Psy Ch 7 Learning

positive, negative, reinforcement, and punishment

-positive: adding something -negative: taking something away -reinforcement: increasing a behavior -punishment: decreasing a behavior

What is a Skinner box and what is its purpose?

A Skinner box is an operant conditioning chamber used to train animals such as rats and pigeons to perform certain behaviors, like pressing a lever. When the animals perform the desired behavior, they receive a reward: food or water.

Ivan Pavlov experiment

Classical conditioning with dogs and salivation. -would ring a bell (neural stimulus), present dog with food (unconditioned stimulus), and the dog would salivate (unconditioned response) -after doing this, the dog learns that bell (conditioned stimulus) means food and would salivate (conditioned response) without the food unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = food unconditioned response (UCR) = salivation conditioned stimulus (CS) = bell conditioned response (CR) = salivation in response to the bell

according to Albert Bandura, ___________

Learning can occur by watching others and modeling what they do or say.

taste aversion

a type of conditioning in which an interval of several hours may pass between the conditioned stimulus (something ingested) and the unconditioned stimulus (nausea or illness) ex: you get chicken curry for lunch and feel nauseous several hours later; the next time you hear someone order chicken curry, you immediately feel nauseous; the food has not made you nauseous, but the thought of it after one unpleasant experience results in aversion

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

stimulus discrimination

ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

________________ is central to all three basic learning processes

associative learning

which of the following is an example of a reflex? a. becoming defensive if you feel like someone is upset with you b. becoming bored during a movie c. salmon swimming upstream to lay eggs d. a newborn baby knowing how to nurse

d. a newborn baby knowing how to nurse (may seem like a natural reaction, but it's not involuntary and innate)

Learning is best defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that ________. a. is found only in humans b. is innate c. occurs by observing others d. occurs as a result of experience

d. occurs as a result of experience

extinction

decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus

live model

demonstrates a behavior in person

stimulus generalization

demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

John B Watson

father of behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat -behavior can be studied as a simple stimulus-response reaction, without regard for internal processes; argued psychology cannot become a legitimate science unless it shifted away from internal mental processes bc they cannot be measured; should focus on outward behavior; influenced by Pavlov's work

__________ is the least productive and the easiest to extinguish

fixed interval

punishment

implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior

reinforcement

implementation of a consequence in order to increae a behavior

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

latent learning

learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it

type of learning that occurs by watching others

observational learning

form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated; organisms learn to associate a behavior with its consequence

operant conditioning

acquisition

period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response

model

person who performs a behavior that serves as an example (in observational learning)

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

Terry keeps interrupting the teacher during spelling instruction. The teacher says he has to write each spelling word ten times for extra homework. The next day, Terry is thinking about interrupting the teacher. The extra hmwk is a ____________________

positive punisher

Water, food, and sleep are examples of

primary reinforcers

vicarious punishment

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior

vicarious reinforcement

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior

What is the effect of prosocial modeling and antisocial modeling?

prosocial modeling - prompts others to engage in helpful and healthy behaviors antisocial modeling - prompts other to engage in violent, aggressive, and unhealthy behaviors

continuous reinforcement

rewarding a behavior every time it occurs

shaping

rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior

In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the unconditioned response is _________ and the conditioned response is _____________

salivation; salivation

Money is an example of what type of reinforcer?

secondary

money is an example of which type of reinforcer?

secondary

fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded; (ex: after 2, 4, 6 and 8 responses) -high response rate with pauses after reinforcement ex: piecework-factory worker getting paid for every x number of items manufactured (can result in lower quality)

Rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior is known as ___________.

shaping

rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior is ______________

shaping

rewarding successive approximations towards a target behavior is known as

shaping

observational adds ________ and _________ layers to all the basic associative processes, both unconscious and conscious

social; cognitive

In Watson and Rayner's experiments, Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, and then he began to be afraid of other furry white objects. This demonstrates ____________

stimulus generalization

neutral stimulus (NS)

stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

radical behaviorism

the philosophical position that free will is an illusion or myth and that human and animal behavior is completely determined by environmental and genetic influences -B.F. Skinner's philosophy of the science of human behavior

In Tolman's study, the independent variable was ___________

the presence of food at the end of the maze (some rats had food waiting at the end of the maze, while others had no food)

interval

the schedule is based on the time between reinforcements

In classical conditioning, the _______ is an unlearned reaction to a given stimulus. For example, if you have an allergy to pollen and sneeze, sneezing is an unlearned reaction to pollen

unconditioned response

classical conditioning tends to involve ________ processes

unconscious

Sven eats popcorn every time he goes to the movies. He goes to a new theatre with no concessions and finds that his mouth is watering for popcorn the entire time. In this example, what is the conditioned stimulus?

watching a movie

Ivan Pavlov

-russian physiologist (made psychology discovery by mistake) -performed classical conditioning experiments on dogs -interested in amount of saliva produced in response to various foods

symbolic model

a person or character portrayed in a film, TV, book, or other medium who demonstrate behaviors

positive reinforcement

adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior

positive punishment

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease behavior

If the principles of social learning theory are true, then children may model aggressive behavior ________.

after seeing a television character receive a reward for taking violent action against another character

what is the correct order of steps in the model processes?

attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

steps in the process of modeling

attention, retention, reproduction, motivation 1. pay attention to what model is doing 2. remember what model did 3. perform behavior 4. need to want to copy behavior

Charlie used to smoke on his lunch break at work. He smoked in a particular area at work each lunch break. Even though he quit smoking, Charlie still finds himself craving a cigarette whenever he goes back to his old smoking area. What should Charlie do to avoid this trigger?

avoid the old smoking area entirely (it is best to avoid triggers when trying to change a behavior)

Which of the following is an example of a reflex that occurs at some point in the development of a human being? a. teen socializing b. infant sucking on nipple c. child riding a bike d. toddler walking

b. infant sucking on nipple

which term best describes rewarding successive approximations of target behavior? a. conforming b. shaping c. reinforcement d. acquisition

b. shaping

which of the following is not true of latent learning? a. the behaviors are learned without being reinforced b. the behaviors are present innately, without experience c. the behaviors appear only when there is some motivation for it to appear d. the behaviors learned are not immediately observable to the researcher

b. the behaviors are present innately, without experience (latent learning still requires experience)

Tiyanna was in her dorm taking a shower, when someone came in to use the restroom. They flushed the toilet and the water instantly turned freezing cold. It made Tiyanna jump to the side to avoid the cold, and she sat shivering. The same thing happened a few more times. Later, when Tiyanna was brushing her teeth in the bathroom, someone else flushed the toilet, and she felt her body shiver before: _______ (UCS) -> _________ (UCR) during: _______ (NS) + ________ (UCS) -> _________ (UCR) after: ________ (CS) -> ________ (CR)

before: cold water (UCS); shivering (UCR) during: toilet flushing (NS) + cold water (UCS) -> shivering (UCR) after: toilet flushing (CS) -> shivering (CR)

Negative punishment refers to a situation where ______________.

behavior decreased because something desirable was eliminated through engaging in the behavior

learning

change in behavior or knowledge that is the result of experience

in ______ the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired with the behavior

classical conditioning

learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior

classical conditioning

Two forms of associative learning are ________ and ________.

classical conditioning; operant conditioning

operant conditioning tends to involve __________ processes

conscious

If your professor handed out a piece of candy to every student who asked a question during a lecture as a way to increase student participation, the would be an example of a ____________ reinforcement schedule

continuous

determine reinforcement schedule: erma sells hotdogs for one dollar each in the stands at the local professional baseball stadium; for every hotdog she sells, she puts 25 cents in her pocket and 75 cents in her boss's change purse

continuous

the quickest way to teach someone a behavior

continuous reinforcement (you must present the reinforcer immediately after the behavior so an association can be made)

reinforcement differs form punishment in that ___________ a. reinforcement involves desirable outcomes and punishment involves undesirable outcomes b. reinforcement is good and punishment is bad c. reinforcement is always positive and punishment is always negative d. reinforcement is any outcome that leads to an increase in a behavior and punishment is an outcome that leads to a decrease in a behvaior

d. reinforcement is any outcome that leads to an increase in a behavior and punishment is an outcome that leads to a decrease in a behvaior

John got terribly sick after eating a burger at a local fast-food chain. He cannot even drive past that restaurant without feeling nauseous. Oddly enough, he can eat and pass several fast food burger joints and not feel ill. What is most likely happening here?

discrimination (John is not having the same reaction to other restaurants that are similar to, but different from the original restaurant where he got sick from eating a burger)

verbal model

does not perform the behavior, but instead explains or describes the behavior ex: coach

the term "latent learning" refers to learning that __________

does not reveal itself until it is needed

prosocial models

encourage socially acceptable behavior

determine reinforcement schedule: ben has a job with a landscaping business; he works about 35 hours a week. he is always paid on a friday afternoon, and is salary is always the same

fixed interval

determine reinforcement schedule: sue makes simple fabric dolls for a local craft store; the store only takes the dolls in sets of 25; for every 25 dolls she delivers, the store pays her $10

fixed ratio

In the classic Pavlov experiment, the unconditioned stimulus is the ________, the conditioned stimulus is the _______, the unconditioned response is the _______, and the conditioned response is the _________.

food; tone; salivation; salivation

associative learning

form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment (classical and operant conditioning)

Pavlov conditions a dog to salivate when he rings a bell. Now he changes the bell to one with a much deeper tone and the dog salivates, even though the bell is clearly different from the original one. Responding to a new stimulus as if it were the original CS is ________________

generalization (the originally learned response to the first bell now occurs in response to a new bell)

A CS and UCS are associated so the CS now produces a CR without presentation of the UCS. If a new stimulus that is similar to the CS also produces the CR, we have an example of ___________

generalization (when a new stimulus is similar to an existing CS and produces the same CR)

In Bandura's Bobo doll study, when the children who watched the aggressive model were placed in a room with the doll and other toys, they _____________

kicked and threw the doll

Jeffrey always enjoyed cooking simple meals for himself. When he was preparing a meal, he would frequently read new recipes and he liked to wander around the local Whole Foods store. When his friend Marsha asked that he help her with food for a party she was having, Jeffrey amazed everyone, including himself, when he prepared a feast that looked and tasted like it was done by a professional caterer. Jeffrey's newfound skill is an example of __________________.

latent learning (jeffrey was obviously learning a great deal when he prepared meals at home and went shopping, but he didn't really know how much he had learned until the opportunity arose; learning experience prior to putting it all together when the opportunity arises is latent learning)

cognitive map

mental picture of the layout environment

The person who performs a behavior that serves as an example is called a ________

model

unconditioned response (UCR)

natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus

Janette comes home too later after a party and her driver's license is taken away. A month later, she's at another party and is supposed to be home in half an hour. The loss of driving privileges is a _____________

negative punisher

________ is when you take away a pleasant stimulus to stop a behavior

negative punishment

A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response in an organism is a(n) ________.

neutral stimulus

in classical conditioning, a ________ stimulus is presented immediately before an unconditioned stimulus

neutral stimulus

variable ratio reinforcement schedule

number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded (ex: after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses) -high and steady response rate ex: gambling (ppl don't know when they will be rewarded so they keep playing and playing)

antisocial models

observed behavior that has negative effects on society, and is not accepted

Doing something and then being influenced by what happens as a consequence of the thing you did is the basic idea behind _____________.

operant conditioning

in operant conditioning, what describes adding something to decrease the likelihood of behavior?

positive punishment

the most effective way to teach a person a new behavior is __________

positive reinforcement

Rubin tells a joke at meeting and everybody laughs. At another meetings, Rubin is thinking about telling the same joke. Everybody laughing at the joke at the first meeting is a _______________________

positive reinforcer

B. F Skinner

psychologist who developed operant conditioning, another form of conditioning that explains how we acquire and maintain voluntary behaviors; based is ideas on the law of effect proposed by Edward Thorndike

fixed

refers to the number of responses between reinforcement, or the amount of time between reinforcements, which is set and unchanging

variable

refers to the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements, which varies or changes

What is the difference between a reflex and a learned behavior?

reflex: a behavior that humans are born knowing how to do, such as sucking or blushing; happen automatically in response to stimuli in environment learned behaviors: things that humans are not born knowing (swimming, surfing, etc); not automatic; occurs as a result of practice or repeated experience

conditioned response (CR)

response caused by a conditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

return of a previously extinguished conditioned response

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

conditioned stimulus (CS)

stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

negative punishment

taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop behavior

negative reinforcement

taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase behavior

Extinction occurs when _____________

the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

higher-order conditioning (second-order conditioning)

using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus

Rescorla-Wagner model

a cognitive model of classical conditioning; it holds that the strength of the CS-US association is determined by the extent to which the unconditioned stimulus is unexpected conditioned stimulus - bell unconditioned stimulus - meat powder

reflexes

a motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment -simpler than instincts -involve activity of specific body parts -involve more primitive centers of CNS

Dave's boss told him that he doesn't have to attend the company picnic (which everybody dislikes) if Dave meets his sales quota this month. Dave's boss is using ________.

negative reinforcement

Dave has a splitting headache. He decides to go for a run and like magic the headache disappears. The next time he has a headache, he is thinking about going for a run. The disappearance of the headache is a ______________________

negative reinforcer

mirror neuron

neuron that fires when we perform certain actions and when we observe others performing those actions; neural basis for imitation and observational learning

What is shaping and how would you use shaping to teach a dog to roll over?

shaping is an operant conditioning method in which you reward closer and closer the approximations of the desired behavior; if you want to teach your dog to roll over, you might reward him first when he sits, then when he lies down, and then when he lies down and rolls on his back, and finally you reward him only when he completes the entire sequence of lying down, rolling onto back, and rolling to other side

Compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning.

-both classical and operant involve learning by association -classical conditioning: -responses are involuntary and automatic; -event that drives behavior (stimulus) comes before behavior; -involves an organism forming an association between involuntary response and stimulus -operant conditioning: -responses are voluntary and learned; -event that drives behavior (consequence) comes after behavior; -organism forming association between a voluntary behavior and a consequence

explain how the processes of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination are considered opposites

-stimulus generalization: organism responds to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus -stimulus discrimination: when an organism learns a response to a specific stimulus, but does not respond the same way to a new stimuli that are similar

How does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus?

-through the process of acquisition (human/animal learns to connect a neural stimulus and unconditioned stimulus) -during acquisition phase, neutral stimulus is becoming conditioned stimulus -at end of acquisition phase, learning has occurred and the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned response by itself

steps of shaping

1. Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior. 2. Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior. You will no longer reinforce the previously reinforced response. 3. Next, begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behavior. 4. Continue to reinforce closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. 5. Finally, only reinforce the desired behavior. ex: teaching a son to clean his room - first have him pick up one toy, then five toys, then ten toys, then gets to pick to pick up all toys or put clothes away, then cleans everything except two toys, then cleans entire room

who proposed observational learning?

Albert Bandura (believed learning involved cognitive processes, not just strict behaviorism)

Edward C. Tolman

American psychologist who used the terms cognitive map and latent learning to describe experimental findings that strongly suggested that cognitive factors play a role in animal learning -debunked behaviorism's claim that reinforcement must be immediate in order for learning to occur ex: children learn by watching the actions of their parents but only demonstrate it at a later date

token economies

a behavioral technique in which desirable behaviors are reinforced with a token, such as a small chip or fake coin, which can be exchanged for privileges

what is an example of operant conditioning? a. giving yourself one piece of candy after you complete one math problem b. a child being taught not to cross the street when the crossing guard is not present by pairing the sound of a car horn with the guard's absence c. getting awakened with a glass of water each day for a week d. determining how long it takes someone to learn how to fish if he is only allowed to watch other people fishing

a. giving yourself one piece of candy after you complete one math problem

In classical conditioning, organisms learn to

associate events that repeatedly happen together

Miguel used to love eating pizza, and would salivate at the thought of eating it. Sadly, one night, he became violently ill after eating some restaurant pizza that was improperly cooked, and now he feels sick when he thinks of pizza again. before conditioning: food poisoning (UCS) -> ________________ (UCR) during conditioning: ________ (NS) + ________ (UCS) -> ________ (UCR) after conditioning: ________ (CS) -> _________ (CR)

before: sickness during: food poisoning; sickness after: pizza; sickness

fixed interval reinforcement schedule

behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time (ex: after 5, 10, 15 and 20 mins) -moderate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement ex: pt given IV drip with pt-controlled painkiller, her dr sets a limit (one dose per hour); pt pushes button when pain becomes difficult, and since the reward only occurs on fixed interval, there is no point exhibiting behavior when it will not be rewarded

variable interval reinforcement schedule

behavior is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed (ex: after 5, 7, 10, and 20 mins) -moderate yet steady response rate ex: a manager has no idea when a person from quality control will show up, so he strives to keep the store clean and his employees exhibiting prompt and courteous service bc he does not want to get in trouble with quality control

law of effect

behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged

unlearned behaviors

behaviors that are apparent from a very early age onwards and require very little experience to emerge 1. instincts 2. reflexes

Which of the following statements about Ivan Pavlov is true? a. he is considered the father of behaviorism b. he is famous for demonstrating the principles of oeprant conditioning: the motivation for a behavior happens after the behaviors is demonstrated c. he is known for establishing the principles of classical conditioning d. he is most famous for his work in observational learning, with the Bobo doll experiment displaying how children can learn to model aggression

c. he is known for establishing the principles of classical conditioning

which of the following is not an example of a primary reinforcer? a. sex b. water c. money d. food

c. money (money is a secondary reinforcer because money only has representative value; it might enable one to purchase a primary reinforcer, but is not itself a primary reinforcer)

which of the following experiments involves the use of operant conditioning? a. a parent loudly playing Christmas songs to wake up his children to make them get ready for school faster b. blindfolding someone and timing him to see how long it takes him to estimate the size of the room c. rewarding a child for finishing his oatmeal and counting how many times the child needs to be rewarded before he finishes his oatmeal voluntarily

c. rewarding a child for finishing his oatmeal and counting how many times the child needs to be rewarded before he finishes his oatmeal voluntarily

classical vs operant conditioning

classical: an unconditioned stimulus (food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (bell); neutral stimulus eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus, which brings about the conditioned response (salivation); stimulus timing: stimulus occurs immediately before the response operant: target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it, so that the learner is more likely to exhibit that desired behavior in the future stimulus timing: stimulus (either reinforcement or punishment) occurs soon after the response

In Pavlov's work with dogs, the "psychic secretions" were ________

conditioned responses (salivation upon hearing a bell)

Mabel clicks her tongue while tickling Francis. Eventually, Francis starts to squirm and giggle every time Mabel clicks her tongue, even when he is not being tickled. In this example, tongue clicking is a(n) ________.

conditioned stimulus

primary reinforcer

has innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter, sex)

secondary reinforcer

has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)

Sea turtles moving toward the ocean immediately after birth, and joeys moving to the mother's pouch immediately after birth are examples of _____________

instincts

birds migrating and cats chasing prey are examples of ___________

instincts

what are innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events, such as aging and the change of seasons?

instincts

Learning that does not reveal itself until it is needed is called

latent learning

_______ broke the constraints of ________, which emphasized that learning has the direct consequences of conditioning to stimuli

latent learning; behaviorism

to psychologists, _____________ is a long term change in behavior that is based on experience

learning

what was the main point of Ivan Pavlov's experiment with dogs?

learning can occur when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus

trial-and-error learning

learning that takes place when a child tries several solutions before finding one that works

three kinds of models

live, verbal, and symbolic

Dave has been working with a therapist to give up smoking. He has learned to stop having cravings when he sees someone about to light up a cigarette and thinks he is free. Then he goes to a party, sees a guy about to light up, and experiences strong cravings. What is going on?

spontaneous recovery

ration

the schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcements

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

A researcher is testing young children to see if they can learn to associate a red circle with an event that the child enjoys. She sets up an experiment where a toy bear dances. The infants love the dancing bear. She trains the child by showing a red circle on a screen in front of the child and, immediately after that, the bear appears and dances off to the side. The bear is only visible right after the red circle and the child must turn their head to see the bear. unconditioned stimulus: unconditioned response: conditioned stimulus: conditioned response: neutral stimulus: neutral response:

unconditioned stimulus: dancing bear unconditioned response: baby turns head conditioned stimulus: red circle conditioned response: baby turns head neutral stimulus: red circle neutral response: baby does not turn head

instinct

unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior, instincts are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans -triggered by broad range of events (maturation, change of seasons, etc) -more complex patterns of behavior -involve movement of organism as whole -involve higher brain centers

reflex

unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in the environment

You are trying to enter a prize drawing at the radio station but the lines are busy. You continue to call every 1-5 minutes hoping to get on the air. Which reinforcement schedule is this?

variable interval

you call a friend on the phone and repeatedly get sent to voicemail, so you continue to call her every 5-20 minutes hoping to speak to her personally. which reinforcement schedule is this?

variable interval

determine reinforcement schedule: don does remodeling for the strange old guy who lives in the big house; he has been working there for 8 months, and always puts in 25 hours a week; he is never sure when he is going to get paid; sometimes the old guy pays him twice in a single week and other times he doesn't give him anything for three weeks; on the average, he gets paid about every 10 days

variable interval (don is paid at unpredictable times that are not dependent on how much he does bc he always works the same amount - he gets what he's owed he just doesn't know if his paycheck is coming next week or today)

determine reinforcement schedule: mary is a waiter; sometimes she gets a tip from a customer and sometimes she gets nothing; whether the night is busy or dead, on average she gets a tip from 50% of customers, but some nights everyone is generous and some nights everyone is stingy

variable ratio

playing the slots at a casino works on a _________ reinforcement schedule

variable ratio

Slot machines reward gamblers with money according to which reinforcement schedule?

variable ratio (unpredictable and addictive bc each input scenario may require a different amount, ratio, of button presses to produce a win)

The most powerful reinforcement schedule to maintain a behavior is

variable ratio reinforcement schedule

Before Bandura proposed his Bobo doll experiment, most learning specialists believed that learning only occurred __________________.

when an individual did something and discovered the consequences directly (classical conditioning)

habituation

when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change