depends on home observation (Waters et al., 1995). Either the parent or a highly trained observer sorts 90 behaviors—such as "Child greets mother with a big smile when she enters the room," "If mother moves very far, child follows along," and "Child uses mother's facial expressions as a good source of information when something looks risky or threatening"—into nine categories ranging from "highly descriptive" to "not at all descriptive" of the child. Then a score, ranging from high to low in security, is computed.

Bullying

Bullying • Peer victimization—verbal and physical abuse • Traditional and cyberbullying • More often in schools where teachers are seen as unfair and uncaring • Victims are usually more passive and physically frail; also over-controlling parents, low self esteem, dependence, and a fearful demeanor • Consequences—low self esteem, school avoidance, depression, suicidal thoughts • Interventions often aimed at victims becoming more responsive and gaining friends; more effective to promote more prosocial behavior in the environment

Piaget's Concrete Operational (7-11)

Concrete Operational (7-11) - Conservation - Math concepts and operations Children's reasoning becomes logical and better organized. School-age children understand that a certain amount of lemonade or play dough remains the same even after its appearance changes. They also organize objects into hierarchies of classes and subclasses. However, children think in a logical, organized fashion only when dealing with concrete information they can perceive directly.

Infancy (Birth) and toddlerhood (2yrs)

Dramatic changes in the body and brain support the emergence of a wide array of motor, perceptual, and intellectual capacities and first intimate ties to others.

Early childhood (2-6 years)

During the "play years," motor skills are refined, thought and language expand at an astounding pace, a sense of morality is evident, and children establish ties with peers.

Piaget's Formal Operational 12+

Formal Operational 12+ - Abstract thinking - Moral reasoning The capacity for abstract, systematic thinking enables adolescents, when faced with a problem, to start with a hypothesis, deduce testable inferences, and isolate and combine variables to see which inferences are confirmed. Adolescents can also evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real-world circumstances.

Divorce

Helping Children Through Divorce • Shield children from conflict • Provide as much continuity as possible • Explain the divorce and tell children what to expect • Emphasize the permanence of the divorce • Respond sympathetically to children's feelings • Promote continuing relationship with both parents • Authoritative parenting—affection, acceptance, reasonable demands

Isolette - Interventions for Preterm Infants

Interventions for Preterm Infants A preterm baby is cared for in a special Plexiglas-enclosed bed called an isolette. Temperature is carefully controlled because these babies cannot yet regulate their own body temperature effectively. To help protect the baby from infection, air is filtered before it enters the isolette. When a preterm infant is fed through a stomach tube, breathes with the aid of a respirator, and receives medication through an intravenous needle, the isolette can be very isolating indeed! Physical needs that otherwise would lead to close contact and other human stimulation are met mechanically.

Options to reduce pain in childbirth

Labor and Delivery Medication Some form of medication is used in more than 80 percent of U.S. births. Analgesics, drugs used to relieve pain, may be given in mild doses during labor to help a mother relax. Anesthetics are a stronger type of painkiller that blocks sensation. Currently, the most common approach to controlling pain during labor is epidural analgesia, in which a regional pain-relieving drug is delivered continuously through a catheter into a small space in the lower spine. Unlike older spinal block procedures, which numb the entire lower half of the body, epidural analgesia limits pain reduction to the pelvic region. Because the mother retains the capacity to feel the pressure of the contractions and to move her trunk and legs, she is able to push during the second stage of labor. Although pain-relieving drugs help women cope with childbirth and enable doctors to perform essential medical interventions, they also can cause problems. Epidural analgesia, for example, weakens uterine contractions. As a result, labor is prolonged, and the chances of instrument delivery or cesarean (surgical) birth increase. And because drugs rapidly cross the placenta, exposed newborns are at risk for respiratory distress. They also tend to have lower Apgar scores, to be sleepy and withdrawn, to suck poorly during feedings, and to be irritable when awake. Although no confirmed long-term consequences for development exist, the negative impact of these drugs on the newborn's adjustment supports the current trend to limit their use. *mindful interventions ● Classes: learn about the anatomy and physiology of labor and delivery. Knowledge about the birth process reduces a mother's fear. ● Relaxation and breathing techniques. During each class, learn relaxation and breathing exercises aimed at counteracting the pain of uterine contractions. ● Labor coach: partner learns how to help during childbirth by reminding her to relax and breathe, massaging her back, supporting her body, and offering encouragement and affection. ● Textbook noted doulas reduce pharmaceutical analgesic and anesthesia interventions

FREUD'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES - Latency (6-12 years)

Latency (6-12 years) - None - Sexually repressed - Socialization and friendships - Expanding social contacts Latency: Sexual instincts die down, and the superego strengthens as children acquire new social values from adults and same-sex peers. Erotic Focus: none - sexually repressed Key Tasks & experiences: expanding social contacts

Late adulthood (65 years-death)

People adjust to retirement, to decreased physical strength and health, and often to the death of an intimate partner. They reflect on the meaning of their lives.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 8 Ego Integrity vs Despair Late Adulthood

Stage 8 Ego Integrity vs Despair Late Adulthood - 65-Death - Existential Crisis or Spiritual Reconciliation Integrity versus despair: Integrity results from feeling that life was worth living as it happened. Older people who are dissatisfied with their lives fear death.

TV time during toddler stage

TV and Video Deficit Effect Toddlers demonstrate poorer performance after viewing a video than viewing a live demonstration. Increased TV watching is associated with negative language progress, attention, memory, and reading difficulties in early school years TV and videos that are effective teaching tools have closeup to characters who look directly at camera, address questions to viewers, and pause for response. research shows a correlation between excessive television viewing and overweight in older children, parents should limit the time very young children spend in front of the TV.

Bowlby's Ethological 4 phases of attachment 2. "Attachment-in-the-making" phase (6 weeks to 6-8 months)

2. "Attachment-in-the-making" phase (6 weeks to 6-8 months). During this phase, infants respond differently to a familiar caregiver than to a stranger. For example, at 4 months, Timmy smiled, laughed, and babbled more freely when interacting with his mother and quieted more quickly when she picked him up. As infants learn that their own actions affect the behavior of those around them, they begin to develop a sense of trust—the expectation that the caregiver will respond when signaled—but they still do not protest when separated from her.

Bowlby's Ethological 4 phases of attachment 4. Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years & on).

4. Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years and on). By the end of the second year, rapid growth in representation and language enables toddlers to understand some of the factors that influence the parent's coming and going and to predict her return. As a result, separation pro- test declines. Now children negotiate with the caregiver, using requests and persuasion to alter her goals. For example, at age 2, Caitlin asked Carolyn and David to read her a story before leaving her with a babysitter. The extra time with her parents, along with a better understanding of where they were going ("to have dinner with Uncle Sean") and when they would be back ("right after you go to sleep"), helped Caitlin withstand her parents' absence. According to Bowlby(1980),out of their experiences during these four phases, children construct an enduring affectionate tie to the caregiver that they can use as a secure base in the parents' absence. This image serves as an internal working model, or set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures and their likelihood of providing support during times of stress. The internal working model becomes a vital part of personality serving as a guide for all future close relationships

NEWBORN BEHAVIORS - 5 States of Arousal

5 States of arousal Regular sleep Irregular sleep Drowsiness Quiet alertness Waking activity Regular, or NREM, sleep: The infant is at full rest and shows little or no body activity. The eyelids are closed, no eye movements occur, the face is relaxed, and breathing is slow and regular. 8-9 hours Irregular, or REM, sleep: Gentle limb movements, occasional stirring, and facial grimacing occur. Although the eyelids are closed, occasional rapid eye movements can be seen beneath them. Breathing is irregular. 8-9 hours Drowsiness: The infant is either falling asleep or waking up. Body is less active than in irregular sleep but more active than in regular sleep. The eyes open and close; when open, they have a glazed look. Breathing is even but somewhat faster than in regular sleep. duration Varies Quiet alertness: The infant's body is relatively inactive, with eyes open and attentive. Breathing is even. 2-3 hours Waking activity and crying: The infant shows frequent bursts of uncoordinated body activity. Breathing is very irregular. Face may be relaxed or tense and wrinkled. Crying may occur. 1-4 hours

Week 3: Chapter 4

5 and 6 Infancy and Toddlerhood

lifespan perspective of development

A leading systems approach is the lifespan perspective. Four assumptions make up this broader view: that development is: (1) lifelong (2) multidimensional and multidirectional (3) highly plastic (4) affected by multiple, interacting forces Development is lifelong. Lifespan theorists believe that development is life-long, and change is apparent across the lifespan. No single age period is more crucial, characterizes, or dominates human development. Consequently, the term lifespan development will be used throughout the textbook. Development is multidirectional. Humans change in many directions. We may show gains in some areas of development, while showing losses in other areas. Every change, whether it is finishing high school, getting married, or becoming a parent, entails both growth and loss. Development is multidimensional. We change across three general domains/dimensions; physical, cognitive, and psychosocial. The physical domain includes changes in height and weight, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, as well as the propensity for disease and illness. The cognitive domain encompasses the changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem- solving, memory, and language. The psychosocial domain focuses on changes in emotion, self- perception and interpersonal relationships with families, peers, and friends. All three domains influence each other. It is also important to note that a change in one domain may cascade and prompt changes in the other domains. For instance, an infant who has started to crawl or walk will encounter more objects and people, thus fostering developmental change in the child's understanding of the physical and social world. Development is multidisciplinary. As mentioned at the start of the chapter, human development is such a vast topic of study that it requires the theories, research methods, and knowledge base of many academic disciplines. Development is characterized by plasticity. Plasticity is all about our ability to change and that many of our characteristics are malleable. For instance, plasticity is illustrated in the brain's ability to learn from experience and how it can recover from injury. Development is multicontextual. Development occurs in many contexts. Baltes (1987) identified three specific contextual influences.

The strange situation

A widely used laboratory procedure for assessing the quality of attachment between 1 and 2 years of age is the Strange Situation. In designing it, Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues reasoned that securely attached infants and toddlers should use the parent as a secure base from which to explore in an unfamiliar playroom. In addition, when the parent leaves, an unfamiliar adult should be less comforting than the parent. The Strange Situation takes the baby through eight short episodes in which brief separations from and reunions with the parent occur. 1. researcher introduces parent and baby to playroom and then leaves. 2. parent is seated while baby plays with toys. parent as a secure base 3. stranger enters, is seated, and talks to parent. reaction to unfamiliar adult 4.parent leaves room. stranger responds to baby and offers comfort if baby is upset. separation anxiety 5. parent returns, greets baby, and offers comfort if necessary. stranger leaves room. reaction to reunion 6. parent leaves room. separation anxiety 7. stranger enters room and offers comfort. ability to be soothed by stranger 8. parent returns, greets baby, offers comfort if necessary, and tries to reinterest baby in toys. reaction to reunion

Influences on development: (class lecture) history-graded vs. age-graded vs nonnormative

AGE GRADED INFLUENCE: Biological HISTORY GRADED INFLUENCE: Major Life events NON NORMATIVE INFLUENCES: Unique positive or negative experiences 1.You have a client who is a 15 years old girl who is anorexic. How might you consider this an age graded influence 2. You have a client who lived with his mother before she died. She was 85 years old when he moved in with her to take care of her which was 4 years ago. He came to you because she was a hoarder, and he is trying to find out why? How might you utilize history graded influences in your discussion with your client 3.You have a client who shares she is overly anxious because of COVID. She tells you she is drinking more and is becoming more angry by the day. How could you use a non normative influence explanation with her?

Bowlby's Ethological 4 phases of attachment 1. Preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks)

According to Bowlby, the infant's relationship with the parent begins as a set of innate signals that call the adult to the baby's side. Over time, a true affectionate bond forms, supported by new cognitive and emotional capacities as well as by a history of warm, sensitive care. Attachment develops in four phases: 1. Preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks). Built-in signals— grasping, smiling, crying, and gazing into the adult's eyes— help bring newborn babies into close contact with other humans, who comfort them. Newborns prefer their own mother's smell, voice, and face (see Chapters 3 and 4). But they are not yet attached to her, since they do not mind being left with an unfamiliar adult.

Discontinuous (book)

According to a second view, infants and children have unique ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving, ones quite different from those of adults. If so, then development is discontinuous— a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times. From this perspective, Sofie could not yet perceive, remember, and categorize experiences as a mature person can. Rather, she moved through a series of developmental steps, each with unique features, until she reached the highest level of functioning.

Nonnormative Influences (book)

Age-graded and history graded influences are normative—meaning typical, or average—because each affects large numbers of people in a similar way. Nonnormative influences are events that are irregular: They happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable. Consequently, they enhance the multidirectionality of development. Nonnormative influences that had a major impact on the direction of Sofie's life included piano lessons in childhood with an inspiring teacher; delayed marriage, parenthood, and career entry; and a battle with cancer. Because they occur irregularly, nonnormative events are difficult for researchers to capture and study. Yet, as each of us can attest from our own experiences, they can affect us in powerful ways. Nonnormative influences: have become more powerful and age-graded influences less so in contemporary adult development. Compared with Sofie's era, much greater diversity exists today in the ages at which people finish their education, enter careers, marry, have children, and retire. Indeed, Sofie's "off-time" accomplishments would have been less unusual had she been born two generations later. Age remains a powerful organizer of everyday experiences, and age-related expectations have certainly not disappeared. But age markers have blurred, and they vary across ethnic groups and cultures. The increasing role of nonnormative events in the life course adds to the fluid nature of lifespan development.

Difference in play between mothers and fathers

Also, mothers and fathers tend to play differently. Mothers more often provide toys, talk to infants, and gently play conventional games like pat-a-cake and peekaboo. In contrast, fathers— especially with their infant sons—tend to engage in highly stimulating physical play with bursts of excitement that increase as play progresses. As long as fathers are also sensitive, this stimulating, startling play style helps babies regulate emotion in intensely arousing situations and may prepare them to venture confidently into active, unpredictable contexts, including novel physical environments and play with peers. In a German study, fathers' sensitive, challenging play with preschoolers predicted favorable emotional and social adjustment from kindergarten to early adulthood. Play is a vital context in which fathers build secure attachments. It may be especially influential in cultures where long work hours prevent most fathers from sharing in infant caregiving, such as Japan. In many Western nations, however, a strict division of parental roles—mother as caregiver, father as playmate—has changed over the past several decades in response to women's workforce participation and to cultural valuing of gender equality. Mothers, Fathers, Siblings Contribute • Mothers tend to play by providing toys, talking to infant, and conventional games. • Fathers tend to play more physical games with bursts of excitement. • Both styles can help infants learn to regulate emotions and develop confidence. • Siblings may show affection, resentment, concern, comfort; parental warmth toward all the children is important.

FREUD'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES - Anal (2-3 years)

Anal (2-3 years) - Anal region - Independence - Expelling - Task toilet training Anal: Toddlers and preschoolers enjoy holding and releasing urine and feces. If parents toilet train before children are ready or make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may appear in the form of extreme orderliness or disorder. Erotic Focus: Anus - retaining poo or pooing poo Key Tasks & experiences: toilet training

Piaget's preoperational stage

As children move from the sensorimotor to the preoperational stage, which spans the years 2 to 7, the most obvious change is an extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic, activity. Infants and toddlers' mental representations are impressive, but in early childhood, these capacities blossom. Advances in Mental Representation Piaget acknowledged that language is our most flexible means of mental representation. By detaching thought from action, it permits far more efficient thinking than was possible earlier. When we think in words, we overcome the limits of our momentary experiences. We can deal with past, present, and future at once and combine concepts in unique ways, as when we imagine a hungry caterpillar eating bananas or monsters flying through the forest at night. But Piaget did not regard language as the primary ingredient in childhood cognitive change. Instead, he believed that sensorimotor activity leads to internal images of experience, which children then label with words (Piaget, 1936/1952). In support of Piaget's view, recall from Chapter 5 that children's first words have a strong sensorimotor basis. And toddlers acquire an impressive range of categories long before they use words to label them (see page 165). But as we will see, Piaget underestimated the power of language to spur children's cognition. Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory • Children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate the world • Adaption—mind adjusts to fit environment Piaget's Preoperational Stage • Advances in mental representation • More advanced sociodramatic play • Dual representation—models, drawings, and maps have meaning in the real world • Preoperational limitations—egocentrism, centration (focus on one aspect of a situation), irreversibility (difficulty reversing steps) • Challenges with conservation (certain characteristics remain the same even when appearance changes) and hierarchical classification (organizing by similarities and differences)

Bowlby's Ethological Theory of Attachment & attachment styles (strange situation)

Bowlby's Ethological Theory Today, ethological theory of attachment, which recognizes the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival, is the most widely accepted view. John Bowlby (1969), who first applied this perspective to the infant- caregiver bond, retained the psychoanalytic idea that quality of attachment to the caregiver has profound implications for the child's feelings of security and capacity to form trusting relationships. At the same time, Bowlby was inspired by Konrad Lorenz's studies of imprinting (see Chapter 1). Bowlby believed that the human infant, like the young of other animal species, is endowed with a set of built-in behaviors that help keep the parent nearby to protect the infant from danger and to provide support for exploring and mastering the environment. Contact with the parent also ensures that the baby will be fed, but Bowlby pointed out that feeding is not the basis for attachment. Rather, attachment can best be understood in an evolutionary context in which survival of the species—through ensuring both safety and competence—is of utmost importance.

Bioecological Model of Development

Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model proposes that a child's biologically influenced dispositions interact with complex systems of bidirectional relationships. Microsystem—interactions with the immediate environment (child with parents, including how parents interact with each other) Mesosystem—interaction between microsystems (family, school) Exosystem—do not contain developing persons but affect their experiences in the immediate setting (parent's workplace, extended family, neighbors) Macrosystem—cultural values, laws, customs, and resources Ecological systems theory Continuous or Discontinuous? Not specified. Many possible courses: Biologically influenced dispositions join with environmental forces at multiple levels to mold development in unique ways. Both nature and nurture: The individual's characteristics and the reactions of others affect each other in a bidirectional fashion. Both early and later experiences are important.

Academic learned helplessness vs mastery-oriented

Children who hold mastery-oriented attributions believe ability can be improved by trying hard and attribute failure to controllable factors, such as insufficient effort. In contrast, children who receive negative feedback about their ability are likely to develop learned helplessness, attributing success to external factors, such as luck, and failure to low ability. Achievement-Related Attributions. Attributions are our common, everyday explanations for the causes of behavior. Notice how Joey, in talking about the spelling bee at the begin ning of this chapter, attributes his disappointing performance to luck (Belinda got all the easy words) and his usual success to ability (he knows he's a better speller than Belinda). Joey also appreciates that effort matters: "I knocked myself out studying those spelling lists." The combination of improved reasoning skills and frequent evaluative feedback permits 10 to 12yearolds to separate all these variables in explaining performance. Those who are high in academic self-esteem and motivation make mastery-oriented attributions, crediting their successes to ability—a characteristic they can improve through trying hard and can count on when faced with new challenges. And they attribute failure to factors that can be changed or controlled, such as insufficient effort or a difficult task. Whether these children succeed or fail, they take an industrious, persistent approach to learning. In contrast, children who develop learned helplessness attribute their failures, not their successes, to ability. When they succeed, they conclude that external factors, such as luck, are responsible. Unlike their mastery-oriented counterparts, they believe that ability is fixed and cannot be improved by trying hard. When a task is difficult, these children experience an anxious loss of control—in Erikson's terms, a pervasive sense of inferiority. They give up without really trying. Children's attributions affect their goals. Mastery-oriented children seek information on how best to increase their ability through effort. Hence, their performance improves over time. In contrast, learned-helpless children focus on obtaining positive and avoiding negative evaluations of their fragile sense of ability. Gradually, their ability ceases to predict how well they do. In one study, the more fourth to sixth graders held self-critical attributions, the lower they rated their competence, the less they knew about effective study strategies, the more they avoided challenge, and the poorer their academic performance. Because learned helpless children fail to connect effort with success, they do not develop the metacognitive and self-regulatory skills necessary for high achievement. Lack of effective learning strategies, reduced persistence, and a sense of loss of control sustain one another in a vicious cycle.

NEWBORN BEHAVIORS - Crying

Crying Way to communicate High pitched usually indicates pain Crying. Crying is the first way that babies communicate, letting parents know they need food, comfort, or stimulation. During the weeks after birth, all infants have some fussy periods when they are difficult to console. But most of the time, the nature of the cry, combined with the experiences that led up to it, helps guide parents toward its cause. The baby's cry is a complex stimulus that varies in intensity, from a whimper to a message of all-out distress (Wood, 2009). As early as the first few weeks, infants can be identified by the unique vocal "signature" of their cries, which helps parents locate their baby from a distance Young infants usually cry because of physical needs. Hunger is the most common cause, but babies may also cry in response to temperature change when undressed, a sudden noise, or a painful stimulus. Newborns (as well as older babies up to age 6 months) often cry at the sound of another crying baby. Some researchers believe that this response reflects an inborn capacity to react to the suffering of others. Furthermore, crying typically increases during the early weeks, peaks at about 6 weeks, and then declines Because this trend appears in many cultures with vastly different infant care practices, researchers believe that normal readjustments of the central nervous system underlie it. The next time you hear an infant cry, notice your own reaction. The sound stimulates a sharp rise in blood cortisol, alertness, and feelings of discomfort in men and women, parents and nonparents alike. This powerful response is probably innately programmed to ensure that babies receive the care and protection they need to survive.

History-Graded Influences (book)

Development is also profoundly affected by forces unique to a particular historical era. Examples include epidemics, wars, and periods of economic prosperity or depression; technological advances like the introduction of television, computers, the Internet, smartphones, and tablets; and changes in cultural values, such as attitudes toward women, ethnic minorities, and older adults. These history graded influences explain why people born around the same time—called a cohort—tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times. Consider the baby boomers, a term used to describe people born between 1946 and 1964, the post-World War II period during which birth rates soared in most Western nations. This population increase was especially sharp in the United States: By 1960, the prewar birth rate had nearly doubled, yielding the largest gain in the nation's history. The sheer size of the baby-boom generation made it a powerful social force from the time its members became young adults; today, the baby boomers are redefining our view of middle and late adulthood

Developmental Neuroscience (asynch and book)

Developmental neuroscience—relationship between the brain and the developing person's cognitive processing and behavioral patterns, as well as the brain's influence on social and emotional development Brain's Influence on Social and Emotional Development Brain --> Cognitive Processing --> Behavioral Patterns Developmental Neuroscience Over the past three decades, as information-processing research expanded, a new area of investigation arose called developmental cognitive neuroscience. It brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing person's cognitive processing and behavior patterns. Improved methods for analyzing brain activity while children and adults perform various tasks have greatly enhanced knowledge of relationships between brain functioning and behavior. Armed with these brain imaging techniques, neuroscientists are tackling questions like these: How does genetic makeup combine with specific experiences at various ages to influence development and organization of the brain? What transformations in the brain make it harder for adolescents and adults than for children to acquire a second language? What neurological changes are related to declines in speed of thinking, memory, and other aspects of cognitive processing in late adulthood? A complementary new area, developmental social neuroscience, is devoted to studying the relationship between changes in the brain and emotional and social development. Developmental social neuroscience emerged later than its cognitive counterpart because techniques for measuring brain activity are hard to implement in most social situations, where children and adults must move freely to interact with others. When researchers started to tap more convenient neurobiological measures that are sensitive to psychological state, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and hormone levels detected in saliva, an explosion of social-neuroscience investigations followed. Studies are investigating autism

Age-Graded Influences (book)

Events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last are called age-graded influences. These age graded milestones are influenced by biology: For example, most individuals walk shortly after their first birthday, acquire their native language during the preschool years, reach puberty around age 12 to 14, and (for women) experience menopause in their late forties or early fifties. Social customs can create age-graded influences as well: such as starting school around age 6, getting a driver's license at age 16, and entering college around age 18) - especially prevalent in childhood and adolescence, when biological changes are rapid and cultures impose many age-related experiences to ensure that young people acquire the skills they need to participate in their society.

Freud's Psychosexual Theory

Freud (1856-1939), a Viennese physician, sought a cure for emotionally troubled adults by having them talk freely about painful events of their childhoods. Working with these recollections, he examined his patients' unconscious motivations and constructed his psychosexual theory, which emphasizes that how parents manage their child's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development. In Freud's theory, three parts of the personality—id, ego, and superego—become integrated during five stages, According to Freud, the relations established among id, ego, and superego during the preschool years determine the individual's basic personality. Freud (1938/1973) believed that during childhood, sexual impulses shift their focus from the oral to the anal to the genital regions of the body. In each stage parents walk a fine line between permitting too much or too little gratification of their child's basic needs. If parents strike an appropriate balance, children grow into well-adjusted adults with the capacity for mature sexual behavior and investment in family life. Freud's theory was the first to stress the influence of the early parent-child relationship on development. But his perspective was eventually criticized. First, it overemphasized the influence of sexual feelings in development. Second, because it was based on the problems of sexually repressed, well-to-do adults in nineteenth-century Victorian society, it did not apply in other cultures. Finally, Freud had not studied children directly.

Gender stereotyping in early childhood

Gender Typing • Preschoolers apply gender stereotypes routinely. • Prenatal hormones contribute to boys' higher activity level. • Parents, teachers, and peers also promote many gender-typed responses through modeling and reinforcement. • Gender identity—research supports better outcomes for persons who endorse traditionally masculine traits or androgynous traits Transgender • The experienced and expressed gender is different from the natal gender. • The number of transgender children, while small, has risen. • Gender dysphoria is different from children who engage in gender nonconforming behavior. • Transgender adults often trace their identity back to a discomfort with their natal gender in early childhood. • Health professionals increasingly note the importance of allowing children to follow their gender inclinations and to protect them from negative reactions of others. Gender • School-age children extend gender stereotypes to personality traits and academic abilities • Also, broaden views of what males and females can do • Boys identify with more masculine traits while girls are more open to experimenting with various traits

Gender stereotyping

Gender stereotyped expectations also affect self-esteem. In one study, the more 5 to 8yearold girls talked with friends about the way people look, watched TV shows focusing on physical appearance, and perceived their friends as valuing thinness, the greater their dissatisfaction with their physical self and the lower their overall self-esteem a year later In another investigation, being overweight was more strongly linked to negative body image for third grade girls than for boys (Shriver et al., 2013). By the end of middle childhood, girls feel less confident than boys about their physical appearance and athletic abilities. With respect to academic self-esteem, boys, again, are somewhat advantaged: Whereas girls score higher in language arts self-esteem, boys have higher math and science self-esteem—even when children of equal skill levels are compared. At the same time, girls exceed boys in self-esteem dimensions of close friendship and social acceptance.

Continuous (book)

How can we best describe the differences in capacities among infants, children, adolescents, and adults? One view holds that infants and preschoolers respond to the world in much the same way as adults do. The difference between the immature and mature being is simply one of amount or complexity. For example, when Sofie was a baby, her perception of a piano melody, memory for past events, and ability to categorize objects may have been much like our own. Perhaps her only limitation was that she could not perform these skills with as much information and precision as we can. If this is so, then changes in her thinking must be: continuous—a process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with.

Zone of Proximal Development

In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive proper guidance and instruction Zone of proximal development (ZPD) -9 year old by who attends school in Sweden -ASD diagnosis, community had deemed his as "special" -While engaging in a storytelling class assignment that involved pictures, the teacher implemented scaffolding techniques that included using prompts when the participant was either having a hard time with the task or was off task. -The participant went from not working on the assignment at the start of the study to completing independent then, presumably, being excited to share the story he made.

Traditional vs social constructivist classrooms

In a traditional classroom, the teacher is the sole authority for knowledge, rules, and decision making. Students are relatively passive—listening, responding when called on, and completing teacher-assigned tasks. Their progress is evaluated by how well they keep pace with a uniform set of standards for their grade. A constructivist classroom, in contrast, encourages students to construct their own knowledge. Although constructivist approaches vary, many are grounded in Piaget's theory, which views children as active agents who reflect on and coordinate their own thoughts rather than absorbing those of others. A glance inside a constructivist classroom reveals richly equipped learning centers, small groups and individuals solving self- chosen problems, and a teacher who guides and supports in response to children's needs. Students are evaluated by considering their progress in relation to their own prior development.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

In his psychosocial theory, Erikson emphasized that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills that make the individual an active, contributing member of society. A basic psychosocial conflict, which is resolved along a continuum from positive to negative, determines healthy or maladaptive outcomes at each stage. Erikson's first five stages parallel Freud's stages, but Erikson added three adult stages. Erikson's broad outline of lifespan change captures key, optimal psychosocial attainments during each major period of the life course.

Negative impacts on physical growth

Influences on Physical Growth and Health • Pituitary gland—releasing growth-inducing hormones • Nutrition—fats, oils, sugar, and salt should be minimal (Children often imitate food choices.) • Infectious diseases—immunization, SES • Injuries—unintentional injuries leading cause of childhood death in industrialized countries (auto accidents, suffocation, drowning) • Prevention—safety policies, monitoring, modeling

Cognitive development/improvements in early childhood

Information Processing • Preschool children gain in the executive functions of inhibition, ability to shift focus, and working memory, as well as planning. • Parenting scaffolding assists and poverty creates stress for parents, which can negatively affect children's development. • Less effective use of memory strategies for lists, but episodic memory of events improves and becomes more detailed. Information Processing • Metacognition present—reflect on their thoughts and feelings • Their theory of mind is of a container, not an active agent • Informal literacy activities such as parent-child interactive reading fosters literacy development • Adults promote math development with opportunities for counting Individual Differences • Scores on early childhood IQ tests predict later IQ scores • Criticism of testing • Preschool and kindergarten • Child-centered: learn through play • Academic programs: teacher-structured learning through repetition • Head Start and other early interventions yield higher language, cognitive, and social development among low SES children Playfulness Self awareness in creating new meanings Showed an awareness of 'I can make this stand for that' as opposed to simply 'this can be that' Investment in symbolic meanings Show how much they care about the new meanings about given to objects when pretending Creativity Introduces new creative ideas that enrich the play Fun Did they look like they were having fun

Informational processing

Informational processing—information is coded, transformed, and organized to go from sensory input to the behavioral response or output Information --> Coded --> Transformed --> Organized The design of digital computers that use mathematically specified steps to solve problems suggested to psychologists that the human mind might also be viewed as a symbol-manipulating system through which information flows—a perspective called information processing. From the time information is presented to the senses at input until it emerges as a behavioral response at output, information is actively coded, transformed, and organized. Most information-processing researchers regard the thought processes of: perception, attention, memory, categorization of infomation, planning, problem solving, and comprehension of written and spoken prose—as similar at all ages but present to a lesser or greater extent. Their view of development is one of continuous change. Information processing Continuous: Children and adults change gradually in perception, attention, memory, and problem- solving skills. One course: Changes studied characterize most or all children and adults. Both nature and nurture: Children and adults are active, sense-making beings who modify their thinking as the brain grows and they confront new environmental demands. Both early and later experiences are important.

Interventions for Preterm Infants

Isolette—enclosed bed with filters for air and controlled temperature May also need tube feeding, respirator, and medication through an intravenous needle Stimulation—rockers, auditory stimulation such as womblike sounds, mother's voice, soft music, skin-to-skin touch Parent training to recognize and address baby's needs

NEWBORN BEHAVIORS - reflexes

NEWBORN BEHAVIORS Reflexes Blinking reflex Rooting reflex Sucking reflex Moro reflex Eye blink: Shine bright light at eyes or clap hand near head. Infant quickly closes eyelids. Permanent Protects infant from strong stimulation Rooting: Stroke cheek near corner of mouth. Head turns toward source of stimulation. 3 weeks (becomes voluntary turning at this time) Helps infant find the nipple Sucking: Place finger in infant's mouth. Infant sucks finger rhythmically. Replaced by voluntary sucking after 4 months - Permits feeding Moro Hold infant horizontally on back and let head drop slightly, or produce a sudden loud sound against surface supporting infant. Infant makes an "embracing" motion by arching back, extending legs, throwing arms outward, and then bringing arms in toward the body. 6 months In human evolutionary past, may have helped infant cling to mother Palmar grasp Place finger in infant's hand and press against palm. Infant spontaneously grasps finger. 3-4 months Prepares infant for voluntary grasping Tonic neck: Turn baby's head to one side while infant is lying awake on back. Infant lies in a "fencing position." One arm is extended in front of eyes on side to which head is turned, other arm is flexed. 4 months May prepare infant for voluntary reaching Stepping: Hold infant under arms and permit bare feet to touch a flat surface. Infant lifts one foot after another in stepping response. 2 months in infants who gain weight quickly; sustained in lighter infants Prepares infant for voluntary walking Babinski: Stroke sole of foot from toe toward heel. Toes fan out and curl as foot twists in. 8-12 months Unknown what it prepares for

Nature vs. nurture (class lecture & asynch)

Nature VS Nurture False dichotomy Heredity vs social influences Nature: hereditary information we receive from our parents Nurture: complex forces of the physical and social world influencing our biological and psychological experiences before and after birth

Prenatal (conception to birth)

Nine months of rapid growth in which organs and systems appear; extreme sensitivity to environmental influences. The one-celled organism transforms into a human baby with remarkable capacities to adjust to life in the surrounding world.

FREUD'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES - Oral (0-1)

Oral (0-1 year) Nurturing - Mouth - Sucking and biting - Tasks: weaning, gratification Oral: If oral needs are not met through sucking from breast or bottle, the individual may develop such habits as thumb sucking, fingernail biting, overeating, or smoking. Erotic Focus: mouth - sucking biting Key Tasks & experiences: weaning

FREUD'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES - Phallic (4-5 years)

Phallic (4-5 years) - Shame - Genitals - Masturbation/self exploration - Oedipus Complex - Task identifying adult role models Phallic: As preschoolers take pleasure in genital stimulation, Freud's Oedipus conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls arise: Children feel a sexual desire for the other-sex parent. To avoid punishment, they give up this desire and adopt the same-sex parent's characteristics and values. As a result, the superego is formed, and children feel guilty when they violate its standards. Erotic Focus: genitals - masturbating Key Tasks & experiences: Identifying with adult role model and ditching the oedipal/electra complex

Gene pool stuffs (just in case)

Phenotype: What are your observable characteristics? Chromosomes: Carries our generic inheritance Gametes: Sex cells zygotes Polygenetic Inheritance: Result of multiple genes Personality intelligence Phenotype are directly observable characteristics which are products of genotype and environment. Chromosomes are rod-like structures within the cell. nucleus that carry our genetic inheritance. Gametes are sex cells. Zygote is the result of the sperm and ovum uniting and carry our full chromosomes. If fertilizing sperm carries an X chromosome, a girl will be conceived, and if the fertilizing sperm carries a Y chromosome, a boy will be conceived. Polygenic inheritance are traits that are the result of multiple genes such as intelligence and personality.

Cognitive Development Theory

Piaget's Cognitive-Developmental Theory If one individual has influenced research on child development more than any other, it is Swiss cognitive theorist Jean Piaget (1896-1980). According to his cognitive-developmental theory, children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world.

Piaget's Stages of Development specifics within each developmental period (book and class lecture)

Piaget's cognitive developmental theory: kids construct knowledge as they manipulate the world - Mind adjusts to fit the environment - Schemes: organized way to make sense of experiences Discontinuous: Cognitive development takes place in stages. One course: Stages are assumed to be universal. Both nature and nurture: Development occurs as the brain grows and children exercise their innate drive to discover reality in a generally stimulating environment. Both early and later experiences are important.

Plasticity VS Stability (class lecture & asynch)

Plastic: Changes throughout life Stability: Stays constant Plasticity: development is open to change throughout our lives Stability: primary focus on hereditary indicates that people remain who they are later in life as they are characterized early in life

Piaget's Pre Operational (2 - 6/7)

Pre Operational (2 - 6/7) - Pretend play - Uses symbols - Begins to talk - Very egocentric Preschool children use symbols to represent their earlier sensorimotor discoveries. Development of language and make-believe play takes place. However, thinking lacks the logic of the two remaining stages.

Major Periods of Human Development

Prenatal-Conception to birth Infancy and toddlerhood-Birth-2 years Early childhood-2-6 years Middle childhood-6-11 years Adolescence-11-18 years Early adulthood-18-40 years Middle adulthood-40-65 years Late adulthood-65 years-death

Consequences for Caregivers with preterm neonate

Preterm babies are more likely to be unresponsive, irritable, fragile, and tiny in appearance. Caregivers often hold them less close, touch them less, and talk to them less. Parents are sometimes harsh verbally or physically in attempts to illicit a response. Preterm babies are at increased risk for abuse. Preterm Babies Do Better With Caregivers Who Are: • Warm • Sensitive • Socially supported • Stabile • Connected to resources

Preterm babies

Preterm infants—born several weeks or more before their due date Small for date infants—babies born below their expected weight considering the length of the pregnancy Babies who are at increased risk for death, infection, and brain damage at birth and later in childhood are at increased risk for social immaturity, smaller stature, and academic difficulties Babies born three weeks or more before the end of a full 38-week pregnancy or who weigh less than 5½ pounds (2,500 grams) have for many years been referred to as "premature." A wealth of research indicates that premature babies are at risk for many problems. 11% of US births are preterm

Psychoanalytic perspectives (Freud and Erikson)

Psychoanalytic perspective—People move through stages based on conflicts between their biological drive and social expectations. Freud: parents' management of their child's sexual and aggressive urges early in life greatly affects their development. Erikson's psychosocial theory: along with id and superego, the ego plays a major role in skill development and attitude acquisition. Psychoanalytic perspective Discontinuous: Psychosexual and psychosocial development takes place in stages. One course: Stages are assumed to be universal. Both nature and nurture: Innate impulses are channeled and controlled through child-rearing experiences. Early experiences set the course of later development.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 1 Trust vs Mistrust (Hope) Infancy

Stage 1 Trust vs Mistrust (Hope) Infancy - 1-2 years - Mother most important Basic trust versus mistrust: From warm, responsive care, infants gain a sense of trust, or confidence, that the world is good. Mistrust occurs if infants are neglected or handled harshly.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 2 Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (Will) Toddlerhood

Stage 2 Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (Will) Toddlerhood - 2-4 years - Both parents Autonomy versus shame and doubt: Using new mental and motor skills, children want to decide for themselves. Parents can foster autonomy by permitting reasonable free choice and not forcing or shaming the child.

Rh Factor Incompatibility

Rh Factor Incompatibility. When inherited blood types of mother and fetus differ, serious problems sometimes result. The most common cause of these difficulties is Rh factor incompatibility. When the mother is Rh-negative (lacks the Rh blood protein) and the father is Rh positive (has the protein), the baby may inherit the father's Rh-positive blood type. If even a little of a fetus's Rh-positive blood crosses the placenta into the Rh-negative mother's bloodstream, she begins to form antibodies to the foreign Rh protein. If these enter the fetus's system, they destroy red blood cells, reducing the oxygen supply to organs and tissues. Intellectual disability, miscarriage, heart damage, and infant death can occur. It takes time for the mother to produce Rh antibodies, so firstborn children are rarely affected. The danger increases with each additional pregnancy. Fortunately, Rh incompatibility can be prevented in most cases. After the birth of each Rh-positive baby, Rh-negative mothers are routinely given a vaccine to prevent the buildup of antibodies.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 3 Initiative vs Guilt (Purpose) Early Childhood

Stage 3 Initiative vs Guilt (Purpose) Early Childhood - 4-5 years - Family Initiative versus guilt: Through make-believe play, children gain insight into the person they can become. Initiative—a sense of ambition and responsibility—develops when parents support their child's sense of purpose. If parents demand too much self-control, children experience excessive guilt.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 4 Industry vs Inferiority (Competence) Middle Childhood

Stage 4 Industry vs Inferiority (Competence) Middle Childhood - 5-12 years - Neighbors, Schools, Organizations Industry versus inferiority: At school, children learn to work and cooperate with others. Inferiority develops when negative experiences at home, at school, or with peers lead to feelings of incompetence.

Piaget's Sensory Motor (0 - 2 years)

Sensory Motor (0 - 2 years) - Info from senses - Main task learned: object permanence Infants "think" by acting on the world with their eyes, ears, hands, and mouth. As a result, they invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems, such as pulling a lever to hear the sound of a music box, finding hidden toys, and putting objects into and taking them out of containers.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 5 Identity vs Role Confusion Adolescence

Stage 5 Identity vs Role Confusion Adolescence - 13-19 - Peers and Role Models Identity versus role confusion: By exploring values and vocational goals, young people form a personal identity. The negative outcome is confusion about future adult roles.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 6 Intimacy vs Isolation Early Adulthood

Stage 6 Intimacy vs Isolation Early Adulthood - 20-40 - Friends and Partners Intimacy versus isolation: Young adults establish intimate relationships. Because of earlier disappointments, some individuals cannot form close bonds and remain isolated.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 7 Generativity vs Stagnation Middle Adulthood

Stage 7 Generativity vs Stagnation Middle Adulthood - 40- 65 - People at Home and Work Generativity versus stagnation: Generativity means giving to the next generation through child rearing, caring for others, or productive work. The person who fails in these ways feels an absence of meaningful accomplishment.

Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory (book)

The Psychoanalytic Perspective In the 1930s and 1940s, as more people sought help from professionals to deal with emotional difficulties, a new question had to be addressed: How and why do people become the way they are? To treat psychological problems, psychiatrists and social workers turned to an emerging approach to personality development that emphasized each individual's unique life history. According to the psychoanalytic perspective, people move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines the person's ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety. Among the many individuals who contributed to the psychoanalytic perspective, two were especially influential: Sigmund Freud, founder of the psychoanalytic movement, and Erik Erikson.

Resilience (protective factors)

The ability to adapt effectively after threat across one's life span. Four broad factors seemed to offer protection from the damaging effects of stressful life events. 1. Personal characteristics (intelligence, easygoing, sociable, and socially valued talents) 2. Warm parental relationship 3. Social support outside the immediate family 4. Community resources & opportunities

Stage theories of development (book)

The discontinuous perspective regards development as taking place in stages: qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development. Stage Theories: development is like climbing a staircase, with each step corresponding to a more mature, reorganized way of functioning. - assumes that people undergo periods of rapid transformation as they step up from one stage to the next. - change is fairly sudden rather than gradual and ongoing. - assumes that people everywhere follow the same sequence of development

Context theory of development (book)

The field of human development is becoming increasingly aware that children and adults live in distinct contexts—unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change. EX: a shy individual who fears social encounters develops in very different contexts from those of an outgoing agemate who readily seeks out other people. These different circumstances foster different intellectual capacities, social skills, and feelings about the self and others Contemporary theorists regard the contexts that shape development as many-layered and complex. - Personal: heredity and biological makeup. - Environmental: home, school, and neighborhood community resources, societal values, and historical time period - cultural diversity impt too Bi-directional influence between individuals and their contexts: People not only are affected by but also contribute to the contexts in which they develop

Stability vs. Plasticity (book)

Theorists who emphasize stability—that individuals who are high or low in a characteristic (such as verbal ability, anxiety, or sociability) will remain so at later ages— stress the importance of heredity. If they regard environment as impt, they point to early experiences as establishing a lifelong pattern of behavior. Powerful negative events in the first few years, they argue, cannot be fully overcome by later, more positive ones (Bowlby, 1980; Sroufe, Coffino, & Carlson, 2010). Other theorists, taking a more optimistic view, see development as having substantial plasticity throughout life—as open to change in response to influential experiences (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006; Overton & Molenaar, 2015).

Diversity and inequality in middle childhood In-group vs out-group biases

Understanding Diversity and Inequality By the early school years, children absorb prevailing societal attitudes, associating power and privilege with white people and poverty and inferior status with people of color. They do not necessarily acquire these views directly from parents or friends, whose attitudes often differ from their own. Rather, children seem to pick up mainstream beliefs from implicit messages in the media and elsewhere in their environments. Powerful sources include social contexts that present a world sorted into groups, such as racial and ethnic segregation in schools and communities. In-Group and Out-Group Biases: Development of Prejudice. Studies in diverse Western nations confirm that by age 5 to 6, white children generally evaluate their own racial group favorably and other racial groups less favorably or negatively. In-group favoritism emerges first; children simply prefer their own group, generalizing from self to similar others. The ease with which a trivial group label supplied by an adult can induce ingroup favoritism is striking. In one study, European American 5yearolds were told that they were members of a group based on T-shirt color. Although no information was provided about group status and the children never met any group members, they still displayed vigorous ingroup favoritism (Dunham, Baron, & Carey, 2011). When shown photos of unfamiliar agemates wearing either an ingroup or an outgroup shirt, the children claimed to like members of their own group better, gave them more resources, and engaged in positively biased recall of group members' behavior. Out-group prejudice requires a more challenging social comparison between ingroup and outgroup. But it does not take long for white children to acquire negative attitudes toward ethnic minority outgroups when such attitudes are encouraged by circumstances in their environments. When white Canadian 4 to 7yearolds living in a white community and attending nearly all white schools sorted positive and negative adjectives into boxes labeled as belonging to a white child and a black child, outgroup prejudice emerged at age 5. Unfortunately, many minority children show a reverse pattern: out-group favoritism, in which they assign positive characteristics to the privileged white majority and negative characteristics to their own group. But recall that with age, children pay more attention to inner traits. The capacity to classify the social world in multiple ways enables school-age children to understand that people can be both "the same" and "different"—those who look different need not think, feel, or act differently. Consequently, voicing of nega tive attitudes toward minorities declines after age 7 or 8. Around this time, both majority and minority children express in-group favoritism, and white children's prejudice against out-group members often weakens. Yet even in children aware of the injustice of discrimination, prejudice often operates unintentionally and without awareness— as it does in many adults. Consider a study in which U.S. children and adults were shown pictures of computer-generated racially ambiguous faces dis playing happy and angry expressions and asked to classify them by race. White participants more often categorized happy faces as white and angry faces as African American or Asian. These implicit biases were evident across all ages tested—as early as 3 or 4. In contrast, African American participants did not show any racial biases in their responses. The absence of any ingroup favoritism (classifying happy faces as black) suggests an early emerging, implicit sensitivity to prevailing racial attitudes among African Americans. These findings raise the question of whether the decline in white children's explicit racial bias during middle childhood is a true decrease or whether it reflects their growing awareness of widely held standards that deem prejudice to be inappropriate— or both. Around age 10, white children start to avoid talking about race in order to appear unbiased, just as many adults do. At least to some degree, then, older school-age children's desire to present themselves in a socially

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Development

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory—culture (values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group) is transmitted to the next generation; understands cognitive development (Piaget) as a socially mediated process Critique is that biological and children's internal capacity less acknowledged while other theories often neglect the sociocultural component Sociocultural Theory Vygotsky - Cognitive development is a socially mediated process According to Vygotsky, social interaction—in particular, cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society—is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture. Both continuous and discontinuous: Language acquisition and schooling lead to stage-wise changes. Dialogues with more expert members of society also result in continuous changes that vary from culture to culture. Many possible courses: Socially mediated changes in thought and behavior vary from culture to culture. Both nature and nurture: Heredity, brain growth, and dialogues with more expert members of society jointly contribute to development. Both early and later experiences are important

Piaget's stage for middle childhood is referred to as...?

Your Answer: Concrete operational stage

The most effective interventions for childhood obesity are...?

Your Answer: Family based

school refusal (school phobia)

about 5 percent of school-age children develop an intense, unmanageable fear called a phobia. Children with inhibited temperaments are at high risk, displaying phobias five to six times as often as other children.. Some children with phobias and other anxieties develop school refusal—severe apprehension about attending school, often accompanied by physical complaints such as dizziness, nausea, stomachaches, and vomiting. About one-third of children with school refusal are 5- to 7-year-olds for whom the real fear is maternal separation (Elliott, 1999). Family therapy helps these children, whose difficulty can often be traced to parental overprotection. Most cases of school refusal appear around age 11 to 13, in children who usually find a particular aspect of school frightening— an overcritical teacher, a school bully, or too much parental pressure to achieve. A change in school environment or parenting practices may be needed. Firm insistence that the child return to school, along with training in how to manage anxiety and cope with difficult situations, is also helpful. Severe childhood anxieties may arise from harsh living conditions. In inner-city ghettos and in war-torn areas of the world, large numbers of children live in the midst of constant danger, chaos, and deprivation. As the Cultural Influences box on the following page reveals, they are at risk for long-term emotional distress and behavior problems. Finally, as we saw in our discussion of child abuse in Chapter 8, too often violence and other destructive acts become part of adult-child relationships. During middle childhood, child sexual abuse increases.

history-graded influences

biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment Explain why people born around the same time--called a cohort--tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times.

age-graded influences

biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group, regardless of when or where they are raised events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last

nonnormative influences

events that are irregular: they happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable random events that are important to an individual but do not happen to most people Influences on lifespan development that are irregular, in that they happen to just one or a few individuals and do not follow a predictable timetable

insecure attachment

● Insecure-avoidant attachment. These infants seem unresponsive to the parent when she is present. When she leaves, they usually are not distressed, and they react to the stranger in much the same way as to the parent. During reunion, they avoid or are slow to greet the parent, and when picked up, they often fail to cling. About 15 percent of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern.

insecure-resistant attachment

● Insecure-resistant attachment. Before separation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and often fail to explore. When the parent leaves, they are usually distressed, and on her return they combine clinginess with angry, resistive behavior (struggling when held, hitting and pushing). Many continue to cry after being picked up and cannot be com- forted easily. About 10 percent of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern.

Secure Attachment

● Secure attachment. These infants use the parent as a secure base. When separated, they may or may not cry, but if they do, it is because the parent is absent and they prefer her to the stranger. When the parent returns, they convey clear pleasure—some expressing joy from a distance, others asking to be held until settling down to return to play - and crying is reduced immediately. About 60 percent of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern. (In low-SES families, a smaller proportion of babies show the secure pattern, with higher proportions falling into the insecure patterns.)