PSY FINAL
Telegraphic speech/Two-word stage
3rd stage of language acquisition stage where babies combine words into simple commands grammar and syntax rules can be misapplyed
Freud says personality is fixed by what age?
5-6
Industry vs. Inferiority
6-puberty Erikson's fourth stage begin formal education if we feel we are good enough = feel competent if not, we have inferiority complex, feel anxious about our performance in that area throughout rest of stages
concrete operations stage
8-12 piaget learn to think more LOGICally about complex relationships between object characteristics when you know concepts of conservation, reversibility, classification, seriation
conventional morality
8-13 second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior, look at choice thru other's eyes, "what do others expect of me" - may try to make choices so society think theyre good
Discuss maturation of motor skills.
> As soon as a baby is born, they have different types of motor skills that help them grow up. These skills include the ability to move large muscles and are able to do activities such as climbing, skipping, throwing, hitting, and punching. It can also include smaller muscle movement, and kids are later able to do things such as finger paint, color, cut things, and tying their shoes. Kids aren't able to use their gross motor and fine motor skills until they are one or two years old, and these skills can get better over time.
convergence
A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at a near object, straighten for further objects
Barbiturates
A category of depressant drugs that reduce anxiety and produce sleepiness, can impair memory & judgement
episodic memory
A category of explicit long-term memory that involves the recollection/sequential series of specific events, situations and experiences. personally experienced events
Hawthorne effect
A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied
afferent neurons (sensory neurons)-interneurons (away or to brain?)
Afferent neurons take info in At brain send sensory info to CNS
sucking reflex
An infant reflex in which the infant starts sucking when object put in mouth rooting and sucking reflex = eat
cognitive dissonance theory of motivation
Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance etc.
NREM-3 sleep & _____ terrors & secretes what & what kind of waves
Deep sleep where brain emits large, slow delta waves, hard to wake night terrors, sleep walking growth hormone is secreted from pituitary gland! The further into the night you get, the less deep sleep you have.
Konrad Lorenz (social psych)
Developed his theory after watching ducklings interact and is known for his theory on imprinting during a critical period after birth
Stage theories of development
Developmental theories that describe human development as occurring in stages/discontinuous
step 3 of vision processing: transduction (retina, rods cones, fovea, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, optic nerve, blind spot)
Light hits retina: 1. Rods & cones (light = neural impulse), - fovea (focus) in retina's center: made of only cones (color), greatest focus (straight-ahead vision) 2. bipolar cells 3. ganglion cells/optic nerve which take action potential to optic chiasm, thalamus & visual cortex of occipital lobe - blind spot: where optic nerve sits = no rods/cones
Lewin's Motivation Conflict theory
Lewin took fight or flight but made it more complex and created different ways people address the stress causing conflict: Approach-approach conflict, Avoidance-avoidance conflict, Approach-avoidance conflict, Multiple approach-avoidance conflict
Functional MRI (fMRI)
Measures bloodflow to brain regions by comparing continuous MRI scans. uses magnetic fields to produce images of brain structure If you see scientists tracking the activity and structure in continuous images, it is this one. STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
Bejamin Whorf
Linguistic Relativity/determinism Hypothesis theorized language we use might control and limit our thinking, cause different perceptions/cognition/ thoughts cuz of diff languages language restricts thought, cognition NOT strictly limited by vocab his hypothesis
phantom pain
Perceptions of pain in a body part that has been surgically or accidentally removed from the body, no sensation
ABC model of ___________ activating event - getting rejected beliefs -i am worthless and unlovable consequences -feel miserable, i wont put myself out there anymore practice new ways of thinking and behaving: reframing, thought stoppage, disputing
REBT
Babies spend most of their time in what type of sleep?
REM
REM sleep (paradoxical sleep)
Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid DREAMS commonly occur. aka paradoxical sleep: active intense brain waves/high brain activity relaxed muscles The further into the night you get, the more REM sleep you have.
Midbrain, function; contains limbic system
Region between the hindbrain and the forebrain integrates some sensory info and muscle movements, alertness more sophisticated, not necessary for survival (humans)
Pancreas
Regulates the level of blood sugar, helps w digestion releases a hormone called insulin.
Raymond Cattell (trait theory)
Same basic set of traits Characterize all people used factor analysis 16 PF (personality factors) Present in all people in varying degrees
_________________(spectrum disorder) characterized by (at least 2 out of these 5): delusions hallucinations disorganized speech abnormal motor actions-catatonia negative symptoms-reduced emotional expression
Schizophrenia
NREM-2 sleep (baseline sleep) characterized by sleep ______
Sleep characterized by sleep spindles - bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity
Syntax
Sentence structure, grammar of a language
Harry Harlow's attachment research showed importance of...
Studied attachment in monkeys with artificial mothers importance of physical comfort in attachment with parents /mother's touch importance("soft" wire monkey referred when alarmed),attatchment more developed from contact comfort than having physiological needs met (i.e. being fed) need attachment with REAL mother
single blind
Subject does not know which group (control or experimental) they are in
_________(Freud) last part of personality to develop partly in conscious and unconscious our __________(what is right and wrong), kids begin to develop around age 5
Superego conscience
intelligence
The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. Intelligence may have different meanings to different groups of people (influenced by culture, different fields: i.e. street smart/physics smart?)
cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres (outermost layer of gray matter of the cerebrum); the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. increased the most evolutionarily in humans lobes, association areas.
The smaller the p-value...
The more significant the results (p value is opposite to statistical significance-negative correlation) p-value can never be 0 because smth can never be proven 100%
Brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions. hindbrain& & midbrain
depolarization & action potential
The process when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive. certain level of depolarization has to happen for action potential
Heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
Polarization
The resting state of a neuron: charge more POSTIVE OUTSIDE membrane, NEGATIVE INSIDE
we are particularly sensitive to (what emotion?) _______ faces, more quickly spotting this emotion than others in a crowd of faces. This effect is amplified in children who have been physically abused
angry both men and women tend to perceive an angry face as that of a man
alcohol acts as an _______ to excitatory glutamate, and as an _______ to inhibitory GABA
antagonist to glutamate agonist to GABA alcohol slows down reactions and judgement by slowing down brain processes, inhibiting certain parts of brain
Benzodiazepines treats what
anxiety disorders (OCD, PTSD) Depresses central nervous system. side effects: drowsy, dizzy, headaches, fatigue
primary reinforcer
any reinforcer that is naturally rewarding & reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst
discriminative stimulus
any stimulus, such as a certain sound, that provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement operant conditioning specific factors that indicate if a voluntary behavior will lead to a reinforcement or not i.e. stimulus is the cue (stimulus) that is present when the behavior is reinforced. The animal learns to exhibit the behavior in the presence of the discriminative stimulus. i,e, workers know when boss is singing that if they ask for a raise he will say yes, so they learn to only ask for a raise when he is singing
population
anyone or anything that could possibly be selected to be in the sample
inferential errors
anything that allows us to link smaller group to larger group where there isn't a link (numerally we did not disprove null hypothesis) -heuristics, cognitive biases, outgroup homogeneity
developmental psych is an ________topic because many findings from other areas are applied to the topic of maturation
applied
forensic psychologist
applies psychological concepts to law/legal issues public policy/jury selection/help police
industrial/organizational psychologist
applies psychological principles to the workplace to improve productivity and the quality of work life
sport psychologists
apply psychology to understanding and improving athlete's performance
negative symptoms of schizophrenia
appropriate behaviors are absent such as flat affect, catatonia
exposure therapies
behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, flooding, modeling, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid, use counterconditioning
Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, Edward Thorndike, BF Skinner, Albert Bandura (social cognitive)
behaviorism approach
Mary Cover Jones
behaviorism/learning; pioneer in systematic desensitization, maintained that fear could be unlearned
body position sense: kinesthetic sense compare to vestibular
being able to sense the position of your individual body parts/limbs and what they're doing (i.e. enable perform her dance moves without having to look at limbs)
set point theory
belief that hypothalamus wants to maintain a certain optimum body weight when we drop below it, hypothalamus says to eat and lowers metabolic rate when we are above it, HT says to stop eating and raise metabolic rate set point: body weight in which you will hover around
delusions of grandeur
belief that you enjoy greater power and influence than you do
within-group differences are typically larger than _____________-group differences Males and females tend to have the same average intelligence test scores. They differ in some specific abilities.
between
self-transcendence according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose ______________the self where you feel like it is your calling to do things, such as donate to charity, volunteer, etc.
beyond
depth perception cues
binocular and monocular
what is the name of the system/external monitoring device that teaches you to notice subtle physiological changes (i.e. tension in forehead, blood pressure)?
biofeedback uses cognitive factors to influence physiological factors/stress reduce intensity of tension headaches condition someone to lower pulse when stressed
________theories of personality view biological factors like genes, chemicals, and body types impact personality
biological
Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga
biological approach
what does research indicate may influence sexual orientation?
biological influences only (not social) twin studies: possible genetic influence, person whos twin is homo more likely to be homo diff brain structures diff hormones in womb
primary drives
biological needs, like thirst, hunger, sexual desire
biological (Neuroscience) Perspective
biological processes only (genes, hormones, neurotransmitters in brain, brain lesions) influence on behavior
biopsychosocial perspective on cause of psychological disorders
biomedical, environment, culture combination
________________________perspective mental processes result of interactions among biological, psychological, and social factors combination is best biological--biological and evolutionary psychological--cognitive, behavioral, humanistic, psychodynamic sociocultural perspectives
biopsychosocial
biological evidence for affective disorders low levels of serotonin & norepinephrine = depression more acetylcholine = ________disorder both run in families, respond to somatic therapies
bipolar
sensorimotor stage
birth-2 in Piaget's theory, infants know the world/develop schematas mostly in terms of their sensory explorations and motor activities/reflexes circular reactions-shake rattle, make noise object permanence: drop rattle, looks for it challenge: develop object permanence
Repression (defense mechanism)
blocking out/banishing anxiety-arousing wishes and feelings from consciousness
Central Nervous System (CNS)
brain and spinal cord spinal cord: nerves within bone (skull, vertebrae)
accidents, autopsy, lesions, EEG, MEG, electrical stimulation, TMS, PET, and fMRI are all methods of measuring what?
brain functioning
terminal buttons (axon terminals)
branched ends of axons that secrete neurotransmitters
The larger the amplitude of a wave (what is sensed), the brighter/duller the color, the louder/quieter the sound (what is perceived by brain)
brighter louder
papillae
bumps on tongue that house taste buds the more packed the taste buds, the more chemicals absorbed, more intensely food is tasted all kinds taste receptors all over tongue. taste is very subjective
flashbulb memories
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event importance of event caused u to encode context surrounding event are inaccurate (emotional elements)
Schemas
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. concept about what something is or how smth works.
rational emotive behavior therapy REBT
a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously exposes, challenges, and try to change people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and behaviors (i.e. fears)
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake, just for yourself
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a disorder characterized by difficulty paying attention/staying on task/sitting still, manifests in impulsive behavior more in boys critics say this behavior typical of young boys = overdiagnosis
insight learning
a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into/realizes how to solve problem i.e. solution cant occur until chimps had cognitive insight into how to solve problem
aversive conditioning
a form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus i.e. nail biting becomes associated w terrible taste (nail polish), and cease nail biting
bar graph
a graph that uses vertical or horizontal bars to show comparisons among two or more items that have to be separate categories, not numerical x-axis usually?
frequency distribution
a graphical representation of frequency of measurements: y-axis: frequency x-axis: whatever you are graphing
exemplar
a great example from experience but experience is limited
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
a group of alcohol-related birth defects if mother drinks a lot of alcohol during preggo small malformed skulls, mental retardation
trauma and stressor related disorders
a group of mental disorders distinguished by their origin in/response to a stressful/traumatic event not everyone responds by developing psychological disorder, those who do may have to do with lack of social support, childhood trauma, additional stress, family history
psychotic disorders
a group of psychological disorders marked by irrational ideas, distorted perceptions, loss of contact with reality--schizophrenia
self-help groups
a group therapy, composed of people who have similar problems and who meet together without a therapist or counselor for the purpose of discussion, problem solving, and social and emotional support alcoholics anonymous
flat affect
a lack of emotional responsiveness MAY be a symptom
GABA
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter - regulates sleep-wake cycles. calming undersupply - anxiety, seizures, insomnia. surplus-Sleep and eating disorders. sedation used to treat general anxiety disorder
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet - the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age. intelligence increases as u get older Thus, a child who does as well as an average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another (perceive some parts of sensory data and IGNORE others_ i.e. when climbing a staircase, it seems steeper when you are thirsty. Or hearing sad music can predispose people to perceive a sad meaning in spoken homophonic words. #: everyone senses 4 lines, but some perceive a pound sign while others perceive a hashtag top-down: we sense something unknown, apply what we know to this new thing
intelligence test
a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.
elaborative rehearsal
a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way attaching associations, making applications, relating to prior knowledge self-reference effect (find ways to apply to yourself--i.e. if trying to remember smth is at 6:00, u remember bc ur birthday is 6/6 )
reticular formation
a nerve network that travels through the midbrain controlling attention, arousal & focus
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical (+) charge that travels down an axon
variable-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals checking mail when mailcarrier's shedule is unpredictable
fixed-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses place gives u free meal after u buy 10 meals
fixed-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed getting lunch at restaurant that opens at 8
Learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
standardization sample
a representative group of people who take the test and establish the norms. represents the population for whom the test is intended, used to construct test
survey method
a research method that involves gathering information from people through the use of surveys correlational research
Heuristic
a rule that is general, but not always, true that we can use to make a judgement in a situation availability & representativeness heuristics "short cuts" based on experience, schemas, expectations, mental models, scripts, fast and efficient informal reasoning-fast thinking, not logical process result oriented can lead to problems in judgement
experimenter bias
a situation-relevant confounding variable the unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis can be eliminated by using double-blind procedure
conversion disorder
a somatic symptom disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms unexpectedly (i.e. unexpected paralysis/blindness), that have no physiological basis response similar to a nervous system condition
iconic memory
a split-second perfect photograph of a scene, type of sensory memory
consciousness
a state of awareness of ourselves and of the world around us
operational definition
a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. statement of procedures the researcher is going to use in order to measure a specific variable
correlation coefficient
a statistical measure of the strength of the relatedness of 2 sets of scores but not causal! 1 = positive, -1=negative correlation -1 to 1 are both strongest
conditioned stimulus
a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place, no longer a neutral stimulus (in Pavlov, the sound)
neutral stimulus (NS)
a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning - the conditioned stimulus before it's conditioned (tone/sound in pavlov experiment)
Skinner box (operant chamber) allowed for experimental control = can identify cause of behavior, which is reinforcer & reinforcement
a structure that is big enough to fit a rodent or bird and that contains a bar or key that the organism can press or peck to release food in a Skinner box, the food is called a reinforcer, the process of giving food is called reinforcement
SQ3R
a study method incorporating: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review
pessimistic explanatory style
a tendency to explain bad events that happen in a self-blaming manner, they think these bad things will continue to happen in their lives
achievement tests
a test designed to assess what a person has learned. Ex. AP exam or final exam.
Aptitude tests
a test designed to predict a person's ability or potential performance. Ex. A college entrance exam that predicts your ability to do college work, SAT.
cognitive restructuring
a therapeutic approach that teaches clients to question the automatic beliefs, assumptions, and predictions that often lead to negative emotions and to replace negative thinking with more realistic and positive beliefs beck
aversive conditioning
a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)
Joseph Wolpe's systematic desensitization (refined Mary's)
a type of exposure that teaches relaxation with exposure to increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli (anxiety hierarchy)/counterconditioning to replace fear with relaxation gradually. Commonly used to treat phobias. Ex. If you have a fear of public speaking, a behavior therapist may first help you construct a hierarchy of anxiety-triggering speaking situations, ranging from speaking in a small group of friends to having to address a large audience.
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which voluntary responses/behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence voluntary vs involuntary association of 2 stimuli
social desirability
a type of response bias in which subjects tend to give answers that reflect well on themselves
z-score
a type of standard score that tells us how many standard deviation units a given score is above (+) or below (-) the mean for that group
postconventional morality
adulthood third level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles morality of societal rules examined, not blindly accepted
sensory adaptation
after a certain amount of time you no longer notice/perceive a present stimuli/sensation happens naturally, don't notice (vs habituation) psychological. even tho u dont notice, sensory neurons still sending brain afferent signals when you are in a pool that feels cool but you don't feel the coolness after a while or when you smell something bad but after a while it doesn't seem that bad
resistance stage of general adaptation syndrome
after alarm stage chronic long-term less-intense response to adapt/resist adrenaline, cortisol, glucose if too long = deplete resources body is using all of its hormones and immune system activity to counter a stressful event.
theory of mind
after egocentrism in preoperational stage of piaget ability to reason about what other people know or believe
(in human research), debriefing
after study, participants should be told purpose of study if there was !deception! in experiment, if needed couseling
Teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus (pass placenta) during prenatal development and cause harm, if ingested by mother also can be from environment STRONG CORRELATION between smoking and alcohol and birth defects
Oral Stage (Freud's Psychosexual Stages)
ages 0-1, sensitive zones= mouth, lips, tongue, enjoy sucking and biting for pleasure
biochemical approach to aggression
aggression is related to feedback loop between certain brain structures via chemical and electrical reactions - amygdala, hypothalamus, high testosterone, low serotonin, brain injuries
social approach to aggression
aggressiveness with others
ego integrity vs despair
aging years Erikson's final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives if satisfied/feel accomplished/fulfillment, have ego integrity, willing to face death if regret=despair over lost opportunities, despair over death
Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
agreed that there is more to success than one general intelligence. how person interacts w environment (unique) Created the triarchic theory - proposing three intelligences: 1 analytical intelligence (compare and contrast, explain, analyze, being able to perform steps to arrive at an answer) 2 creative intelligence (use knowledge in innovative ways) 3 practical intelligence (apply knowledge to irl). what is intelligence depends on context
second stage of language acquisition: holophrastic stage
aka one-word stage babbling into words 1st birthday
major depressive disorder (depressive disorders is a category, depression is not a specific disorder)
aka unipolar depression, commonest mood disorder person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure.
Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome
alarm stage, resistance stage, exhaustion stage general response to stressful event excessive stress = disease, emotional difficulties, vulnerable to disease due to exhaustion after body remaining in challenge for only so long
2 problem solving methods
algorithms and heuristics
Turner Syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, Down syndrome are all related bc:
all have problems with chromosomal abnormalities (XY..)
hallucinogens/psychedelics
alter perception, distort sensory experiences, sensory hallucinations, loss of identity, vivid fantasies, diff effects persistence in body serotonin agonist LSD, marijuana (also relaxes, mix)
generalized anxiety disorder
an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually uncontrollably experiencing low-level anxiety
social anxiety disorders
an anxiety disorder involving the extreme and irrational fear of being embarrassed by others in social situations intense fear of social situations (avoid like parties, dates, school or work presentations), but can go outside
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy
an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements by sending signals to muscles (judgements for these signals from prefrontal cortex)
Structuralism & who founded it
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind, what is mind's structure/made of? focused on elements/building blocks of consciousness Wundt and Titchener
anorexia nervosa
an eating disorder in which an irrational fear of weight gain leads people to starve themselves NOT NORMAL weight--below 85% of normal
self-fulfilling prophecy
an expectation - positive or negative - about something or someone that can affect a person's behavior in a way that leads those expectations to become a reality one person's attitudes/expectations for others can influence/elicit a change in those others' behaviors i.e. a teacher holds an initially erroneous expectation about a student, and who, through social interaction, causes the student to behave in such a manner as to confirm the originally false (but now true) expectation
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more lights blink on and off at a certain rate/ in quick succession that fool our mind into thinking those lights are moving
case study method
an in-depth study of one or more individuals
Psychotherapy
an ongoing dialogue between a patient and a mental health professional, psychological techniques, therapy focuses on mind not body (on psychological not physiological means) -talk therapy, counseling (psychoanalysis is type of psychotherapy)
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure reinforces successive approximations of the desired behavior having the person/test subject slowly learn the behavior that the tester wants them to learn. i.e. if they want a child to sit down for a longer time. they might have them sit down for 15 minutes and then a reward. over time, the time increases for the child to sit down and get the reward. eventually the child will learn to sit for a longer amount of time i.e. Leah is interested in helping her daughter learn manners. Each time her daughter says something that is close to appropriate, she rewards her. Eventually, her daughter should learn good manners.
token economy
an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats generalized reinforcers
fixation in anal stage (traumatic toilet training) leads to
anal expulsive and anal retentive personalities
psychoanalytic theories (FREUD and erikson) are less scientifically verifiable than other stage theories because they are based on _______evidence, personal inference rather than empirical research methods
anecdotal
Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
children viewed the world through schema, cognitive rules we use to interpret world, organize knowledge, make judgements/decisions, behavior i.e. fish=swim in water, have fins. but if see fish w/o fins=accommodation, so realize not all fish have fins process of schema creation, assimilation, accommodation=4 stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations)
behavioral therapies ___________________conditioning therapies: systematic desensitization, aversion therapy, exposure therapy operant conditioning therapies: token economy, participant modeling
classical
flooding therapy
classical conditioning Exposure to fear but start with most frightening fear first; individual not allowed to escape situation. if client does not back down, will realize fear is irrational (nothing bad is happening!), and fear will be extinguished
radical behaviorists like BF Skinner argue behavior is personality. personality determined by interactions between behaviors, reinforcement, and punishments. by changing ppl's environments they interact w, you can alter their personalities. criticized for not taking _____________into account
cognition
_____________therapies confrontational therapy that attempts to change irrational/unhealthy way people think, teach people new, more adaptive ways of thinking deal with the present Albert Ellis, Aaron _______
cognitive Beck
____________________perspective behaviors and mental processes influenced by thoughts, attitudes, memories, expectations, decision-making, problem-solving!! how we ___________________, process, remember environmental events/store info to explain our thoughts/behavior
cognitive intepret
Jean Piaget, Albert Ellis & Aaron Beck
cognitive approach
When our attitudes/thoughts don't fit with our actions, ____________ _____________ theory suggests that we will change/justify our thoughts unconsciously to match our actions (and reduce dissonance) "It's OK, i never really wanted it anyway" "it turned out OK" "everyone else cheated, so it's ok that i cheated" changing one's behavior can lead to a change in attitudes
cognitive dissonance
Concepts
cognitive rules we apply to stimuli from our environment that allow us to categorize/think about things we encounter concept of mom vs dad vs soccer
____________-____________ therapies are very good for treating anxiety, depression, panic attacks, addiction, personality, eating disorders
cognitive-behavioral
most psychologists agree we acquire language through some ___________ of conditioning and an inborn tendency to learn language
combination so both Noam Chonsky and Skinner
genetics' role in human thought and behavior HEREDITY & ENVIRONMENT most human traits result from ___________effects of our genetic code/nature and _________
combined nurture
companionate love
comes after the passionate love phase, and it involves deep affectionate attachment for someone else. While passionate love involves a surge of dopamine and adrenaline, companionate love levels off those hormones and introduces oxytocin If you feel like you've lost the "spark" of your earlier relationship, it doesn't mean you're falling out of love, it just means that you've entered the companionate love phase
Rationalization (defense mechanism)
coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable occurrence ex: a person who is turned down for a date might rationalize the situation by saying they were not attracted to the other person anyway.
cross-sectional study
compares groups of people of different ages
Test Standardization Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by _____________with the performance of others/pretested group. comparison of scores gives bell curve against what is an individual score ________________? A test that has been piloted on a similar population of people as those who are meant to take the test; individuals are compared against the norms of the sample population.
comparison compared
Type A
competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people
artificial concepts
concepts defined by rules, perfect, rare irl
drug therapy/psychopharmacology/chemotherapy
control of psychological disorders through the use of drugs instead of talk therapy -biomedical therapy more severe disorder=more likely use drug
right hemisphere of brain
control of the left side of the body, artistic and creative side of the brain spatial, visual awareness. recognize faces and emotional responses
only in (non-controlled or controlled?) ___________experiment can show causal relationship (not all research can show cause-and -effect) researcher can manipulate/control variables
controlled
Broca's area (Broca Spoka)
controls language expression left frontal lobe
Wernicke's area
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe understanding language
left hemisphere of brain
controls right side of the body and is logical, contains LANGUAGE, SPEECH (Broca's and Wernicke's)
Split-brain patients have had their ________ surgically cut, so the 2 brain hemispheres CANNOT COMMUNICATE WITH EACH OTHER, and have to communicate with each other outside of the brain
corpus callosum (nerve bundles connecting the 2 hemispheres)
David Wechsler
created the most widely used individual intelligence test (also IQ test) - valued non-verbal performance (prevent bias against those who were not verbally skilled) created WAIS, WISC, WPPSI
Paul Costa & Robert McCrae (trait theory)
creators of the "Big Five" model of personality traits (simplest), factor analysis
community psychologist
crisis management; work to create social and physical environments that are healthy for all
demand characteristics
cues about the purpose of the study; participants use such cues to try to respond appropriately for the researcher skewing the validity of the experiment - common way to avoid: telling participants that the study is looking at one thing when it is really looking at something else altogether. i.e. In Asch's conformity experiment, participants were told that they were taking part in a vision experiment. In reality, the researchers were interested in the role that social pressure plays in conformity. By disguising the true intentions of the experiment, researchers are able to minimize the possibility of demand characteristics
how do cues help our retrieval of learned material/experiences?
cues serve as links/associations semantic network theory applies to cue-dependent memory retrieval A retrieval cue that matches information stored in memory results in access to that memory and makes it open to modification. Cues or conditions that were present when the memory was formed are stored with the memory; therefore, those same conditions need to be reinstated at retrieval to provoke activation of a memory after exposure to a retrieval cue
display rules for emotion
cultural rules specifying what emotions should and should not be expressed under what circumstances ex: someone from the U.S. may more freely express emotions, while someone from an Asian culture may not express emotions as much. A person from a culture that does not express emotions as much may be interpreted as coming off angry by the person from a culture that does freely express emotions.
social inhibition
curb our behaviors, comments, personality for fear of not matching social scene/norms
use of the most recent version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) published by the American Psychiatric Association as the primary reference for making diagnostic judgments of psychological disorders. it contains symptoms of everything __________considered a psych disorder, does not contain causes/etiology or treatments
currently
Habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning) dog experiment
deduced classical conditioning dogs experiment: dogs learned to pair sounds in environment where they were fed w food given to them, began to salivate simply upon hearing sounds
operational definitions
define what the experiment is measuring and how it is going to be measured. improves reliability of results An example of this would be an experiment that is measuring if Timmy laughs more at girls or boys. The operation definition of this experiment would say what the experiment defines as a laugh. This experiment may operationally define a laugh as a smile with a sound.
dependent variable
depends on the independent variable, variable that is measured what you get
Aaron Beck's cognitive triad Negative views about self, world, future = _______________
depression
Aaron Beck's Cognitive Therapy
depression results from clients' irrational negative thinking about themselves and the world around them (cognitive triad) trying to get clients to do things that will bring them success, make beliefs more positive , challenge irrational ideas that cause depression (not as confrontational as Ellis REBT tho, kinder, gentler)
how can we test hypotheses and refine theories?
descriptive methods correlational methods experimental methods
neuroticism extraversion openness personality inventory (NEO-PI)
designed to assess Big Five traits reliable
Groupthink
desire for harmony in thinking, causing ppl to suppress dissenting opinions, even if the consensus is unrealistic/irrational=bad decision being made i want to THINK whatever the rest of the GROUP does
reality monitoring
determining if memories based on actual events (external) or our thoughts (internal) reality monitoring error i.e. think u have ur paper signed, but irl its not, ur just remembering ur intention to have it signed
source monitoring
determining the origins (sources) of our memories source monitoring error: think the source is something different from the actual one (vs amnesia where you just can't remember the source)
linguistic determinism (strong sapir-whorf hypothesis) is the strong form of linguistic ___________.
determinism: words, grammar, syntax (ur language) DETERMINE what type of thoughts you have
neurodevelopmental disorders (spectrum)
deviations from typical social development (emerge during childhood and adolescence), developing skills i.e. autism spectrum disorder , ADHD
cross-sectional study
different subjects are compared at 1 point in time (i.e. compare fluid intelligence in ppl of diff ages) quick results must avoid effects of historical events and cultural trends
purpose of tests is to distinguish between people the _______________level of questions has been predetermined by the performance of the standardization sample
difficulty
if you have a much lower mental age than chronological age (IQ < 70), may be a sign of an intellectual _____________________
disability
Carl Rogers paraphrased, confirmed, and allowed for reflection on the client's thoughts. The more they spoke about and clarified their feelings, the more the disorder slowly _____________. Focuses on an individual's tendency for healthy psychological _______through self-actualization
disappeared growth
close relationships built through process of self-______________(sharing personal info w another)
disclosure
dissociative disorders
disruption causing inconsistencies in consciousness. A person may have memory loss or a complete change in identity. common factor: often trauma from earlier in life, these disorders may be form of coping w the trauma, or intense stress 1. dissociative identity disorder 2. dissociative amnesia 3. depersonalization disorder
William James
founder of functionalism first psych textbook
imaginary audience (adolescent egocentrism)
from formal operations stage - Belief that others are as interested in them as they are - involves attention-getting behavior motivated by desire to be noticed, visible, and on stage
Personal fable (adolescent egocentrism)
from formal operations stage adolescents' sense of invincibility = risk-taking behavior
adolescent egocentrism (piaget)
from formal operations stage the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents as they search for identity. able to imagine how OTHERS view them imaginary audience personal fable
Lobes of the cerebral cortex
frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal (cerebral cortex is IN the forebrain)
olfactory bulb & difference in how impulses are sent to cortex
gather messages from olfactory receptor cells to send to brain nerve fibers from olfactory bulb goes directly to amygdala then to hippocampus (memory), not thru thalamus
Seconday sex characteristics
gender related physical features that develop during puberty (i.e. male deepened voice)
advantages/disadvantages of case study method can dig deep, narrow (opposite of survey, which is broad) to find relationships time consuming, subjects not representative/cannot _______________to population no causality
generalize
some personality traits have higher heritability: measure of amount of variation in trait in population due to ___________ (i.e. heritability of intelligence is 50-70%)
genetic differences often estimated from studies of twins
Diasthesis
genetic predisposition w/ environmental trigger for a disease
Prenatal Influences on Development (2)
genetics and teratogens
Narcolepsy
genetics, uncontrollable "sleep attacks" during day treated with medications, changing sleep patterns like certain-times naps during day cataplexy: sudden loss of muscle tone while awake that coincides w sleep attack linked to genetic differences in protein hypocretin in brain
p-value
gives the probability that the difference between the groups is due to chance
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: _______ are centers for communication:, they send and receive hormonal messengers from all over the body
glands
Endocrine and nervous system neurotransmitters can fit into the receptor sites of ____, and hormones can fit into the receptor sites of _____
glands neurons both maintain internal communication
sample
group of participants goal: select sample representative of larger population: large, random bad/sampling bias: makes some individuals less likely to be included in the sample than others
social trap
group of people act to obtain short-term individual gains (extreme short-term competition), which in the long run leads to a loss for the group as a whole
_________psychological environment (Twin study) despite being raised apart, they _______similar and may cause them to be treated similarly anyway.
effective look
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
electrodes are placed on the scalp to measure the electrical activity in neurons. If you see anything with electrical activity, it is generally this type of machine. ex: identify different stages of sleeping FUNCTION
diagnosis
eliminating all the wrong answers (slow reasoning)
James-Lange, Cannon-Bard theories of emotion are not whole story bc current theories say biological changes are not sole cause of ________
emotions
distributed practice
encode over multiple time periods spaces out his studying for a few weeks rather than cramming it all in one night more likely to effectively process the information / more durable storage and retrieval and do well on the exam ebbinghaus
visual encoding
encoding of images shallowest processing
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort explicit memories requires rehearsal and is improved w attention and motivation
thyroid gland
endocrine system produces hormones that regulate metabolism
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
testing effect
enhanced, more durable memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. long term
instrumental aggression vs hostile aggression
instrumental: aggression used to reach a goal (more cognitive) hostile: no clear purpose to the violence only goal is to cause harm (more emotional)
specific phobia
intense unwarranted fear of a situation or object contact w feared object/situation = anxiety
in vision, the stimuli for our receptor cells lining the retina are light waves: 1. wavelength/frequency determines color. - short=blue - mid=green - long=red 2. amplitude determines _______________________ of color
intensity/brightness
conductive hearing loss
interference with the transmission of sound waves to the cochlea (cannot go thru outer/middle ear) outer ear (BLOCKAGE), ear drum (trauma), bones in middle ear affected one/both ears. can be selective
Sherif's superordinate goals
intergroup prejudice can be reduced through working toward superordinate goals (a goal that benefits all and necessitates the participation of all) - hard to maintain dislike if you appreciate them bc may lead to cognitive dissonance campers in unfriendly competing groups came to have more positive feelings about one another after working together to solve several camp-wide problems
Julian Rotter's Locus of Control Theory (social cognitive) people with an _____________locus of control have a strong cognitive _________________that their own actions will result in the outcome they are seeking while people with an external locus of control have a cognitive expectancy that outcomes they experience are determined more by outside forces like luck or fate.
internal expectancy
psychoanalytic/psychodynamic perspective on cause of psychological disorders
internal, unconscious, unresolved conflicts often caused by traumatic events during youth, that create anxiety and emotional disruption
consumnate love
intimacy, passion, commitment
characteristics of creative thought, creative thinkers 1. need to be knowledgeable abt the subject/domain 2. need to have skills (practice being creative) 3. ____________motivation (over-justification effect will stop this) 4. safe, supportive environment. cant be afraid of failure 5. avoid confirmation biases, seek out things to prove you wrong 6. divergent thinking 7. lateral thinking 8. ___________________ _________________ (choosing best solution) 9. Occam's Razor (simplest is best)
intrinsic convergent thinking
diagnosis of ________ ___________ ________ requires at least 5 symptoms, one of them has to 1 or 2: 1. depressed mood almost 24/7 2. withdrawal from activities due to lack of interest/pleasure 3. weight loss/gain or appetite increase/decrease 4. insomnia/hypersomnia 5. psychomotor agitation/retardation 6. fatigue 7. feelings of worthlessness/guilt 8. problems w concentration/indecisiveness 9. frequent suicidal thoughts
major depressive disorder
Glutamate , problems w surplus?
major excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in learning, long-term memory. (LONG-TERM POTENTIATION) -after learning smth new, glutamate binds to receptor sites on postsynaptic neurons = action potential Oversupply - migraines or seizures.
evidence suggests that ____________ differences are largely responsible for racial group group differences.
environmental
Hans Eysenck (trait theory)
factor analysis nomothetic approach: the belief that the same basic set of traits can be used to describe all people's personalities 🌎 classify all people along an introversion-extraversion scale and an emotionally stable-unstable scale to describe personalities
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere, even though you are looking at it directly (eyes are sending signal, but brain is on smth else)
humanistic perspective on cause of psychological disorders
failure to strive towards one's potential or being out of touch w one's feelings/self-esteem/self-concept
Delusions
false beliefs often persecutions/grandeur
constructed memory
false details of a real event or might even be a recollection of an event that never occurred. feel accurate to recaller therapists, investigators can conjure up. innocent people can say they did something/conjure up details they actually didnt thrhu lots of leading questions, logically
informal reasoning
fast thinking heuristics, top-down processing, schema, mental set
delayed conditioning (most effective)
fastest acquisition, strongest training- present CS first then introduce US while CS still there (briefly overlaps), if NS and US are presented close together in time i.e. bell is rung and dog presented w food while bell still ringing for a bit also if NS & US paired many times, and if NS stands out from other competing stimuli
Leptin protein hormone secreted by the ______-cells; when abundant, causes the brain to stimulate _______center/ventromedial hypothalamus
fat satiety
illusory correlation
faulty heuristic the perception of a relationship where none exists
agoraphobia
fear of open public spaces, crowds fear of places and situations that might cause panic, helplessness (no escape available) or embarrassment. you often stay in your house VS people with social anxiety who can go outside
attitude
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
Wolfgang Kohler and the chimps
first demonstrated insight learning through his chimpanzee experiments. chimps solves problems suddenly, not gradually non-human animals capable of sudden cognitive (claims animals do think) insight
Margaret Floy Washburn
first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology
Sigmund Freud's 5 psychosexual stages: resolving unconscious conflicts (5), ego and superego developing. if we are undergratified or overgratified during one of these stages, we could become ___________in the stage (remain preoccupied w the behaviors in that stage), by the psychic energy the libido getting stuck
fixated
as we get old old, our ______intelligence decreases the most (decline in working memory and how fast you can learn, think, reason w/ new info). procedural and semantic (general knowledge) memory remains stable
fluid
adult Genital Stage (Freud)
focus of sexual pleasure is the genitals/sexual relationships with others (fixation here is considered normal by freud)
educational psychologists
focus on how effective teaching and learning take place
human factors psychologists
focus on the interaction of people, machines, and physical environments
positive psychologist
focuses on the study of human flourishing and the attainment of a happy, meaningful life
decay
forgetting because we do not use a memory or connections to a memory for a long period of time.
motivated forgetting
forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable Freud-repression
Paul Ekman's research on cross-cultural displays of emotion
found that facial expressions are universal No matter what, we can always detect happiness, sadness, shock, and fear on other people's faces. But cultures do differ in how MUCH emotion they express.
representativeness heuristic
judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind too stereotypical ex deciding a kid is a nerd because he looks like one.
gender schema theory on how gender roles develop
kids internalize schemas (observations) about gender into cognitive rules about how each gender should behave, and select activities that match the role they recognize in themselves
research demonstrates the _______we apply to things affect how we think and perceive them, not much evidence for other ways language influences thoughts
labels refer to Whorf hypothesis
Noam Chomsky
language development disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition humans have an inborn native ability to develop language (w/o explicit instructions from parents) humans born with language acquisition device critical period for learning language exists
ways to improve memory make it meaningful with ________ _________ practice activate _________ cues testing effect chunking mnemonics sleep
make it meaningful with links/associations distributed practice activate retrieval cues testing effect chunking mnemonics sleep
cognitive perspective on cause of psychological disorders
maladaptive, irrational, dysfunctional thoughts/way of thinking
Lithium is used to treat, stabilize the _________phase of bipolar disorder
manic
Freud dream theory, manifest & latent content
manifest content what you remember of the dream is the surface meaning latent content the underlying symbolic meaning - protected sleep (repressed desires in symbolic form) satisfy our wishes, unconscious drives
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
linguistic relatively hypothesis: words, grammar, syntax (ur language) INFLUENCE what type of thoughts you have related to linguistic determinism ex: sexist language influences the way in which our society views men and women. 'fireman,' 'policeman,' and 'male nurse.
concepts of conservation
logical thinking ability that allows a person to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size concrete operations
shortest
longer
advantages/disadvantages of _______________________study uncover possible confounding variables, can be used in variety of other research methods (i.e. 2 diff surveys over time ) time consuming, expensive, difficult to control, eh causality
longitudinal
semantic memory
longterm explicit memory format for general knowledge about the world, stored as facts, meanings, or categories (not sequential) best to remember
as humans grows, they _______ their infant reflexes (rooting, sucking, grasping, moro, babinski)
loose
the speedy "(high/low)_____ road," information (stimulus) bypasses the cognition of the frontal lobe to go straight to thalamus to amygdala. these emotions (fear, anger, surprise) are automatic.
low
negatively skewed distribution
low extremes = most scores pile up at the high end of the scale skew made by a few too-low scores mean lower than median mean pulled too low
frequency theory of pitch & what range of pitches
lower tones sensed by rate at which cells fire we sense pitch bc cilia fire at different rates/frequencies in cochlea
eat-->diminished hunger-->raise blood sugar (glucose) levels-->insulin released by pancreas-->insulin packs glucose for storage & _________glucose levels--> hungry again
lowers
George Miller
made famous the phrase: "the magical number 7, plus or minus 2" when describing human short term memory capacity of SHORT TERM MEMORY
descriptive statistics median and mode are relatively unaffected by presence of a few outliers, but one outlier can affect the ___________ alot
mean
What are the measures of central tendency and what do they do?
mean, median, mode attempt to mark center of a distribution
valid
measures what the researcher set out to measure if variables are operationally defined
Antipsychotic drugs treats what
medications that are used to treat schizophrenia Block dopamine activity (dopamine hypothesis), and target serotonin
mnemonic devices, short term or long term memory
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices short term rly just chunking
explicit memory (declarative memory)
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously recall/remember and "declare" what we think about when we think of memories longterm semantic, episodic explained thru 3-stage model
Elizabeth Loftus
memory researcher discovered constructed/false memories of events
How is IQ in binet-simon/stanford-binet test calculated?
mental age/chronological age x 100 The average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.
Images
mental pictures we create in our minds of the outside world visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, or image after taste
availability heuristic
mental shortcut to a decision based on the first thing that comes to mind. estimating the likelihood of events based on how readily they come to mind/how vivid they are can lead to incorrect conclusions bc of variability in PERSONAL EXPERIENCE Many parents may not let their children walk to school 🏫 because the only thing they could think of is that one kid going missing ⚠️This is the very first thing that comes to their mind and because of it, they fear their children suffering the same fate.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
middle age (40-65) Erikson's seventh stage. we look critically at our life try to ensure life going the way we want them to go, if yes-generate care for community: give back, generate something more to outlast us (i.e. have kids/volunteer) if not, may feel stagnant, concern for self
placebo pain
no perception, but sensation of pain (afferent neurons sent to brain, but brain doesnt perceive the pain for some reason, ie distracted)
proactive interference
older information learned previously interferes with the recall of information learned more recently Proactive interference (pro=forward) occurs when you cannot learn NEW because of OLD info
information processing model
our abilities to memorize, interpret, perceive gradually develop as we age rather than developing distinct stages more continuous than piaget's
perceptual constancies
our ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite changes (based on our experience/perceptual set)
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, applying your brain toward complex tasks. tends to decrease with age. ex: finding novel ways to memorize and process the information and vocab words
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills/more heuristics; tends to increase with age; gained by experience. slower than fluid
semantic network theory
our brain might form new memories by connecting their meaning and context with meanings already in memory "associative networks" issue of information retrieval web of interconnected memories, each one in context tied to many different memories
consciousness
our level of awareness of ourselves and our environment we are conscious to the degree we are aware of what is going on inside and outside us
serial position effect/curve
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list (middle often forgotten)
self-concept
our understanding and evaluation of who we are All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" develops through involvement with others (esp parents) positive self-concept = likely high self-esteem
histrionic personality disorder
overly dramatic behavior (histrionics) pattern of excessive emotionality and attention seeking--need to be center of attention
with operational definition, other psychologists are able to replicate the experiment. allows for experiment to be valid, allows for scientific measurement, but _______________issue (sadness is more than # tears shed)
oversimplifies
why is it important to feel pain
pain can prevent further injury
all-or-none principle
the law that the neuron either fires at 100% or not at all (only if enough neurotransmitters are received by the next cell to pass the threshold)
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to produce a sensation 50 percent of the time children's is lower
bystander effect
the more people that witness an emergency, the less likely that any one person is to help college students who thought they were the only person to overhear a peer have a seizure were more likely to help than students who thought others heard the seizure too
Rorschach inkblot test
the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots, look for pattern/theme
figure-ground perception (Gestalt)
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate/affect our lives
relative deprivation
the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself when you feel deprived when you think others have better resources
internal locus of control
the perception that you control your own fate correlated w/ achievement and health
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
state-dependent memory
the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed i.e. drowsy and drowsy, hunger, thirst
optic chiasm
the point at which the optic nerves from the inside half of each eye cross over and then project to the opposite half of the brain
trace conditioning (less effective method of learning)
the presentation of the CS, followed by a short break, followed by the presentation of the US
Frustration-aggression principle
the principle that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can generate aggression.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
the principle that performance increases with arousal/pressure only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases. optimal performance = moderate levels of arousal
fast mapping
the process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure toddlers begin to use context and what they heard others say to earn the meaning of new words unconscious
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive stimulus
assignment
the process by which participants are put into a group, experimental or control
language acquisition
the process by which the infants learn to understand and speak their native language different cultures teach language differently (but all teach nouns first), ie some encourage cooing/babbling more than others
Retrieval
the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored to use. last step in any memory model
perception
the process of processing, organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
parallel processing/dual-track
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. effortful & automatic processing tracks (do something consciously or unconsciously) Parallel processing in vision allows the brain to separate visual stimuli into shape, color, motion, and depth components. Those four components are all processed simultaneously using different neural circuits that ultimately converge to allow the person to perceive the image.
heritability of intelligence
the proportion of variation among individuals in a group (amount of GROUP VARIATION) that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. It ranges from about 50 - 80%.
interpretations
the psychoanalyst's explanations of the patient's dreams, free associations, or behaviors, criticized for subjectivity latent content of dream only revealed from therapist's interpretations
metabolic rate
the rate at which the body uses energy raised by hypothalamus to burn excess food when set point is reached
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of an extinguished CR operant: appearance of previously reinforced behavior w/o a consequence
long-term memory & the types
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. implicit (procedural, priming, conditioned responses) & explicit (semantic: general knowledge, episodic) sometimes hard to reach it
Lesioning method
the removal or destruction of part of the brain examine behavior changes, study impact on functioning ex: frontal lobotomy
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body, nerves not in bone
Phonemes
the smallest structural units of sound, regardless of meaning.
Neuroanatomy
the study of the parts and function of neurons
predictive validity
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict. how well test predicts future performance the larger the data set, the more accurate (predicts trends/averages, not accurate for a single individual)
tip of the tongue phenomenon
the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach can be explained by the semantic network theory (if u keep listing traits of a person u cant remember name of, will eventually get closer and can retrieve name) metacognition
Deindividuation
the temporary loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity i.e. watching sports from the stands, yelling obscene things
color constancy
the tendency for a color to look the same under widely different viewing conditions
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
diffusion of reponsibility
the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions/for doing the right thing, for being themselves/thinking themselves as individuals when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way - bystander effect, social loafing
Fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. ex: if your shoe-laces are untied and someone trips you, people may blame your clumsiness first, when in reality, a person tripped you.
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable idea that someone else will take care of it
self-serving bias
the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors
self-serving bias
the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors readiness to perceive oneself more favorably
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
response or participant bias
the tendency for subjects to behave in certain ways
social impairment
the tendency for the presence of other people to have a negative impact on the performance of a difficult task
behavior feedback effect
the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions ex: facial feedback effect
actor-observer bias
the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities Form of fundamental attribution error.
rigidity (mental set)
the tendency to fall into established thought patterns use solutions/past experience to try to solve new problems prevents from seeing new solution
representative bias
the tendency to generalize from a small sample or a single event
size constancy
the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance if we are familiar with the typical size of the object
shape constancy
the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina
perceptual expectancy
the tendency to perceive things a certain way because of pre-established expectations influenced by experiences and expectations. for example we may perceive something as tasting bad because we expect it to taste bad
mood-congruent/dependent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
outgroup homogeneity
the tendency to view members of outgroups as more similar to each other (one negative adjective) than we see members of ingroups
hindsight bias
the tendency upon hearing about research findings (and many other things) to think that they knew it all along perceive order from random events
examples of _________________ pedophilia (children), zoophilia (animals), fetishism (objects like shoes), voyeur (becomes aroused by watching others in sexual behavior), masochist (aroused by having pain inflicted upon him/her), sadist (aroused by inflicting pain on someone else)
paraphilias
what influences development: _________styles, genetic makeup, peer relationships, other environmental influences
parenting
authoritative parenting
parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, REASONABLE, EXPLANATION, and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making competent, happy, confident
(in human research), risk
participants cannot get significant long-term mental/physical harm/risk
(in human research), informed consent
participants must know that they are involved in research and give consent, know what is being studied take care of participants so they can do this
Priming
participants respond more quickly/accurately to questions they have seen before, even if they dont remember seeing them getting participants ready to think/feel a certain way (i.e. advertising a certain product as the best)
(in human research), anonymity/confidentiality
participants' privacy must be protected anonymity: researchers don't collect data to match to names or confidentiality: researcher will not identify source of any data
(in human research), no coercion
participation should be voluntary, have right to decline at any time
Resistance
patient disagrees with therapists' interpretations/patient seems discomfort, hesitates, censors = sign unconscious is starting to come into conscious. seen as the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material. They hint that anxiety lurks and you are defending, protecting yourself against sensitive material. indication that analyst is closing in on source of problem
Carol Gilligan's critique of Kohlberg's theory & her own theory
pointed out that Kohlberg's early research was conducted entirely with male subjects, argues cannot be generalized to everyone according to her: boys have more absolute view of what is moral while girls value relationships>>principles of justice, how their decisions will affect others however research doesn't support Gilligan's theory of gender differences in moral development
temporal lobes & subcomponents & wernicke's
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears sound waves turned into neural impulses interpreted in auditory cortices Wernicke's area: understand language
________ _________ _____________ ____________ trauma and stressor-related disorder symptoms: 1. reliving traumatic event: flashbacks/nightmares 2. avoiding things that cue memories 3. cognitive and mood changes: amnesia, exaggeration, self-blame, etc 4. arousal issues: hyper startle response, hard sleeping, reckless
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is manageable and treatable kinda common left untreated, can lead to dangerous behaviors
humanistic perspective study of human growth _________________________, human choice/free will that impact mental processes - individuals striving to meet all their needs on hierarchy w GOAL of self-________________________(Maslow) - individuals need acceptance (unconditional positive regard) to become best version of themselves (Rogers)
potential actualization
Overlearning
practice after demonstrating learning a skill to make it more resilient to forgetting, to reduce the forgetting curve. to make it automatic ebbinghaus
dual processing
principle that info is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
deep brain stimulation
procedure to treat depression in which electrodes are surgically implanted in specific areas of the brain and connected to a pulse generator that is placed under the skin and stimulates these brain areas not as effective
Reuptake
process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles of the SENDING neuron
sampling
process by which participants are selected
ecstasy/MDMA (amphetamine) works by triggering dopamine release and releasing stored serotonin and blocking reuptake =
prolonging serotonin's feel-good flood high energy, emotional elation, dehydration, and damage to serotonin-producing neurons
health psychologists
promote health and prevent disease
Gestalt grouping principles
proximity similarity continuity connectedness closure
Reuptake inhibitors & effect on the next firing
psychoactive drugs that interfere with the reuptake of neurotransmitters in the synapse so that a greater amount remains in the synapse for next firing
Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson
psychodynamic perspective
anxiety disorders
psychological disorders characterized by anxiety that doesnt go away--autonomic arousal, nervousness. fear, worry, discomfort. can have physical symptoms. are manageable and treatable
cognitive psychologists
psychologists who study the way people think, remember, and mentally organize information professor/consultant
Sigmund Freud proposed a ___________stage theory of personality, believed one's personality was set in early childhood, sexual urges were important determinant of people's personality
psychosexual
prefrontal lobotomy
psychosurgery in which the connections of the prefrontal lobes of the brain to the rear portions are severed, removing lobe to calm seizures early form of psychosurgery reduced level of functioning of patient
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
John B. Watson
radical behaviorist: says learning occurs w/o thought/cognitive side Little Albert, unethical
Phineas Gage & accidents method
railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function
culture and background affect food preferences: food we are ________ __________ are most likely food we like most, though new preferences are acquired
raised with
tolerance will cause withdrawal symptoms, which are:
range headaches, night sweats, dehydration physical or psychological dependence on drugs
what are the measures of variability and what does a higher measure of variability/dispersion mean?
range, variance, standard deviation - variance & SD relate avg distance of any score from the mean, higher = distribution more spread out depict diversity of distribution
______ schedules typically result in higher response rates than interval schedules
ratio
Edward Tolman's Latent Learning experiments
rats that ran a maze repeatedly evidenced dramatic improvement following the intro of a reward rats learned their way around the maze, created and stored COGNITIVE MAPs, able to use maps when needed, evidenced this knowledge once it would earn them a reward
hypothesis testing
reason from a hypothesis starts in formal operations (12 years through adulthood) abstract reasoning
2 kinds of retrieval
recall and recognition
olfactory receptor cells
receive chemicals interpreted as smells many diff types of smell receptors, interact pheromones
efferent neurons (motor neurons)
receive commands from CNS take information from the brain to the rest of the body Efferent: EXITS brain
seasonal affective disorder
recurrent depressive episodes in a seasonal pattern
Reductionism
reducing complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study flaw example: intelligence cannot be reduced to a IQ number
Denial (defense mechanism)
refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities
unless a behavior is _________, the likelihood of its reoccurrence decreases
reinforced
Reinforcement
reinforcement (effect) requires the use of some reinforcer (stimulus) in the learning situation ex: piece of candy is not reinforcement; its effect on a person can be an example of reinforcement.
behavioral perspective on cause of psychological disorders
reinforcement history (learned), the environment
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs BEST for first teaching a NEW behavior, learning is fast. but learning is vulnerable to rapid extinction if reinforcement stops
place theory of pitch & which range of pitches
the hair cells/cilia in the cochlea respond to different frequencies/pitches of sound based on where they are located in the cochlea. we sense pitch bc cilia move in different places in the cochlea how cilia sense upper range of pitches
Zimbardo's prison experiment (roles, deindividuation)
roles are powerful and can lead to deindividuation college students role-playing prisoners and guards acted in surprisingly negative and hostile ways not an experiment, ethical issues
the food (CS) must be _______ (have strong/unusual tastes) in order for us to learn to avoid it (for us to have taste aversions)
salient taste aversions can be acquired w/o good reason (i.e. eat cheese few hours before falling ill w stomach flu, may develop aversion to cheese even tho nothing to do w the sickness)
longitudinal study
same group of ppl are compared/tested at different points in time (i.e. compare changes in psychological health of twins at diff points in time) precise time-consuming
when can results be generalized to the population at large?
sample representative of population being studied variability of data is low more cases exist with those results
Insulin hormone secreted by pancreas; in response to blood glucose rise. stimulates _________center
satiety
PYY hormone secreted by digestive tract stimulates _______center
satiety
multiple intelligences idea is supported by the idea of _________syndrome - a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional skill in a narrow area. Therefore, people can score well in one of the intelligence areas.
savant
___________________make up their own words (neologisms) or string together series of nonsense words that rhyme (clang associations)
schizophrenics
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
what determined which sensory messages get encoded?
selective attention
cocktail party effect
selective attention noisy environment, can focus on one conversation, but one part of brain that is on automatic processing that would pick up rly important info like name
null hypothesis
the hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error.
how does sensory interaction produce distinct perceptions of tastes and smells?
taste and smell, vision and touch, interact to produce perceptions of food/drink beyond basic tastes 2(+) senses work together to create experience
Garcia effect
taste aversion, when nausea and a food are paired, the food will be averted in the future
babies are born with basic _______/________ preferences in place
taste/smell
altered states of consciousness
temporary state of awareness that differs from normal waking consciousness (sleep, meditation, drug use, daydreaming)
instinctive drift
tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors at some point despite repeated reinforcement, forgo rewards w/o regular conditioning, animals will revert back to their instinctive behaviors
false consensus effect
tendency for people to overestimate the number of people who agree with them
door-in-the-face phenomenon
tendency for people who won't agree to a large task, but then agree when a smaller request is made
group polarization
tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group. intensifies ingroup biases.
Agreeableness
tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.
Conscientiousness
tendency to be organized and dependable, show self-discipline, act dutifully, aim for achievement, and prefer planned rather than spontaneous behavior.
self-reference effect
tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves elaborative rehearsal, deep processing, LTM
Thalamus (Limbic System) (thalaMAILimus)
the brain's sensory CONTROL CENTER, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the forebrain's cerebral cortex (except smell)
extrasensory perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input/outside the known senses
nature-nurture issue
the controversy over the relative contributions of biology/genes vs. experience contemporary psych acknowledges both
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve
the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the ANS response to STRESS that arouses the body, carrying messages to accelerate some functions & slows down others mention specific physiological actions: increase heart rate, blood pressure, sweating, etc. decreases bodily symptoms related to digestion
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body AFTER STRESS response, conserving its energy mention specific physiological actions: decrease heart rate, blood pressure, sweating, etc. return body to homeostasis, increases bodily symptoms related to digestion
semantic encoding
the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words meaning of something (a word, phrase, picture, event, whatever) is encoded as opposed to the sound or vision of it deep processing for LTM that is easer to recall on an exam not semantic memory!
acoustic encoding
the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words phonemic intermediate processing
criterion validity
the extent to which a measure is related to/predicts an outside measure/correlates with the outcome/external variable Do the results correspond to a different test of the same thing? a measure of validity based on showing a substantial correlation between test scores and job performance scores. i.e. genius on test but can't spell = low criterion validity two types: concurrent and predictive
concurrent validity
the extent to which scores on the measure are related to a criterion measured at the same time/concurrent degree to which the score on one measure correlates to the score of another measure given at the same time
generalizability
the extent to which the findings of a study holds true if other people are tested in other situations (if experiment is repeated in other circumstances and holds true, then generalizability increases)
sampling error
the extent to which the sample differs from the population
prototypes
the first image that pops in your head when you think of a vague word
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect i.e. bc was focused on the dark figure, she was unaware of the door because her consciousness was directed elsewhere, and crashed into door when walking
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, tune out distractions we encode (into SHORT TERM MEMORY) what we are selectively attending to/thinking about from sensory memory, less automatic processing than divided processing of one and blocking of another cocktail party effect
prefrontal cortex
the frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans; important for COMPLEX THOUGHTS emotional control, attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality
experimental group
the group in an experiment that receives the treatment operationalized in the independent variable.
control group/control condition
the group that does not receive the experimental treatment, serves as basis for comparison
facial feedback hypothesis
the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings. For example, smiling activates muscles that directly trigger the feeling of happiness.
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief ACCURATE recording of ALL incoming sensory information in the memory system selective attention takes from this to short term memory
encoding failure & reasons
the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory insufficient attention, ineffective encoding, shallow processing, task shifting (trying to do too many things at once), or schemas can distort memories bc of expectations
infantile amnesia
the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 5
participants/subjects
the individuals on which the research will be conducted
acquisition
the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a NS with an US so that the NS comes to elicit a CR In operant conditioning, learning thru repeated pairings of voluntary actions and their consequences; strengthening of a reinforced response.
reciprocal determinism
the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment a person's behavior is influenced through cognitive processes and environmental factors such as social stimuli. For example, say a child acts out because they don't like school
Synapse
the junction between the terminal buttons of the sending neuron and the dendrite of the receiving neuron
forebrain (cerebrum, cerebral cortex)
the largest and most complex brain region, which contains centers for complex behaviors and mental processes
stimulus generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses (not as strong tho) for operant: organisms learn to voluntarily respond to stimuli like the og stimulus attempt to maximize rewards
In a normal curve, what % of data falls between +1 and -1 standard deviation of the mean?
the theoretical, symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes distribution 68% of values fall within 1 standard deviation from the mean (34% on each side) 95% of the data falls within 2 standard deviations from the mean
gate control theory of pain
the theory that the spinal cord contains neurological "gates'' that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the CNS to brain. The gate is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers (pressure, cold, heat--i.e. ice will stop pain from going thru, rubbing stubbed toe=large fibers which carry pressure signal took over gates at spinal cord so CNS could not process pain signals from small nerve fibers ) or by information coming from the brain. nociceptors-pain neurons
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation (situation attribution) or the person's disposition. (dispositional/person attribution) attributions can be stable or unstable (common, the norm, or out of the ordinary)
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition
reward theory of attraction
the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events i.e. If we share the same beliefs, I like you more! I can talk about them with you and you validate my own.
exhaustion stage of general adaptation syndrome
the third stage body no longer able to resist stressor parasympathetic nervous system returns body to normal. our body's immune system is depleted if resources used in resistance stage, and we r vulnerable to get sick
just noticeable difference
the threshold at which one can distinguish two stimuli that are of different intensities, but otherwise identical (depends on what og level of stimulation was) the smallest amount of change in a stimulus before its detected minimum amount of stimulus u need to notice an actual change Weber's law
refractory period (neuron firing)/repolarization
the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated reestablish more NEGATIVE charge inside
menopause
the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
NREM-1 sleep & hypnogogic sensation & sleep onset
the transition from being awake to sleep sleep onset: period when falling asleep, alpha waves hypnogogic sensation: sudden awakening
top-down processing
the use of preexisting knowledge to organize individual features into a unified whole/fill in gaps in what you perceive mind perceives whole picture instead of noticing details we use this more than bottom-up
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
the use of strong magnets to briefly enhance/depress activity in targeted parts of brain temporary blocking of impulses creates effect of "virtual lesion" allows for study of lesioning w/o tissue destruction FUNCTION
Framing
the way an issue is posed researchers must be careful about unintentionally framing questions in ways that might influence participants in their studies
Management Theory
theory X - Employees will only work if they are promised rewards or threatened with punishment Theory Y - Employees are internally motivated to do well, and the policies should encourage that
elaboration likelihood
theory of persuasion that explains that you can motivate people via one of two processing routes. When elaboration is higher, people use central route processing requiring conscious cognition. Conversely, when elaboration is lower, people use peripheral route processing where they are influenced by rules of thumb and what they have observed others doing.
Zajonc-Ledoux Theory of emotion (biological)
theory that some emotional responses occur instantly (instincts); sometimes we feel before we think 1. when you automatically get startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat. 2. certain stimuli will activate amygdala directly
group therapy
therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, providing benefits from group interaction. It saves therapists' time and clients' money; w ppl experiencing similar difficulties, offers clients insight and feedback of peers too
family therapy
therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members helpful in revealing interaction between family members and altering behavior of whole family
Maturational challenges in adolescence (identity vs role confusion), family's impact
they are trying to find ways to be able to identify themselves, and can either discover a sense of, or they become confused about who they are. Family can also influence how teens handle these issues because their family might not accept them for what they identify with, and since their parents don't support them, they can become confused about what their role is in the family and in society.
babies are universal listeners, which means
they dont hear accents. the more they are exposed to certain sounds and not others, the more their brain develops a certain way - neurons that fire together are wired together, if they dont hear certain sounds, they'll lose ability to perceive other sounds in other languages - long term potentiation - brain plasticity - Huben and Weisel
blood-brain barrier & psychoactive drugs
thicker walls surrounding brain's blood vessels, protecting brain from harmful chemicals in bloodstream psychoactive drugs can pass thru
Seriation (Piaget)
things can be arranged in a series; crucial for understanding the number sequence
cocaine impacts normal neural transmission by blocking reuptake of DOPAMINE, norepinephrine, serotonin, leading to what effect?
this leads to more neurotransmitters in synapse = intensify mood-altering effects and euphoria
cognitive-behavioral therapies: by challenging the ________________, emotions/feelings and behaviors can also change
thoughts
In obsessive-compulsive disorder, obsessions are repetitive, unwanted __________, that make them feel driven to do compulsions, or repetitive.___________.
thoughts behaviors
semicircular canals
three fluid-filled canals in the inner ear responsible for our sense of balance
when excitatory impulses exceed inhibitory impulses
threshold has ben reached and action potential occurs
psychodynamic perspective behaviors and mental processes based on modern interpretation of Freud's ideas about influence of unconscious - behaviors and mental processes result of ___________________motivations and conflicts, impacted by personality (id, ego, superego)
unconscious
primary language acquisition
unconscious infants not consciously aware of learning to speak/apply rules of grammar. Noam Chomsky
tend-and-befriend response
under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)
Intellectualization Defense Mechanism
undertaking an academic, unemotional study of a topic
________parents show little interest, causing child to be anxious and untrusting later
uninvolved/neglectful
stereotypes
unjustifiable belief toward a group and its members, may influence how we interact w members of the groups Holding a predetermined belief about a group of people, regardless of the personal qualities of individual members
prejudice
unjustifiable, negative attitude towards a group. stereotyping can lead to prejudice when negative stereotypes are applied uncritically to all members of a group and a negative attitude results
olfactory bulb
unlike the other senses, smell doesnt travel to the brain. the brain in the nose. it receives smell stimuli from the nose and interprets what the odors / smells mean
Psychometric Psychologists
use math/statistics to design and evaluate tests of mental abilities, aptitudes, interests, and personality
how can we stop bad habits/behaviors
use positive or negative punishment
how can we increase beneficial behaviors
use positive or negative reinforcement
William Masters and Virginia Johnson
used direct observation and experimentation to study sexual response cycle (4 stages) initial excitement, plateau phase, orgasm, resolution phase (men need refractory period)
Syllogism
using logic (formal, slow reasoning)
Chaining
using operant conditioning to teach a complex response by linking together less complex skills taught to perform a number of responses successively to get a reward a complex behavioral sequence is learned = as an example, chaining would be intentionally teaching the kid each step, so teaching them to crawl, then to stand, then to walk
counterbalancing
using participants as their own control group
independent variable
variable that is manipulated what you do
opponent-process theory of motivation
views emotions as pairs of opposites. For example; fear-relief or pleasure-pain. When one is experienced (A), it triggers an opposing emotion after a period of time. so if u feel happy atm, the sad emotion is gonna be oppressed n then when ur happiness is over, you'll feel sad
escape conditioning
voluntary behavior causes aversive stimulus to stop, which causes individual to repeat that behavior in future i.e. clean room to stop nagging from parents
avoidance conditioning
voluntary behavior prevents aversive stimulus from happening, which causes individual to repeat that behavior in future i.e. drink sports drink before game to prevent dehydration from coming on
biological basis of hunger: balloon experiment
wanted to see what triggers hunger. balloons inserted into stomachs hungry = empty/contracted stomach, deflated balloon full = stomach feels inflated/full
mere exposure effect
we prefer stimuli we have seen before over new stimuli, even if we do not consciously remember seeing old stimuli
bottom-up processing/feature analysis
we use only the features of the object itself to perceive it compare: top-down processing
extinction & how is it achieved in learning
weakening of a response achieved by repeatedly presenting the CS w/o the US (weakens connection between the 2) Pavlov: ring bell over and over, never bring food = dogs never salivate again to bell operant: stops behavior because reward no longer results from action
psychogenic amnesia (dissociative amnesia)
when a person cannot remember things and no physiological basis for the disruption in memory can be identified Information is most commonly erased after a traumatic or stressful event related to a time, place, or person is endured.
double binds causes of schizophrenia
when a person is given contradictory messages --> leads to disordered thinking due to the impossibility of rationally resolving their experiences
overjustification effect
when extrinsic rewards replaces intrinsic motivation,so when reinforcement goes away, person wont perform task (want to avoid!) The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.
participant-relevant confounding variables
when groups are not randomly assigned during an experiment; increases the chance of participants in the two groups to differ in any meaningful way
misinformation effect
when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event tendency for post-event info to interfere w memory of og event
waxy flexibility
when motionless, catatonic schizophrenics can have their limbs can be manipulated and posed by another person
Synesthesia
when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another information meant to stimulate one of your senses stimulates several of your senses neurological "problem" not sensory level
halo effect
when positive impressions of people lead to positive views about their character and personality traits. For example, if you see someone as attractive you may think of them as having better personality traits and character even though this isn't necessarily true.
Moro reflex
when startled, an infant throws his arms out, spreads his fingers, then quickly retract, make himself as small as possible
lateral hypothalamus
when stimulated, promotes eating behaviors through release of hormone orexin
ventromedial hypothalamus
when stimulated, promotes satiety When destroyed, you will never feel full.
placebo treatment/method
when the experimental group ingests a drug, the control group is given placebo
how genes influence development
which traits most influenced by genetic factors (Bouchard twin studies) what abilities we are born with
advantages/disadvantages of cross-sectional study comparison is science, can be used in other research methods (i.e. compare 2 case studies) not _________ ___________, only snapshot
whole picture/moving picture/whole story
what 2 questions determine type of operant conditioning?
will behavior increase/decrease? have you added/subtracted stimuli?
eating disorders cannot be controlled by merely
willpower/act of will
fissures of cerebral cortex
wrinkles of surface of cerebral cortex, from complex neural web
Do people who share the same genes also share mental abilities? According to twin and adoption studies...
yes
signal detection theory
you need the motivation & ability to notice the thing you are noticing currently predict what we will perceive among competing stimuli Cocktail Party Effect
belief bias
your own thoughts and beliefs are so strong that it's impacting the way you think by distorting ur thinking and creating logical fallacies it's an illogical flow of ideas due to a strong (wrong) belief -i.e. by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid, to support preexisting beliefs i.e. some teachers wear ties = some scarecrows wear ties = some teachers are scarecrows
Lev Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development: zone of proximal development and scaffolding
zone of proximal development: child's zone of proximal development is the range of tasks the child can perform independently and those tasks she needs assistance with scaffolding: teachers/parents provide scaffolds to expand child's "readiness zone"/encourage further cognitive development language leads to learning
order of prenatal development
zygote (sperm+egg), embryo (After about 10 days, a fertilized egg cell attaches to the uterine wall), fetus
stratified sampling
Allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on some criteria (ex. race) Sample size uses proportions equal to that of the population
approach-approach conflict
👍👍Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive outcomes STRESS is experienced
approach-avoidance conflict
👍👎conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects can have multiple/double approach-avoidance conflicts (i.e. college choosing, or course choosing) STRESS is experienced
avoidance-avoidance conflict
👎👎Conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives STRESS is experienced
Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
"intelligence" should be applied to a variety of abilities including eight independent intelligences: Naturalist, linguistic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, body-kinesthetic, spatial, musical, logical-mathematical
catharsis hypothesis
"releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges
Phallic Stage (Freud's Psychosexual Stages)
(3-6 years) pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings (Oedipus crisis), identify themselves as male/female
Critical Period Hypothesis
(Chomsky) A proposal that there is a limited period during which language acquisition can occur. nativist theory of language acquisition
positive correlation vs. negative correlation
+: presence of one predicts presence of other -: presence of one predicts absence of other relate to scatterplot
positive reinforcement
(add) Increasing behaviors by adding/presenting positive stimuli, such as food. add something positive for smth to happen/behavior to happen more (skinner box: give rat food when it presses lever).
context cues and effects
(also in memory/cognition unit-can remember better when in same context/environment) the environment in which a stimulus occurs can contribute to how people perceive that stimulus directions/instructions that our mind uses to make sense of ambiguous/confusing stimuli ex: hair vs hare - ur in a barbershop, the barber asks you how much hair do you want to cut off - the context cue in this situation would be the fact that youre in a barbershop can make sense of whisper bc u know basis of conversation
negative reinforcement!!!
(removal) IS REWARD, NOT PUNISHMENT (taking away smth bad) subtracting, stopping, removing a negative outcome or aversive stimulus after voluntary action that makes behavior more likely to occur (skinner box: terminate loud noise when rat presses lever)
Somatic therapies
- Therapies that produce bodily changes. - Psychologists with a biomedical orientation see the cause of psychological disorders as being organic (i.e., imbalances in neurotransmitters or homes, structural abnormalities in the brain, genetic predispositions that might underlie the other two) and advocate the use of somatic therapies. most common: drug therapy
in its resting state/potential, a neuron has an overall (-/+) charge bc mostly (-/+) ions are surrounding it
- charge + ions surrounding cell
testosterone and aggression
-Testosterone (hormone) linked to aggressive behavior in men (this hormone is released in the testes glands). Significance: Environmental factors and social norms also play a major role in male aggression. Testosterone can't be blamed as the sole cause of aggression
critical vs sensitive periods
-sensitive: when brain is best able to learn smth/more flexible (language is easier learned when young) -critical period: if you don't develop something during that period, you never will. after, plasticity is limited
is u scored a 84 on a test w mean 80 and a standard deviation of 8, ur z-score would be_________
0.5
Trust vs. Mistrust
1 Erikson's first stage infants learn to trust the world when they are cared for consistently. or suspicion and fear of future
Anal Stage (Freud)
1-3: Anus focus of pleasure & toilet training most important activity
Criticisms of Piaget's Theory
1. Age ranges are not necessarily concrete. 2. Children smarter than what is expected. 3. Stages are broader and less concrete in steps. Spectrum vs. stages.
how a neuron fires
1. Neuron A's terminal buttons release neurotransmitters to fit into receptors on membrane of Neuron B dendrite 2. if enough neurotransmitters (excitatory>inhibitory) received into the receptors (threshold), dendrite membrane become permeable and + ions rush in (depolarization) 3. action potential happens (+ ions go down neuron), sending electrical charge to terminal buttons 4. Neuron B releases neurotransmitters for cycle again 5. Neuron A and Neuron B reuptake their neurotransmitters they just released
Weber's Law
1. the just-noticeable change in stimulus needed to detect the change is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus if intensity of stimulus is weak, a very small change in that stimulus will be noticeable and vice versa. if i look for u in room w low level of noise, i can detect ur voice as long as ur whispering just a little louder than everyone else.
babies' vision improves to normal vision by__months old
12
formal operational stage
12- in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts manipulate objects and contrast ideas in our head without physically seeing them/having real-world correlates - hypothesis testing gain ability to think about the way we think (metacognition) LEADS TO adolescent egocentrism
WAIS normal curve cont. if someone scores at the 97th percentile, they have scored 2 SDs above mean and their IQ is 130 if someone scores at ______th percentile, they have scored 1 SD below mean and their IQ is 85
16 or 15.87
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory of color vision
1st stage of color processing doesnt explain afterimages/colorblindness 3 types of cones (in fovea) that respond to different wavelengths of radiation - short wavelegnths-blue - medium wavelengths-green - long wavelengths-red mix of diff signals sent from cones in diff ratios can produce perception of any color i.e. yellow comes from stimulation of red and green cones
geniuses score __ standard deviations above the mean
2
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
2 "No!" Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently (i.e. potty training), we will develop a healthy will and sense of power over ourselves, have self-control and feel adequate; failure to do so causes shame and self-doubt
Hippocampus (Limbic System)
2 arms surrounding thalamus vital to MEMORY system: processed thru this area then sent to other locations in cerebral cortex for permanent storage long term memory formation (not retrieval)
preoperational stage
2-6/7 Piaget symbolic thought: learns to use language to represent objects artificialism: all things are human-made animism: think all things are living limited in how we think of logic/relationships between objects, object characteristics egocentric --> theory of mind
opponent process theory of color vision
2nd stage of color processing color vision depends on three sets of opposing retinal processes: red-green, blue-yellow and white-black. As the neural impulse travels to our visual cortex, some neurons are turned on by red and off by green; others are turned on by green and off by red. The same is true for the blue-yellow and white-black "opponents." - explains after-images (when look away from color, other color "rebounds", like seesaw), color-blindness
Initiative vs. Guilt
3-5 "why?" Erikson's third stage if we trust those around us and feel in control of our bodies, we have natural curiosity--> if initiative of questions encouraged/child encouraged to make plans = feel comfortable expressing curiosity if scolded for curiosity = feel guilty abt asking/being independent = avoid
preconventional morality
3-7 first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior : avoid punishment!, seek rewards, limited to how choice affects themselves. "all about me"
WAIS normal curve cont. peoples scores determined by how many SDs they fall away from mean - 1 SD below mean is 85, approx ____% ppl fall within this
34 (68%/2)
Rational Emotive Therapy
A cognitive behavior therapy that emphasizes the importance of logical, rational thought processes.
convergent thinking
A cognitive process in which a person attempts to find a single, correct answer to a problem. choosing the most efficient solution from a list of many solutions one uses a new logical thought process to derive the best possible solution to a problem
divergent thinking/lateral thinking
A cognitive process in which a person generates many unique, creative responses to a single question or problem more closely related to CREATIVITY
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment proposal for ethical and procedural errors
achievement motivation
A desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard/MEET PERSONAL GOAL. You are almost incentivized to perform certain behaviors for your own sake. different people have varying levels low achievement motivation: desire to avoid failure high achievement motivation: desire to achieve
Autism Spectrum Disorder
A disorder characterized by deficits in social relatedness and communication skills seek out less social and emotional contact than other children, hypersensitive to sensory stimulation, intense interest in mundane objects, engage in simple repetitive behaviors
anchoring bias
A faulty heuristic an individual relies heavily on the first piece of information given when making a decision. The first piece of information acts as an anchor and compares it to all subsequent information.
Histogram
A graph of vertical bars representing the frequency distribution of a set of data.
scatter plot & line of best fit/regression line
A graph with points plotted to show a possible relationship between two sets of data. line of best fit drawn thru plot to minimize distance of all points from line
split-half reliability
A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and correlation between person's scores on the 2 halves is measured the closer the correlation coefficient is to +1, the greater the split-half reliability of the test (so both halves are equally hard)
Correlation
A measure of the relationship between two variables +/-/none
correlation
A measure of the relationship between two variables, not cause
psychiatrist
A medical doctor who has specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders, biomedical approach
avoidant personality disorder
A personality disorder characterized by pattern of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, hypersensitivity to criticism by others cause ppl to just avoid social situations
occipital lobes & subcomponents
A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information back (farthest from eyes) think "optical" primary visual cortex, association areas
Algorithm
A rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula or other foolproof method. can be impractical formal reasoning-slow thinking, bottom-up thinking, elaboration likelihood, syllogism process oriented AI
computerized axial tomography (CAT/CT) scan
A sophisticated X-ray that uses several X-ray cameras that rotate around the brain and combine the pictures into a detailed three-dimensional picture of the brain's STRUCTURE.
dementia
neurocognitive disorder deterioration of cognitive abilities (often seen in memory most)
dissociative fugue
A subtype of dissociative amnesia in which patients forget their identity, leading to constructing new identities & personal lives and personal histories for themselves. individuals are in a completely unfamiliar environment with no recollection of past/identity. Theories attribute this to psychological stress. An example of this is a veteran disappearing and then appearing somewhere new and having no memory of anything.
maintenance rehearsal
A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it
axon
A threadlike extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body, ends in terminal buttons
procedural memory
A type of long-term implicit memory of how to perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things. cerebellum
dependent personality disorder
Abandonment issues, anxiety when alone, afraid of rejection and criticism
passionate love
At the beginning of a relationship, we experience passionate love: an aroused state during which we are intensely attracted to one another. Passionate love requires two ingredients: physical arousal and cognitive appraisal (interpreting our arousal as attraction to that person).
problem-focused coping
Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. greater stress-reduction, feeling more in control
reciprocal determinism
Bandura How behavior, environment, and mental state/thoughts/traits affect personality. each influence other 2 constantly, can change each other in looplike fashion
self-efficacy
Bandura idea of ABILITY/competence on a task (compare to self-esteem, which is general feeling of worth) (i.e. one w higher self-efficacy would try harder, even tho both have same IQ)
how effective is therapy ______________conditioning is more effective for treating phobias and compulsions; psychodynamic therapy has helped treat depression and anxiety; and cognitive and cognitive-behavioral therapies have been effective in helping people cope with anxiety, PTSD, insomnia, and depression.
Behavior
Ethnocentrism
Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group. judging other cultures according to the preconceptions/schemas based on their own culture
Charles Spearman
Believed intelligence measured by a general mental ability, the g factor the intelligence that underlies all mental abilities. people who are smart will be generally smart in everything. two-factor theory: we might have Specific mental abilities outside g (s)
maturation
Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.
Autopsy method & Paul Broca, Carl Wernicke
Broca & Wernicke used autopsy to determine Broca's area responsible for speaking &F understanding language in brain
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
By Abraham Maslow, 1. biological: survival then safety safety then find comfort w others 2. emotional: love then self-esteem self worth then fulfill potential 3. self-actualization (fulfill your unique potential, life goals) basic needs first need to be met
endocrine system function and controlled where in the brain
COMMUNICATION Glands secrete hormones into blood stream to talk to each other that regulate diff processes controlled by hypothalamus (controls master gland pituitary gland)
simultaneous conditioning (less effective method of learning)
CS and US are presented at the same time
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals contained in terminal buttons that transmit information from one neuron to another fit into receptor sites on dendrites of neurons
eclectic perpective
Claims that no one perspective has all the answers to the variety of human thought and behavior Each perspective has valid explanations
Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning: the response it elicited; it is involuntary. The learner is passive. Reinforcement comes before the response. Operant Conditioning: the response is emitted; given voluntarily. The learner is active- making choices. Reinforcement comes after the response.
Animal Research
Clear purpose Treated in a humane way Acquire animals legally Animal participants can be placed at a greater physical risk than human participants as long as it is within the limits posted by the guidelines
Chunking, short term or long term memory
Combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks/groups that are more easily held in short-term memory. helps in eventual long term clustering items into units, esp if meaningful (acronyms, # chunks in phone #) no more than 7! (magic #)
Schemas definition, they create perceptual sets
Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information, how we judge how we expect the world to be
mood (affective) disorders
Condition where a person experiences extreme or inappropriate emotions disruptions in mood
Leon Festinger
Conducted the classic experiment about cognitive dissonance in the late 1950s changing ones behavior can lead to a chance in attitudes; people who described a boring task as interesting for $1 in compensation later reported liking the task more than people who were paid $20 contrary to reinforcement theory--lacked sufficient external motivation to lie, so they changed their attitude to reduce dissonance
brain stem
Connects the brain and spinal cord oldest and inner most region of brain automatic survival functions
Cortisol
Cortisol is a hormone associated with stress. While small amounts give benefits in the short term, prolonged exposure can cause significant health problems.
inappropriate affect
Display of emotions that are unsuited to the situation; a symptom of schizophrenia. i.e. laugh after hearing someone died
somatic nervous system
Division of the PNS that controls the body's voluntary muscle movements works with sensory nervous system and somatosensory organs motor cortex of brain to somatic
autonomic nervous system
Division of the PNS, mention the physiological actions Controls involuntary activity of internal organs and glands & response to stress
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Do we psychologically develop continually, at a steady rate from birth to death, or is our development in stages: discontinuous, happening in fits and starts with some periods of rapid development and some of relatively little change?
Stimulants
Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines: cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity (increase CNS) and speed up body functions (like automatic functions), followed by euphoria alertness, euphoria, increased physical and cognitive energy, reduced appetite, irritability, increased heart rate, paranoia, sleeplessness, convulsions Cats (caffeine) Nip (nicotine) Cocaine Easily (ecstasy)-stimulants
the opposing processes of EPSPs and IPSPs interact to determine if neuron sends message. if the ___________are greater than the ___________and reach a minimum intensity (threshold), the cell will generate an action potential
EPSPs IPSPs
active listening
Empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy. Unconditional positive regard - a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients develop self-awareness and self-acceptance.
identity achievement (erikson)
Erikson's term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans
identity diffusion (erikson)
Erikson's term for the fifth stage of development, in which the person tries to figure out "who am I?" but is confused as to which of many possible roles to adopt
fixation in phallic stage (repress sexual desires)
Excessive masturbation, aggressive, flirts frequently, or excessively timid, consumed with perceived sexual inadequacies
outliers/extreme scores
Extremely high or low values in a set of data that can affect the mean and skew distributions if have outliers, better use median
"high road" pathway
Fear stimulus goes to the thalamus, then sensory and prefrontal cortex, then amygdala lazarus and schachter-singer (cognitive appraisal first)
estrogen
Female sex hormone
Mary Calkins
First female president of the APA studied under William James
instinct theory of motivation
Focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors; views our instincts as the source of our motivations. engage in innate behaviors to survive (infant reflexes--rooting, grasping) Instinct - a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species, innate
psychoanalytic theory on how gender roles develop
Freud boys and girls develop gender identities because they unconsciously realize they cannot compete with their same-sex parent for the affections of the opposite-sex parents
psychoanalytic stage theories of development: 2 people
Freud (in chapter 10) & Erikson
Psychoanalysis
Freud's therapeutic techniques. thought repressed unconscious inner conflicts/unconscious urges from id, ego, superego are root cause of disorders, so sought to go into unconscious mind through psychoanalyst's subjective interpretations of free association, dream analysis, transference in order to expose root of problem, look for resistance focus on early childhood, not really present difficult to prove from unconscious
Tybe B
Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people
Gustav Fechner
German scientist and philosopher who studied our awareness of faint stimuli and labeled them absolute thresholds
advantages/disadvantages of naturalistic observation "real" behavior no/reduced _____________________________effect/demand characteristic no control, no causality, might not be studying what you think you're studying
Hawthorne
rehabilitation psychologist
Help those who have been involved in an accident or have been ill, who've lost functioning
Common fate (Gestalt)
Humans tend to perceive elements moving in the same direction as being more related than elements that are stationary or that move in different directions.
Thomas Bouchard's study of twins is notable, because environment has some effect on _____, but ___________also
IQ genetics
Illness and fetal development.
If a mother is sick while she is pregnant (by sick I mean a minor cold) then it won't affect the baby. The mom should just rest and try to make sure that the sickness goes away soon.
myelinated
Impulse conduction is fastest in neurons that are glia cells that wrap around the axon insulating it. conduct AP more rapidly bc less current lost to extracellular environment
Babinski reflex
Infant reflex where if its foot is stroked, the baby's toes fan out
reinforcer
It (reinforcer) is any stimulus that increases the probability that a response will occur. reinforcement is the effect of this reinforcer
relearning effect
It is easier to learn something once you have already learned it before. improved retrieval w repeated learning
identify problem-solving strategies and factors that influence their effectiveness (from past units)
Law of effect: random behaviors, until hit the one that will get reward, then continue that insight learning metacognition/introspection: think about how you think/diagnose your problem solving strategy
secondary drives
Learned drives. (money can get us water to satisfy primary drive.)
Dorothea Dix
Led the way to humane treatment of those with psychological disorders dora is humane
counterconditioning
Mary Cover Jones a behavior therapy using classical conditioning to create new conditioned responses over the ones we are trying to get rid of. includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning
implicit memory
Memories we don't deliberately remember consciously (UNCONSCIOUSLY ENCODED, automatic processing, unintentional, nondeclarative memories, we can retrieve unconsciously) longterm procedural, priming, associations, conditioned responses
________Approaches to Psychology psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, biological, evolutionary, sociocultural, biopsychosocial (structuralism, functionalism, gestalt, psychoanalytic are early approaches)
Modern
generalized reinforcer
Money is a special kind of secondary reinforcer because it can be traded for virtually anything
Evolutionary Perspective (Darwin's ideas applied)
NATURAL SELECTION - behaviors and mental processes present today bc they were naturally selected for creating advantage for species best behavior allowed us to survive and reproduce more effectively. i.e. When we are looking for a partner, generally younger women look for older men because they are able to provide for and protect them, while men look for younger women because they are more likely to be fertile and have the ability to reproduce
Psychodynamic/_____-Freudian Theories are offshoots of psychoanalytic theories, focus on conflicts of unconscious (like freud)
Neo
Alfred Adler, inferiority complex (psychodynamic theory)
Neo-Freudian inferiority complex: ppl unconsciously motivated by fear of failure (inferiority) and desire to achieve (superiority) coined term "inferiority complex" thought our behavior is driven by efforts to conquer childhood inferiority feelings that trigger strivings for superiority and power
Nativist theory of language development
Noam Chomsky. Language is an innate biological instinct, awe must learn it, and everyone has a neural cognitive system (language acquisition device) allowing for learning of syntax and grammar. nature, not nurture infants neurologically prewired to learn language - deaf babies will babble. blind babies will smile
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
Nobel-prize-winning researchers who discovered "feature detectors" within the brain (light and color, line, shape, angle, motion) demonstrated that specialized neurons in the occipital lobe's visual cortex respond to specific, simple stimuli/ features of a visual stimulus such as an edge, angle, line, contrast.
psychoactive drugs teratogen
newborns can share their parent's physical drug addiction, withdrawal symptoms can kill infant
Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
Our traits and the social context interact to produce our behaviors. Conditioning and observational learning interact with cognition to create behavior patterns. reciprocal determinism self-efficacy both affect personality
contiguity model of classical conditioning
Pavlov strength of association between 2 events is closely linked to the # of times they have been paired - the more times 2 things are paired, the greater the learning that will take place, contiguity (togetherness) determines response strength
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
People sit or lie down in a chamber that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to provide a map of brain structure. If you see DETAILED images of brain structure (more tha CT scan), it is this one. STRUCTURE
rods vs cones
night vision (and motion) vs color vision
clinical psychologist
PhD psychologist who treats people serious psychological problems or conducts research into the causes of behavior
altruism
Prosocial behaviors that benefit other people at a cost to yourself doing good. theories for why you do good
somatic symptom disorders
Psychological difficulties that take on a physical (somatic) form, but for which there is no medical cause physical symptoms may be apparent, but for different reasons conversion disorder, illness anxiety disorder,
Experimental Psychologists
Psychologists who do research on basic psychological processes - as contrasted with applied psychologists; also called research psychologists.
rehearse, short term or long term memory
Repeating in order to aid short term memory.
John Garcia
Researched conditioned taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the novel substance.
Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga
Researchers who worked with split brain patients to examine hemisphere specialization.
Regression (defense mechanism)
Responding to stress by returning to an earlier, comforting form of behavior EX: When 2 year old Jay is hospitalized for tonsillitis he will drink only from a bottle, although his mother states he has been drinking from a cup for over 6 months.
Amygdala function
Responsible for the response and memory of intense emotions, especially fear
_______________ parenting is an environmental factor that would influence people's personality since how you take care and respond to your child's needs would influence them.
Responsive
Statistically significant results means (p value is)...
Results with a p value of less than .05 (5% chance that difference between the control&experimental group happened by chance, 95% sure the the IV caused the difference between the performance of the groups) stronger the correlation and larger the sample = relationship more statistically significant
counseling therapists
Some type of graduate degree in psychology, usually help less severe problems like marriage and family
George Sperling
Tested recall time by flashing rows of numbers and saw if participants could immediately recall the numbers, grid held in sensory memory for split second
clinical psychologist
a psychologist who diagnoses and treats people, promote psychological health
Premack Principle
The concept, developed by David Premack, that a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity. ex Parents use the Premack principle when they ask children to eat their dinner (low probability behavior) before eating dessert (high probability behavior). Over time, the child learns to eat dinner in order to gain access to the preferred behavior of eating dessert.
content validity
The degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it's supposed to cover. ie fitness has elements of strength, stamina, skill, motivation, all these elements have to be tested to have content validity includes face validity
Validity of a test
The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. accuracy of a test different kinds of validity: face, content, criterion-related, predictive, construct
reliability
The extent to which a test yields consistent/repeating results. measured in split-half, equivalent-form, or test-retest reliability necessary but also needs validity i.e. Flynn effect
control variables
The factors that are kept the same to ensure that the results are caused by the manipulated variable. remove confounding variables, the only difference between the control and experimental groups is the independent variable
Interference in learning
other info in memory competes with what you are trying to recall
situation-relevant confounding variables
The situations into which the different groups are put must be equivalent except for the differences produced by the independent variable in order to avoid this. Examples of this include the time of day, the weather, and the presence of other people in the room.
Neuroticism
The tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, and vulnerability. ex John is generally pleasant, but during final exams, he experiences more intense stress than other students experience He is irritable and easily frustrated.
autokinetic effect
The tendency to perceive a stationary point of light in a dark room as moving when u stare at it
implicit memory leads to automatic processing, which is
The unconscious processing of implicit memories or well-learned information. doing something unconsciously because youve done it a lot already (muscle memory, reading)
variable-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after a variable number of responses slot machines take variable # pulls to win
John Watson and Rosalie Rayner experiment
They taught a baby, Little Albert, to be scared of a white rat by pairing it w/ a loud noise albert also generalized, crying in response to other white fluffy things
secondary reinforcer
Things we have learned to value-praise, chance to play a game, money, status, removal of exclusion/ridicule
three-box/information-processing model
This model proposes that there are three stages that information passes through before it is stored. sequential sensory, encoding, short-term/working, encoding, long-term and retrieval
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Tracks where a temporarily radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain of the person given it performs a task, indicates brain areas active during a task. If you see glucose, it is this one, or performing an activity and seeing brain performance, detecting diseases like Alzheimer's/epilepsy (tagged radioacitve glucose can identify damaged certain cells) FUNCTION
abstract learning
Understanding concepts rather than learning to simply press a bar or peck a disk in order to receive a reward (instead of just S-R connections) i.e. birds peck a shape and rewarded in Skinner boxes
Alfred Binet
Was given the task of creating fair tests to see if children needed special classes or not. identify those struggling, or not where they "should be" The goal was to measure each child's mental age (they came up w this concept) administered questions to standardization sample and constructed test that would split children functioning at different levels aka Binet-Simon test (under Terman became Stanford-Binet test)
Unconscious mind (Freud)
We are unaware these threatening thoughts exist/cannot access them much of behavior is controlled by this region
Lazarus Theory (cognitive)
We label the situation/appraise the stimulus, which then leads to simultaneous emotional and physiological response i.e. stimulus is appraised, if it's threatening, heart races and we feel nervous at same time after cannon-bard
brightness constancy
We perceive objects as being a constant color even as the light reflecting off the object changes.
WAIS
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale testing adults verbal&performance
WISC
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (ages 6-16)
Pruning
When applied to brain development, the process by which unused connections in the brain atrophy and die.
Stanley Schachter's Two Factor Theory (cognitive)
When one senses physiological arousal, one does a cognitive appraisal by scanning their environment in order to determine the emotion that one is feeling. ex: "heart races, we look to see why, then feel appropriate emotion
Working memory refers to the memories we are currently working with, are aware of in our consciousness (either from sensory or retrieved form long-term). we use it to __________________________ /MANIUPULATE information (i.e. actively reading chinese and translate words into english). Short-term memory refers only to the temporary storage of incoming ____________information (no manipulation, etc).
Working memory refers to the memories we are currently working with, are aware of in our consciousness (either from sensory or retrieved form long-term). we use it to actively process /MANIUPULATE information (i.e. actively reading chinese and translate words into english). Short-term memory refers only to the temporary storage of incoming sensory information (no manipulation, etc).
Alfred Kinsey
Zoologist who, along with his colleagues, conducted a study on sexual behavior in 1948, which was the first of its kind. Despite the study's flaws, misleading findings, and lack of a representative sample, his findings are considered as relevant as those found in surveys given today. His study opened the door for more studies into sexual behavior.
Insanity
a LEGAL (not clinical) term describing one's inability to be responsible for one's action due to the condition of the mind
rooting reflex
a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and put object into his mouth
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain automatically (!not conscious!!) computes distance— the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. the smaller the difference, the farther the object
activation-synthesis theory
a biological theory of dreaming; this theory proposes that the brain tries to make sense of random brain activity that occurs during REM sleep by synthesizing story
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient, stimulate neural activity leads to brief seizures (controlled), memory loss (more notable in bilateral ECT vs unilateral ECT), muscle pain, nausea, confusion
cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
a blend of cognitive and behavioral therapeutic strategies challenging illogical ways of thinking (reverse self-defeating thinking) and trying to modify behavior anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and anorexia Beck
hypothalamus and pituitary gland (Limbic System)
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs some metabolic functions: motivation, CRAVINGSS, regulate TEMPerature helps govern the endocrine system by controlling the pituitary gland, which regulated communication with other glands 4 Fs:" Fighting, Fleeing, Feeding, Mating
dendrites
a neuron's bushy, branching extensions grow to make synaptic connections w/ other neurons
psychodynamic therapy
a newer and more general term for therapies based on psychoanalysis but use other models' techniques less time and money than psychoanalytic eclectic
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that produce hormone adrenaline/epinephrine, signaling body to prepare for fight or flight, in connection w/ autonomic nervous system release epinephrine and norepinephrine. (both hormone and neurotransmitter)
reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval reinforcement schedules partial reinforcement
anal expulsive personality
a person fixated in the anal stage who is messy, destructive, and hostile
anal retentive personality
a person fixated in the anal stage who is overly controlling, neat, fussy, stingy, and a bit compulsive
response criteria
a person's willingness or reluctance to respond to a stimulus. A bias in either direction is created by changes in expectancy and motivation
schizotypal personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by Eccentric and/or erratic thought, behavioral, and speech patterns, delusions may be present
borderline personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by instability in relationships, self-image, and emotion; impulsivity; angry outbursts
schizoid personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by persistent avoidance of/detachment from social relationships and little expression of emotion
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by preoccupation with orderliness, perfection, and control
paranoid personality disorder
a personality disorder marked by a pattern of distrust and suspiciousness of others, feel persecuted
narcissistic personality disorder
a personality disturbance characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance
Latency Stage (Freud)
a phase of dormant sexual feelings when all sexual feelings repressed out of conscious awareness (6 to puberty)
tolerance
a physiological change that produces a need for more of the same drug in order to achieve the same effect
James-Lange theory of emotion (biological)
a physiological response to a stimuli activates automatic emotion ex: "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we tense up, and afraid because we tremble." relies on premise that every emotion is accompanied by unique physiological arousal if neck/spinal cord injury=reduce the intensity of certain emotional experience
incentive
a positive or negative environmental stimulus (external) that affects/motivates behavior not needs (unlike motivation)
backward conditioning (LEAST effective method of learning)
a procedure in which the CS is presented shortly AFTER the US
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about neutral/ambiguous scenes
biological preparedness
a propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others (i.e. for birds to peck)
dream analysis
a psychoanalytic technique for interpreting a person's dreams. since ego's defenses relaxed in sleep, hope to see root of problem latent content=interpretation
confounding variables
a variable that the experimenter did not account for initially that affected the dependent variable doesn't allow for causality bc it means the independent variable alone did not cause for the dependent variable--smth unaccounted for affected it ex: As the crime rate increases, ice cream sales also increase. So one might suggest that criminals cause people to buy ice cream or that purchasing ice cream causes people to commit crimes. However, both are extremely unlikely.
insight therapies & which types of theories are these
a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's understanding of their problems humanistic and psychoanalytic/psychodynamic
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
a voltage change of the postsynaptic neuron from neurotransmitter that DEcreases the chance neuron will fire action potential
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
a voltage change of the postsynaptic neuron from neurotransmitter that increases the chance neuron will fire action potential (so neurotransmitter causes slight depolarization)
Proprioception
awareness of where your body parts are brain in constant contact w PNS in constant feedback loop-brain sends efferent signals to motor neurons, muscles move, this proprioceptive process sends afferent signals back to CNS
neuroplasticity
ability of human brain to modify itself in response to experience/repair itself after damage strengthening thru use: changes in brain occurring as result of learning thru the strengthening/adding of synapses to neural networks repair of damage: non-damaged areas take over the functions of lost cells
divided attention
ability to focus on multiple stimuli simultaneously. It is also referred to as multitasking. decreases the amount of attention placed on one task if there is more than one. For example, if you are on the phone with your friend while doing your homework and your friend asks you a question, your attention to your homework decreases.
in Ellis's REBT, Changing people's thinking by revealing the "________________" of their self-defeating ideas, and you will change their self-defeating feelings and enable healthier behaviors. focuses not just on how and what clients think but what they do--engage in behaviors they fear, demonstrate that cataclysmic outcome they expect does not actually occur
absurdity
neurocognitive disorders
acquired disorders marked by cognitive deficits dementia
short term memory
activated memory that holds a few sensory memory items (that were encoded into this) briefly before the information is stored or forgotten temporary. 30 seconds can be extended by maintenance rehearsal
electrical stimulation method for studying brain
activating brain region by sending weak electrical current via electrode to examine the resulting impact on behavior/cognition ex: stimulate amygdala in mice = aggressiveness FUNCTION
Priming
activation, often unconsciously, of mental associations that predispose our answers. implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus influences response to a later stimulus ex: the word NURSE is recognized more quickly following the word DOCTOR than following the word BREAD. rating pictures on how cute rabbits are and before you got the picture, a picture of a cute dog flashed for a second - you are more likely to rate the picture as cuter.
creativity
activities involve thinking of new ways to use what we are familiar with or new ways to express emotions or ideas we share individual criteria for creativity greatly vary
Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers humanistic psychology people innately good, motivated to reach their unique self-determination/full potential/self-_____________ - (decide what you want to do in life, such as your job, and things of that sort)
actualize
Lewis Terman & his test
adapting some of Binet's original items, Terman created the Stanford-Binet IQ test-- the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test. deviation-based, not ratio-based like Binet-Simon could be used for larger population than Binet's Lewis Terman's studies of gifted children indicated that they generally demonstrate above-average emotional stability and social satisfaction in adulthood
accommodation
adapting/changing our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information that doesn't fit w/ current schema results in stimulus discrimination
identity vs. role confusion
adolescence Erikson's stage (5) during which teenagers and young adults search for (try things out) and become their true selves/identity/understand myself else confusion over who i am
respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
Morphemes
are the smallest meaningful units of sound. made of phonemes make up words prefixes, suffixes, i.e. "ing" "ed"
frontal lobes & subcomponents
areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain, responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech prefrontal, motor cortex, association areas, Broca's area
projective tests (psychoanalysis)
asking people to interpret neutral/ambiguous stimuli people dont have insight into themselves = these explore the unconscious. removes hawthorne effect, but is interpreted by therapist=unreliable Rorschach inkblot test, TAT, drawing tests
substance-related and addictive disorders
associated with the abuse of drugs and other substances (i.e. gambling) people take to negatively affect person's life
emotion-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction does not solve issue
Flynn effect
average intelligence scores have been increasing over the generations even when tests are adjusted, due to nutrition, technology, and our need to develop new mental skills. so intelligence tests should be renormed (new mean scores) every so often to keep up with the change in intelligence.
Metacognition
awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes. formal operations stage
___________________therapies are good for treating anxiety disorders substance use autism adhd depression eating disorders
behavioral
first stage of language acquisition
babbling (innate) experimentation with phenomes as progresses, learn to produce phenomes from ur primary language(s), lose ability for other phenomes
we have a cognitive tendency to ignore info that makes us or our in-group look (bad/good?)_____and use info that makes us look (bad/good?)________. self-serving bias, confirmation bias
bad good
just-world bias
bad things happen to bad people, or people who deserve them if something good happens to us, we believe we deserved it, confirmation bias to support idea that we are good self-serving bias
Homeostasis
balanced internal state (our body seeks this) when we are out of this, we have a need that creates a drive
biology for implicit memory: cerebellum (classical conditioning-unconscious) and _____________ (deep brain areas associated with procedural motor skills)
basal ganglia
basic research vs. applied research
basic: quest for knowledge for its own sake. Applied: designed to solve specific problems.
what is ___________________________ is dependent on cognitive appraisal, cultural determinations, perceptual processes (perceptual set, top down processing, embodied cognition), biological conditions
beautiful or attractive
social-cognitive/cognitive-behavioral theories of personality
behavior (environment) + cognitive (thought)
Operant Behavior (Skinner)
behavior emitted spontaneously or voluntarily (after reward/punishment) that operates on the environment to change it
reliable
can be replicated: consistent
color blindness & dichromats
cannot distinguish excitatory from inhibitory signals OR unresponsive cones (photoreceptors for color) - dichromats: cant see either red/green shades of blue/yellow shades
anterograde amnesia
cannot encode NEW memories can recall events already in memory afterschool-ppl go to afterschool bc they cant remember what they just newly learned at school Anterograde- anterior is front, so anterograde would be new experiences cannot be encoded into memories
egocentric
cannot look at the world through anyone's eyes/perspective but their own ex: Four-year-old Jennifer believes that her mother would like to receive a toy doll as a Christmas present. preoperational stage (piaget)
What are the 3 descriptive methods?
case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys
projection (defense mechanism)
casting the unacceptable feelings you have (superego says u cant have) onto another person; blaming another person for the feelings that you have seeing your own faults in other people (such as hostile people, unable to see themselves as hostile, accusing other people of hostility) ex: ana, feeling threatened by her own angry feelings, accuses someone else of having angry thoughts.
advantages/disadvantages of survey method cheap, easy, can test multiple variables broad can't control for participant-relevant confounding variables questions may be biased, misinterpreted, no ____________
causality
perfect control (only in experiment) might lead to ________________: the IV (alone) caused a change in the DV
causality
random assignment is needed to demonstrate
cause and effect
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons produce myelin
motor development is not dramatically affected by parental involvement/encouragement since the development rate is controlled mostly by development of neurons (as they connect w each other and become myelinated)in the ___________
cerebellum
reflexes: exception to normal PNS
certain reactions occur the moment sensory impulses reach the spinal cord, info reaches brain AFTER reflex occurs (intense heat/cold, below kneecap)
sublimation (defense mechanism)
channeling one's frustration toward a different, less harmful goal healthy defense mechanism
Personality
characteristic pattern of person's thinking, feeling, and acting
avoidant attachment
characterized by child's unresponsiveness to parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if parent leaves
psychoactive drugs
chemicals that change brain's chemistry, and rest of body, induce altered state of consciousness gradually alter natural level of neurotransmitters in brain
prodigy
child with amazing ability
Bulimia
eating disorder characterized by excessive eating followed by purging weight is NORMAL or even slightly above
Second-order/higher-order conditioning
conditioning on top of conditioning (ex. food=saliva, food+bell=saliva, bell=saliva, bell+light=saliva, light=saliva) Once a CS elicits a CR, it is possible, briefly, to use that CS as a US in order to condition a response to a new stimulus. the second CS creates a weaker response than the og CS
laboratory experiments
conducted in a lab, a highly controlled environment EXPERIMENT NEEDED TO DETERMINE CAUSE AND EFFECT manipulate variable
field experiments
conducted out in the world, more realistic has manipulated independent variable, attempted to eliminate confounding variables (vs. naturalistic observation)
normative social influence
conform to what others are doing because we want them to like us/desire to gain approval/think they might have higher status in situation/"they're cooler"
placebo effect
confounding variable but allows researchers to separate the physiological effects of the drug from the psychological effects of people thinking they took a drug
Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN) 1. openness to experience (creativity, curiosity, try new things) 2. _____________________(the quality of wishing to do one's work or duty well and thoroughly) 3. extraversion (outgoing/shy) 4. ___________(easy going?) 5. neuroticism/emotional ______ (mood consistency-high =not consistent)
conscientiousness agreeableness stability
levels of consciousness (not on/off switch)
conscious, nonconscious, preconscious, subconscious, unconscious
sleep is a state of consciousness/unconsciousness
consciousness
instrumental learning
consequence is instrumental in shaping future behaviors Edward Thorndike building blocks for SKinner's operant conditioning
Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect
consequences of earlier actions will influence, dictate future actions if consequences of a behavior are pleasant, stimulus-response connection will be strengthened and likelihood of the behavior will increase if behavior consequences are unpleasant, SR connection will weaken, likelihood of behavior will decrease (i.e. if consequences of previous attempts to study have not gone well, he is less likely to study in future)
test-retest reliability
consistent scores throughout each version of the test
parietal lobes and somatosensory cortex
contains SENSORY CORTEX receives sensory input for touch and body position/movements somatosensory cortex (sensations, awareness, proprioception) = PARIAHetal lobes, association areas
cell body/soma
contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life
Collective Unconscious (Jung) & archetypes
contrast w personal unconscious contains archetypes (universal concepts we all share as humans and passed down) - shadow: evil side of personality, persona: people's creation of a public image - widespread fears (i.e. of dark)
Martin Seligman's "learned helplessness" the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events/when unable to ______________fate may lead to passivity and depression
control
most clinical psychologists are __________(use ideas from many diff perspectives). today, we focus on the medical model and biopsychosocial model
eclectic
David Rosenhan Study
dangers of labeling-creates stigma and false perceptions labeling people becomes self-fulfilling prophecy: once u believe someone has this diagnosis, it's easy to continue believing Behaviors of pseudo-patients were viewed as abnormal because of power of labels--a diagnostic label "mentally ill" can result in subsequent distortions of an individual's behavior, stigma stays forever
dissociative identity disorder
disruption of identity: 2(+) alternating personalities gaps in memories of typical events, personal info, traumatic events person seems to have become observer in their own existence, sudden, unexpected travel away from home, along w inability to recall one's past (new identity). often have history of sexual abuse/childhood trauma, occurs in adulthood
we tend to see the in-group (our own group) as more _________than members of other groups (out-groups)--out-group homogeneity: "they're all [insert adjective]"
diverse
face validity
does the test appear to test what it aims to test ex a mathematical test consisting of problems in which the test taker has to add and subtract numbers may be considered to have strong face validity
During REM sleep (stage 4): what happens, sleep for mind/body, increases/decreases as sleep progresses?
dreaming, sleep for the MIND increases in length as sleep progresses - more stress = longer REM (REM rebound)
information processing theory
dreams help us sort out the day's events/issues/stress/info ,consolidate into our memories
Depressants
drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, opioids, antianxiety meds) that reduce neural activity (depress CNS) and slow body functions, accompanied by euphoria drowsiness, muscle relaxation, poor coordination, slurred speech, inhibition of cognitive centers of brain. reduced heart rate, breathing, lowered blood pressure, loss of consciousness, coma
psychoactive drug types: agonists
drugs that occupy receptors and activate them. mimics neurotransmitter or by blocking/delaying reuptake most drugs are agonists!
psychoactive drug types: antagonists
drugs that occupy receptors but do not activate them. block effects of neurotransmitter
mood stabilizers
drugs used to control mood swings in patients with bipolar mood disorders Lithium thirst, swelling, rash, appetite
antidepressant drugs (Prozac, Zoloft) treats what
drugs used to treat unipolar depression (and anxiety) increase availability of serotonin SSRI serotonin-reuptake-inhibitor drugs (Prozac) (block the normal reuptake of serotonin, increasing its mood-enhancing effect or SNRI's: serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors headaches, nausea, weight gain, drowsy
Socrates, Plato, and Rene Descartes: monism/dualism & what this term means
dualism mind separate from body (universe is 2 materials: thought and matter)
contralateral control
each hemisphere controls the motor function of the opposite side of the body
random sampling
each person in the larger population has the same chance to be chosen for the sample nearly impossible
Intimacy vs. Isolation
early adulthood Erikson's stage 6 figure out how to balance work and relationships influence effort spent on self and others in future love either be intimate or if not successful, be alone (date or nah)
Gestalt Psychology & Pragnanz
early perspective in psychology focusing on perception and sensation, particularly the perception of patterns and whole figures: we perceive images as GROUPS pragnanz: how we automatically organize/simplify our world in similar ways
Gestalt Psychology
early perspective in psychology focusing on whole of consciousness/total experience being greater than sum of parts/structures not structuralism, functionalism Max Wertheimer
epigenetics
environmental pressures/hormones can change activity of genes (not gene structure) For instance, an African butterfly changes colors depending on the season due to a temperature-controlled genetic switch. (your genes are not your destiny they can be turned on or off).
diathesis-stress model
environmental stressors can provide the circumstances under which a biological predisposition for illness can express itself
sunk cost fallacy
erroneous idea to keep going or previous efforts will be wasted
top-down processing is faster but more prone to ______, while bottom-up processing takes longer but is more_________
error accurate
retrograde amnesia
event erases/prevents retrieval of old memories procedures remain Retrograde- retro is early or before, so old memories are difficult to recall
Criticisms of Freud - little empirical ___________ - all reactions can be taken as proof for psychoanalytic theory - little predictive power; only explains past actions - overestimates _________of early childhood and sex (personality is set by 5-too early)
evidence importance
Functionalism
evolved purposes "functions" of the components that make up mind - stream of consciousness what function does mind serve? everything has a purpose, all traits have an evolutionary purpose
School Psychologist
identify and help students who have problems that interfere with learning
positive symptoms of schizophrenia
excesses in behavior, thought, mood. inappropriate behaviors are present neologisms, delusions and hallucinations, inappropriate laughter, tears, or rage.
Norepinephrine, problems w deficit?
excitatory neurotransmitter alertness and arousal (activates fight-or-flight sympathetic nervous system). Undersupply - depression, lack of focus, OCD
Acetylcholine (ACh), problems w surplus, deficit?
excitatory neurotransmitter enables MUSCLE ACTION, learning, memory deficiency = Alzheimer's (memory loss) damaged ACh neurons, lower reaction time surplus = muscle spasms & Parkinson's -neurotoxins release too much ACh or too little to make muscle paralysis
excitatory neurotransmitters
excite the next cell into firing increase chance neuron will fire action potential cause EPSPs
sampling bias
exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn, so you cannot generalize a study's findings to all members of a population
Rescorla's Contingency Model of Classical Conditioning
expectancy more of a cognitive spin on pavlov's contiguity model need one event to reliably predict another for a strong association between the 2 to result their expectations/thoughts influence their learning (i.e. one learns less cuz relationship between CS and US unclear)
norms of reciprocity
expectation that people will help us if we help them If someone has helped us in the past, we are more likely to be altruistic toward them.
influences on perceptual set are same as in top-down processing, and they are: (expectations, experience, ...)
expectations experience culture motivation emotion
bias in testing: members of certain cultural groups may not have been exposed to vocab and range of ___________writers of test assume they have been to extent aptitude tests identify academic potential, thus tests may be biased
experiences
theory
explanation of behavior (using observations) allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses with the hope of collecting data that support the theory
attatchment theory
explanation of development that focuses on the quality of the early emotional reciprocal relationships developed between children and their caregivers. children rely on caregivers for security and survival harry harlow and mary ainsworth
hypothesis
expresses a relationship between two variables. in experiment if IV changes, there will be change in DV a testable prediction about behavior "if______(IV), then______(DV)" research aims to collect data to support/disprove hypothesis more specific than theory
reaction formation (defense mechanism)
expressing the opposite of how one truly feels; act contrary to true feelings in order to keep feelings hidden
construct validity
extent to how the method of measurement actually measures the construct/skill/ability you want measured. If you develop a questionnaire to diagnose depression, you need to know: does the questionnaire really measure the construct of depression? Or is it actually measuring the respondent's mood, self-esteem, or some other construct? i.e. try to measure love of coffee but only use instruments measuring smell of coffee = not good
variable schedules are more resistant to ________ than fixed schedules
extinction
behaviors that are not reinforced will ultimately stop (w/o punishment) and are said to be on an _________ schedule
extinction i.e. ignoring S's annoying behavior = S's behavior will disappear
newborn visual preferences
faces/facelike objects
Habituation vs. Sensory Adaptation
habituation: type of learning/relatively permanent change in behavior involving a reduced response as a result of repeated (not constant) exposure sensory adaptation: perception: brain stops recognizing/acknowledging & a reduction of the response of the sensory receptors of a constant, unchanging stimulus.
B.F. Skinner
hardcore Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training animals using a Skinner box all learning is observable, NO COGNITIVE COMPONENT (expect, think, know, etc)
_______________is the dominant sense in infants due to babies' poor vision
hearing
sensorineural hearing loss (nerve deafness)
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's hair cells/cillia or to the auditory nerve - transmission of sound waves cannot be sent to brain impacts loudness, clarity, range of sounds - cilia do not regenerate both ears, common, trauma/chronic/disease
stress-related illnesses when stressed, cannot ward off illnesses as easily
heart disease, cancer, a stroke, and chronic lung disease. These could also be called psychophysiological illnesses.
counseling psychologist
helps people deal with problems of living, cope, make decisions
Diana Baumrind
her theory of parenting styles had three main types (permissive, authoratative, & authoritarian)
Sound wave characteristic: high amplitude sounds = (high/low) loudness
high
Sound wave characteristic: high frequency/short wavelength sounds = (high/low) pitch
high
positively skewed distribution
high extremes = most scores pile up at low end skew made by a few too-high scores mean higher than median mean pulled too high
yerkes-dodson: too little arousal, motivation to perform is not there. tasks that require persistence/something you are skilled at can withstand _________levels of arousal before performance is impaired
higher
3 parts of the brain
hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
Cerebellum
hindbrain. "little brain" at brain's bottom rear BALANCE COORDINATION implicit memory formation, sensory info
Medulla
hindbrain. top of spinal cord entering brain. protected area of brain. autonomic, vital life functions: controls blood pressure, heartbeat and breathing
Pons
hindbrain. on top of medulla, autonomic functions: sleep cycle, cerebellum & forebrain communication, bladder control, movement
biology of explicit memory: associated first w ____________ (stores episodic memory temporarily) and then frontal lobe --prefrontal cortex (short term/working memory)
hippocampus important!!
The _______________is responsible for processing the explicit memories so that person can apply them for later use. The amygdala makes memories more ________________. (bc responsible for emotions associated to the explicit memories)
hippocampus memorable she got angry when translating the words, which made them more memorable in her memory. When she saw these words on a test, she was able to remember them well
________: glands communicate back to the brain endocrine system and brain act in a feedback loop
homeostasis
the balanced physiological state we are driven to attain by satisfying our needs is called
homeostasis
Ghrelin
hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain Ghrelin-stomach goes "grr"
melatonin (pineal gland)
hormone that regulates sleep/wake cycles
in addition to glands, ________________are also secreted by other organs/parts of the brain (i.e. orexin by hypothalamus and ghrelin by stomach)
hormones
set-point theory isn't great because think weight maintenance has to do more w learning than HT. also brain monitors levels of ________ like insulin and glucose and this balance influences our hunger perception
hormones
elaboration likelihood model
how much a person thinks about the relevant info in a persuasive argument. theoretical model that posits two channels by which persuasive appeals lead to attitude change: a central route and a peripheral route
body position sense: vestibular sense compare to kinesthetic
how our body is oriented in space, maintaining BALANCE and EQUILIBRIUM transduction occurs in semicircular canals that registers the orientation of the head-awareness of where ur head is in relation to ground
random assignment
how you place those participants (from random sampling) into GROUPS (such as experimental vs. control) does not always imply generalization of results to the whole population, because some confounding variables could have influenced the results. assignment is AFTER sampling implies CAUSE & EFFECT. improves validity bc confounding variables would statistically be spread evenly between the control and experimental groups and not affect accuracy of results
Francis Galton
human intelligence and testing started usage of surveys and developed, applied statistics toward data analysis first one to say intelligence can be quantified, but methods could not support his ideas (method: correlate reaction times to intelligence--no correlation) eugenics--white higher class "better"
Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
humanistic psychology
Orexin
hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus
mania
hyperactive, can be delusional, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously poor judgment is common. A lot of risk taking is involved.
self-defined ethical principles
i.e. Personal conviction to uphold justice involved in reasoning at postconventional stage (kohlberg)
Freud says personality consists of/is controlled by the ____, ego, and superego
id
dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
idea that schizophrenia results from excess activity at dopamine synapses in certain brain areas
Rogers Whether or not your self-concept is positive (and thus higher self-worth, esteem) depends on how closely you match yourself with your ___________self, or the person you want to be.
ideal
grasping reflex
if an object is placed into a baby's palm or foot pad, the baby will try to grasp the object with his or her fingers or toes
A test cannot be valid if it is not reliable but can be reliable and not valid
if later retests of career test = different results for same person, it does not accurately reflect person's career strengths/interests
stroboscopic effect
images in a series of still pictures presented at a certain speed will appear to be moving
CT, MRI, fMRI are all methods of measuring what?
imaging techniques show structure of brain
Social facilitation
improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others the group causes the behavior (the individual to perform better)
unconditioned response (UR)
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring, reflexive response (such as salivation) to a US (such as food in the mouth)
partial reinforcement schedules are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement (after behavior is learned) because
in fixed, break in pattern will quickly lead to extinction but if reinforcement schedule has been variable, noticing break in pattern harder variable schedules encourage continued responding on chance that just one more response is needed for reward
step 4 of vision processing: in the brain (primary visual cortex, feature detectors)
in occipital lobes sensed in eyes, perceived in brain primary visual cortex responds to feature detectors (cells that respond to specific features of a visual stimulus) to piece together image
Transference
in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent) try to interpret as further technique to reveal insight
Id (Freud): UNCONSCIOUS innate ______; present at birth propelled by the ____________principle: wants immediate gratification, babies propelled only by this 2 instinct types directed by libido (psychic energy) eros (life-desire for sex), thanatos (death-aggression)
instincts pleasure
source amnesia
inability to recall where, when, or how one has learned previously acquired info vs source monitoring error where uk the source, u think the source is smth else ex misremembering a dream as something that happened. some people won't remember if they heard a joke they made repeated back to them. we remember we learned to read/walk, but dont remember learning to walk type of encoding failure
functional fixedness
inability to see a new use for an object ex of rigidity
reinforcement: a consequence that ________ the likelihood of a behavior punishment: a consequence that _________ the likelihood of a behavior
increases decreases
percentiles
indicate the distance of a score from 0
defining abnormality common characteristics: maladaptive (harmful) and/or disturbing to __________ disturbing to others _________ irrational (doesn't make sense to ppl)
individual unusual
Most traits are polygenic, meaning that they are
influenced by/produced by many genes (i.e. intelligence, behavioral traits)
context dependent memory
info learned in a particular situation or place is BETTER REMEMBERED when in that same situation or place. not that the memory can only be retrieved when in the same situation, but there's ENHANCED RECALL of it
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion (biological)
information about emotional stimuli is sent from thalamus simultaneously to the cortex and the autonomic nervous system, results in emotional experience and bodily reactions simultaneously and independently of each other Canon believed that the body's responses are too similar to be two separate things. An example of this is, "my heart begins pounding at same time I feel fear."
We tend to favor our own group (__________bias) as we divide ourselves into "us" (the ingroup) and "them" (the outgroup).
ingroup
inhibitory neurotransmitters
inhibit the next cell from firing decrease chance neuron will fire action potential cause IPSPs
Dopamine. problems w surplus, deficit?..
inhibitory neurotransmitter: - pleasure/reward, learning, mood and emotion- arousal oversupply and schizophrenia, undersupply and Parkinson's (tremors)
Serotonin problems w, deficit?
inhibitory neurotransmitter: mood regulation, sleep lack=depression, mood disorders - anti-depressant medications-SSRIs
Endorphins
inhibitory neurotransmitter: natural pain control, stress reduction, pleasure - after a sports game/exercise-released Oversupply - edginess, quick to activate "flight or fight" response. opiates are endorphin agonists deficit-pain (after u get off opiates, ur body does not produce enough natural endorphins=pain), sadness
facial expressions we make for basic emotions may be part of __________part of our physiological makeup
innate
antisocial personality disorder
insensitive to others = often act in ways that bring pain to others, i.e. lying/cheating/killing with no guilt have less activity in their frontal lobe, as well as lack of care for the well-being of others/lack of remorse earlier appears
alarm stage of GAS
stressor upsets homeostasis acute short-term intense response adrenaline&cortisol
cerebrum
largest part of brain two cerebral hemispheres of the brain (frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes) and the corpus callosum. includes cerebral cortex language, complex thought, consciousness, sensory and motor processing
ghrelin hormone that stimulates hunger center/____________hypothalamus
lateral
sensory habituation
learn not to respond/decreased responsiveness to a persistent stimulus. actively attempting to ignore the stimuli.(dont react, but still perceive, vs adaptation) i.e. hearing a air conditioner
conditioned response (CR)
learned involuntary reaction to CS that resembles a UR (in Pavlov, once sound elicits salivation)
Behaviourism behavior as result of reinforcements and punishments in response to earlier actions, learned associations, or observational _____________by watching and imitating
learning focuses on only observable behaviour
retroactive interference
learning new information interferes with the recall of older information Retroactive interference (retro=backward) occurs when you forget OLD due to NEW learning
latent learning & cognitive or w/o thought?
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it/becomes obvious only once reinforcement is given for demonstrating it cognitive (Edward Tolman's rats maze experiment) ex A student is taught how to perform a special type of addition, but does not demonstrate the knowledge until an important test is administered.
observational learning (modeling): cognitive or w/o thought?
learning that occurs through watching and imitating the behaviors of others clear cognitive component: mental representation of observed behavior must exist so person can imitate it learning from the SAME species.
classical conditioning
learning- two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone. NS when paired w US creates UR UR and CR are the SAME/CR not as strong as UR responses must be reflex/emotion
punishment makes behavior (more/less?)_______likely
less
fetal alcohol effect
less severe version of FAS, learning disabilities or behavioral problems
dopamine hypothesis cont Drugs that block dopamine receptors often ________ symptoms. Drugs that increase dopamine levels, such as amphetamines and cocaine, sometimes intensify them. Some people diagnosed with schizophrenia have enlarged brain ventricles, brain asymmetries, low activity in frontal lobes
lessen
perceived control over events tends to _________ stress
lessen
Hindbrain (location and function)
life support system: medulla, pons, cerebellum top of spinal cord (base of brain) contains brain stem
step 1 of vision processing: gathering light
light waves (light intensity and diff wavelengths of visible light spectrum) reflected off surface to enter eye through cornea (windshield-outer covering)
Personal Unconscious (Jung) & complexes
like Freud's unconscious. contains painful/threatening memories and thoughts person doesn't want to confront (aka complexes)
risk-taking behavior can be explained by biological (prefrontal cortex ________ connections not yet developed fully), social (influence of _______), psychological (personal fable) processes
neuronal peers
An impaired theory of __________-is most closely associated with autism spectrum disorder
mind
difference threshold
minimum amount of change in a stimulus that will produce a noticeable/perceived change in sensation/stimulus
Overgeneralization/overregularization
misapplication of grammar rules during language learning
levels of processing model
model of memory "deeply/elaboratively processed" info, or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, for a longer/deeply time, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time shallowly/maintenance processed will forget quickly
when in groups, children prone to ____________others: more likely to mimic other's actions (observe & cognitive)
modeling
echoic memory
momentary (3-4 sec) sensory memory for sounds
Aristotle, Francis Bacon, and John Locke: monism/dualism & what this term means
monism thought is by-product of brain processes and disappears when body dies Bacon: empiricism (knowledge comes from experience), tabula rasa
light and shadow cue
monocular cue brighter objects are perceived as being closer than darker objects shadowing implies where light source is, imply depth and position
relative height cue
monocular cue images at top of visual field seem to be farther
texture gradient cue
monocular cue images that have more texture/detail seem to be closer
relative size cue
monocular cue objects closer to the viewer are larger than the ones further away
interposition cue
monocular cue objects that block the view to other objects must be closer to us
linear perspective cue
monocular cue parallel lines converge with distance
motion parallax
monocular depth cue . the perception of motion of objects in which close objects appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away
bipolar disorder
mood disorder in one experiences both manic and depressed episodes. episodes are weeks+ long used to be manic depression
Opiates/opioids (depressants), how does it affect endorphins
morphine, heroine, methadone, codeine will stop brain from making natural endorphins, w withdrawal, brain wont have enough painkillers, reduce anxiety, depress neural activity euphoria (from more endorphins) very addictive (more heroes meet cody)
efferent neurons
neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body (motor neurons)
afferent neurons
neurons that take information from the senses to the brain
REM rebound
most mammals experience lengthening and increasing frequency and depth of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep which occurs after periods of sleep deprivation. When people have been prevented from experiencing REM, they take less time than usual to attain the REM state. The best indication that dreaming serves a necessary biological function
visual face preference and extreme nearsightedness = babies easily see ________as soon as born
mother
Mary Ainsworth's strange situation
mother leaves young child alone with stranger, mother leaves then mother rejoins her child secure, insecure: resistant & avoidant attachments
myelin sheath & multiple sclerosis
myelin sheath is the fatty insulation of axons that speeds up neurotransmission; without them, the neural impulses would slow down, which would decrease reaction time. deterioration=multiple sclerosisaff
evolutionary approach to aggression
natural part of evolution. organisms who were more aggressive had better chance of reproducing
biopsychosocial theory on how gender roles develop
nature studies demonstrate there are differences between male and female brains gender identities are complex--also social, cognitive factors, not mere biology
Motivation
need or desire person is feeling (internal) that drives and directs behavior. feelings or ideas that cause us to act toward a goal behavior is motivated by many diff factors
reverse tolerance
needing less of a drug to have the same effect, bc effect of the drug increases with repeated administration. less common than tolerance
Maslow: Self-actualization - one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological ________are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's unique potential.
needs
discrimination
negative action/behavior (compare to prejudice which is an attitude) based on prejudices one discriminates by acting on one's prejudices
learned taste aversion
negative reaction, avoidance to a particular taste that has been associated with nausea or other illness learn to avoid that food item for future, adaptive (helpful to avoid dangerous things) comes from operant conditioning!!! we might not know why things disgust us-source amnesia phobias
people with OCD are ____________________reinforced, because they may feel less anxious (aversive stimulus removed) after they clean, causing them to want to clean when they feel anxious again
negatively
double-blind procedure
neither the participants nor the researchers know who is in the experimental group or control group, most common way is for the researcher to have someone blind to the participants' condition interact with the participants eliminate experimenter and subject bias
Erik Erikson
neo-Freudian, 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span, personality influenced by experience w others. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"/specific social conflict
karen horney
neo-freudian Believed penis envy grew out of Freud's mind that thought men superior to women, proposed womb envy (men jealous of women's reproductive capabilities)
neurons
nerve cells, the basic elements of the nervous system, made of parts
humanistic therapy
non-deterministic--humans are innately good and capable of change believe in human goodness, free will, if people are supported and helped to recognize their goals (unconditional positive regard, active listening), they will move towards self-awareness, acceptance, self-fulfillment, self-actualization Carl Rogers
Wechsler tests yield IQ scores based on deviation IQ tests are standardized so mean is 100, standard deviation is 15, scores form _____________distribution (% of scores that fall under each part of curve are predetermined) - approx 68% scores fall within 1 SD of mean (aka within 15 points of 100). - approx 95% scores fall within ___ SDs of mean (aka within 30 points of 100)
normal 2
Assimilation
normally we interpreting our new experiences/info using/into existing schema (results in stimulus generalization) piaget, until accommodation
sociocultural perspective behaviors and mental processes influenced by ethnicity, religion, gender, language, nationality, economic status, learned ___________associated w these groups - individualist (personal rights, independence, self-reliance) vs collectivist (group needs/goals>individual) cultures
norms
how can forgetting happen in the 3-step information-processing model?
not encoding properly long term storage decay retrieval failure (its in LTM but can't retrieve, tip-of-the-tongue phen)
false negative (signal detection theory)
not perceiving a stimulus that is present
brain association areas in cerebral cortex
not responsible for sensory/motor functions--focus on higher thought vs movement (humans have more) not devoted to one cortex, all working together to perform higher level stuff
inferential statistics
numerical methods used to study samples to make generalizations about the population. interpret experimental data DRAWING CONCLUSIONS i.e. hypothesis testing, correlation testing. "margin of error" "statistically significant"
group tests are more ___________than individual tests, which have greater interaction between examiner and examinee
objective
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
objective. a personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types less reliable and valid than MMPI
naturalistic observation
observing behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation/behavior at all, with no interaction between researcher and participants.
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Persistence of unwanted, troubling, persistent, distressing thoughts (__________________) that causes person to engage in compulsive behaviors (____________) repetitively to reduce/control the obsessive thoughts, to reduce anxiety, to cope
obsessions compulsions part of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders category
central route persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments , deeply process the content of the message, and respond with favorable thoughts audience motivated, analytic, high effort, lasting attitude change facts high elaboration
peripheral route persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues that make them see an idea favorably, such as a speaker's attractiveness, or celebrity endorsements audience not motivated or analytic, low effort, temporary attitude change emotion low elaboration
Von Restorff (distinctive) effect
occurs when recall is better for a distinctive item, even if it occurs in the middle of a list
serial processing
occurs when the brain computes information step-by-step in a methodical and linear matter (ex: information processing 3-stage model)
informational social influence
one attempts to fit in with a group by abiding by the opinions/comments/conforming to actions of other people because you believe they have more knowledge/info or are smarter than you.
Reversibility (Piaget)
one can undo an action, hence an object can return to its initial shape. (water freeze and not) A child masters this concept in the third stage, known as concrete operation or concrete operational thought.
Wilhelm Wundt
opened first psychology research lab, experiments introspection & structuralism
the image in the visual field is processed by the (same/opposite?) hemisphere of the brain
opposite
Fixation at the Oral Stage Results In
oral behavior such as smoking and overeating
Hermann Ebbinghaus
order of items in a list is related to whether or not we will recall them, first psychological experiments on forgetting tips to not forget: rehearsal, negative correlation of time spent learning and relearning, relearning is easier, overlearning, distributed practice more effective
biomedical perspective on cause of psychological disorders
organic problems, biochemical imbalances, genetic predispositions, anatomical
stimulus discrimination
organisms learn to involuntarily respond only to the CS operant: organisms learn to voluntarily respond only to the og stimulus
unconditioned stimulus (US)
original stimulus that evokes an unconditioned, natural, reflexive response without previous conditioning in Pavlov: food (elicits natural salivation)
Asch (conformity studies)
people tend to not contradict the unanimous opinions of a group and just go along with them (conformity) The presence of a single dissenter reduced the tendency of group members to conform 70& people reported at least one obviously incorrect answer
Milgram (obedience studies)
people tend to obey authority figures 60% participants thought they delivered the max possible level of shock and didn't want to continue shocking, kept going despite seeing confederate in pain/believed might kill participant bc authority figure (Milgram) just kept commanding it ethical issues, confounding variables w this experiment
Externals
people who are motivated to eat by external food cues, such as attractiveness or availability people are both internal and external!!
Internals
people who are ore motivated to eat by internal hunger cues (empty stomach) people are both internal and external!!
feel-good, do-good phenomenon
people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood
Hallucinations
perceptions in the absence of any sensory stimulation
Hallucinations
perceptions of voices (Wernicke's area is active) but no sensation of voices
Carl Jung (psychodynamic theory) Neo-Freudian who said unconscious consists of the ___________unconscious and the collective unconscious
personal
Hippocrates believed personality determined by relative levels of four humors (first people to recognize biological factors impact __________)
personality
self reporting personality inventories/personality inventories/self-report instruments (more used), more objective
personality tests/questionnaires that ask individuals to answer a series of questions about their characteristic behavior, cover a wide range of feelings and behaviors and are designed to assess TRAITS not affected by evaluator bias (unlike projector bias), limited answers MMPI-2, MBTI, NEO-PI
to reduce the risk of heart disease, reduce the amount of __________you have
pessimism
recovered memory phenomenon
phenomenon where individuals claim to suddenly remember events they have "repressed" claim to remember during therapy, after being questioned a lot
eidetic memory
photographic memory, very powerful and enduring memories, rare
sleep functions: protects, recovery: maintain brain _______, retain memory (good for learning), helps creativity, promotes ______ (NREM-3)
plasticity by restoring and repairing brain tissue growth
LTM prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future can be assisted w retrieval cues contrast w retrospective memory (remembering past events-episodic, or retrieving known facts/ideas/concepts-semantic)
negative punishment
removal of something pleasant from the environment to decrease that behavior i.e. after hitting his brother, he is put into timeout
long-term potentiation
repeated stimulation will strengthen (increase the firing of the neurons) the same neural networks, making info more retainable, allowing better recall of info glutamate is critical in growing/strengthening these neural connections longterm memory by effectively learning the material, his neurons in neural networks are firing so that he will better remember the material, allowing him to have better recall on test day and do well on the exam.
how to train subject to discriminate between various stimuli? (pavlov ex, how to train dogs to discriminate between bells)
repeatedly pair og bell with presentation of food, but intermix trials w presentation of other bells that are not paired with food
testes and ovaries
reproductive hormones (endocrine system) men more likely to initiate sexual activity
Binocular cues of depth perception
require 2 eyes convergence & retinal disparity
monocular cues to depth perception
require one eye relative size, interposition, light and shadow, relative height, texture gradient, linear perspective
Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment
researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment - children exposed to an aggressive model imitated (and elaborated) the model's behavior-aggression can be learned thu observation mirror neurons-neurological explanation - in motor cortex of frontal lobe BIRGing (basking in reflective glory)-social explanation
longitudinal study
researcher follows same participant/group (cohort) of participants for long time. different set intervals in the study, such as observing a change in a certain characteristic of the study participants every 3 years.
group matching
researchers attempt to categorize the subjects (by age, health status, gender, ect.) and ensure that the control group has members similar to those in the experimental group
sleep apnea & treatment
respiratory problems in sleep--lose weight, respiratory machine (CPAP continuous positive airway pressure machine)
temperament is one's stable, enduring, characteristic basic emotional reactivity, intensity/characteristic way of responding, aspect of personality which is why some people ___________differently to adversity than others is determined through ____________(present in infants, we are born w) temperament influences development of personality ex if you were anxious and nervous when you were younger, then you tend to be the same way when you get older
respond genetics
cognitive bias
result of using imperfect thinking strategy these results then can be used to create even more wrong answers many
recognition
retrieving a memory by identifying previous learning MATCH current experience with one in memory stable (easier-have something to compare to) i.e. multiple choice test
Recall
retrieving a memory with an external cue, "pulling out" previous learning, declines w age goes a step further than just identifying an answer, in which you have to retrieve a lot more information from your past and apply it to a situation i.e. what does mom's hair smell like?
2 processes of interference
retroactive and proactive interference with the OLD info interference with the NEW info
partial reinforcement
rewards follow some correct responses slower learning once behavior is learned, learning more resistant to extinction fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval reinforcement schedules
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
self-report instrument (objective) the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify traits that might correspond w/ emotional disorders
secure attachment
sensitive and responsive mothers are distressed when mom leaves, fears environment w/o mom, will come to parent when parent returns, easily soothed, Confident when exploring new environment w/ mom around, trusts fairly easily, leads to cooperative, flexible relationships
how do we feel such a variety of things with such limited number of body senses
sensory interaction within the body senses. sensory interaction may work with other senses as will as within a sense to create perception
what messages do the cerebral cortex's left & right hemispheres get?
sensory messages
sensory transduction
sensory signals transformed into neural impulses that go to thalamus then brain parts turning something physical into an experience you have
as you age, vision acuity decreases, ____hormones decrease, decreased brain plasticity, telomeres shorten, loss of mass in frontal lobe & cerebellum, dementia, lose muscle mass. IRONY: prefrontal cortex last to develop, first to decline. but exercise, healthy diet, and new ________can slow it down.
sex experiences
paraphilias/psychosexual disorders
sexual attraction to object/person/activity not usually seen as sexual
psychological factors in sexual motivation
sexual motivation is controlled to a great extent by psychological rather than biological sources i.e. erotic material can inspire sexual feelings, elevated hormone levels
Feeding and Eating Disorders
significantly low weight for an age, intense fear of fat and food, distorted body image anorexia nervosa, bulimia, binge-eating disorder
Spearman used used factor analysis (complex statistical technique that finds relationships between factors; factors that are ______________occur together can then be grouped into clusters of items that could measure your intelligence. Spearman found that if you have a high intelligence in one of the subjects, you have an overall high general intelligence
similar
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
similar to ECT, but instead of electric currents, magnetic energy is sent to the brain. These magnetic currents either stimulate or suppress activity in the brain, and it is very painless and quick
3 factors that influence attraction:
similarity, proximity (mere exposure too), reciprocal liking . and physically attractive
Oedipus complex/Electra complex
situation occurring in the phallic stage in which a child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent and jealousy of the same-sex parent
during NREM sleep (stages 1-3): what happens, sleep for mind/body, increases/decreases as sleep progresses?
sleepwalking, essential for BODY decreases in length as sleep progresses
formal reasoning
slow thinking: more accurate algorithm, bottom-up processing, syllogism, diagnosis, AI
Hormones vs. neurotransmitters: hormones slower/faster and last longer
slower
a set of scores with a small range (not very spread out; set relatively bunched around mean) is going to have a (small/big?)_________standard deviation
small
sociocultural perspective on cause of psychological disorders
social ills, bad society
Assessments used by____________-_______________ psychologists are likely to occur in a created assessment situation to see how well a person functions in this exact situation. For example, how well a student teacher functions in the classroom with students.
social-cognitive
gender stereotypes (widely held beliefs about characteristics deemed appropriate for males and females), are a result of __________norms and other environmental factors (not biological factors!)
societal
Solomon Asch, Stanley Milgram, Philip Zimbardo, Leon Festinger
sociocultural approach
Subdivisions of PNS
somatic and autonomic nervous systems
somatic symptom disorder
somatic symptom and related disorder response is cognitive distress (out-of-proportion concern) about symptoms (actual unexplained physical symptoms) already present (vs illness anxiety disorder) when a person is fixated on physical symptoms to the point where their emotional health is affected. Reactions to physical pain may be disruptive to daily functioning and exaggerated. Examples include vomiting, dizziness, and blurred vision, and all of these would lead to severe pain
illness anxiety disorder
somatic symptom disorder characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition response mostly cognitive, like concern/worry about getting serious illness ! fear of the symptoms!
why are taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction) called "chemical" senses?
taste and smell respond to molecules in the food and air taste: chemicals need to dissolve in saliva smell: molecules need to evaporate into air to be picked up by our nose need to pass a certain threshold for us to perceive them
effects of culture on perception
some optical illusions are not perceived same way by ppl from diff cultures some basic perceptual sets are learned from our culture
catatonia
some schizophrenics may have motor behaviors ranging from a physical stupor -- remaining motionless for hours -- to senseless, compulsive actions.
hearing 3: liquid mediums act as sound transfer (inner ear: oval window, cochlea, Basilar membrane, cilia, organ of Corti)
sound waves go from ossicles to inner ear hit oval window that vibrates, then cochlea (liquid-filled, liquid jostles) - causing ripples in specific areas of the basilar membrane (in the cochlea), bending the hair cells (cilia) lining its surface. specific part of basiliar membrane = specific pitch - cilia movements trigger neural impulses in adjacent nerve cells (in organ of Corti), then connected auditory nerve carries the neural messages to your thalamus and to the auditory cortex.
hearing 2: solid mediums act as sound transfer (middle ear)
sound waves reach middle ear hit 3 bones (ossicles), causing them to vibra te - hammer, anvil, stirrup
hearing 1: gather, concentrate, amplify sound waves (outer ear: ear canal, ear drum)
sound waves travel thru air to hit pinna (sound waves pierces here; into ear canal/auditory canal) to eardrum/tympanic membrane (head of drum) - sound wave changes a bit
brain lateralization/hemispheric specialization
specialization of function in each brain hemisphere
Reflexes
specific, inborn, automatic responses to certain specific stimuli
personality disorders
spectrum disorder. well-established (persistent), maladaptive ways of behaving that deviates from expectations of culture/society, negatively affect person's ability to function, onset in adolescence/early adulthood, stable reduced empathy, sense of fear of consequences, sense of insight onto oneself, difficulty w society treatment: psychotherapy, cognitive, medication, group therapy
Lawrence Kohlberg
stage theory of moral development in children; made use of moral dilemmas (Heinz dillemma: steal drug to save wife's life) in assessment
Psychometricians (People who make tests) use the test-taker's knowledge, the performance of the _____________sample on the experimental sections to choose items for future tests. want to make the test as culturally neutral as possible
standardization best tests are standardized, reliable, and valid
incentive theory of motivation (behavioral theory)
states that incentives and rewards are the driving forces behind people's choices and behaviors
factor analysis
statistical technique (objective, compared to self-report inventories) that analyzes the correlations between traits to see which traits cluster together as factors for one big trait, or differentiate between traits
descriptive statistics
statistics that summarize the data collected in a study. includes measures of central tendency (mean median mode), measures of variability (range standard deviation)
spearman and gardner said intelligence is ability-based, not enviornment/context-based (unlike __________)
sternberg
Amphetamines (cocaine & ecstasy)
stimulants: block reuptake of dopamine
Methamphetamine
stimulates CNS, accelerated body functions, reduce dopamine levels
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
stops reabsorption of serotonin by axon terminal
compliance strategies
strategies to get others to comply with your wishes foot-in-the-door phenomenon and door-in-the-face
psychoanalytic perspective (Sigmund Freud)
stresses the influence of unconscious forces on human behavior
systematic desensitization: figure out what's scary about them 1. construct anxiety hierarchy 2. imagine first step on anxiety hierarchy 3. when can imagine w/o feeling fear (can pair w feeling relaxed. relaxation = CR, each step = UCS), imagine 2nd step 4. continue climbing until feel anxious, then step down until feel calm again 5. continue until no anxiety felt even at top of hierarchy 6. the more times relaxation is paired with feared stimuli, ____________the relaxation response becomes (learning through classical conditioning is strengthened through repeated pairings)
stronger
stream of consciousness: mind experiences thought as flow of ever-changing sensations, emotions, ideas (contradicts idea of thought consisting of stable components in ________________)
structuralism
developmental psychologist
studies psychological development across the lifespan school/day care center/senior center
environmental psychologist
studies the effects of the environment (natural or built) on people. (ex. impact of public parks on mental health)
social psychologists
study how people influence/interact w/ one another's behavior and mental processes, individually and in groups
Neuropsychologists
study relationships between the brain and behavior/thoughts
authoritarian parenting
style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, punishments, obedience>discussion low self esteem, obedient, prevent child from taking initative
permissive/indulgent parenting
style of parenting in which parent makes no clear guidelines for behavior insecure, demanding, no self-discipline
stimuli below our absolute threshold is said to be:
subliminal recipient of a subliminal stimulus may be able to perceive it but may not be consciously aware of it - not scientifically proven to be effective - subliminal perception: mere exposure effect, priming
unconscious
subliminal processing that occurs outside of awareness
while Stanford-Binet IQ test has different kinds of questions to yield single IQ score, Wechsler tests result in scores on different _______________& total IQ - WAIS has some subscales for verbal IQ, some for performance IQ, can be used to identify learning disabilities
subscales
panic disorder
sudden/repeating panic attacks-intense fear anxiety disorder marked by acute episodes of intense anxiety w/o any apparant provocation often followed by worry over a possible next attack. so person wants to avoid these tend to increase in frequency
Ego (Freud) ages 2-3 partly in conscious and unconscious follows reality principle: negotiate between demands of id and limitations of environment. also negotiates between id and _________. protects conscious mind from threatening thoughts/painful feelings by using __________mechanisms (unconscious) to survive a traumatic experience
superego defense
psychosurgery
surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior most intrusive, rarest, last-resort (irreversible effects) ex: prefrontal lobotomy
subdivisions of autonomic nervous system
sympathetic and parasympathetic
Interneurons
take message from brain/spinal cord sensory neurons to send them to other brain parts/motor neurons
displacement (defense mechanism)
taking one's anger or frustration on a person or object that is not the cause of the offense EX: A client is angry at his doctor, does not express it, but becomes verbally abusive with the nurse.
Side effects of antipsychotics
tardive dyskinesia--involuntary movement/tremor of facial muscles, tongue, and limbs
primary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
confirmation bias
tendency to gather evidence that confirms preexisting expectations (e.g., pursue supporting evidence; dismiss contradictory evidence). Making up excuses to support preexisting opinions or beliefs is a form looking for things that support ur beleifs, while belief perserverance is ignoring contradictory evidence i.e. many republicans watch Fox News to view a channel that confirms their political beliefs. People really dislike it when others have differing opinions and continue to find information that back up their own beliefs
primacy effect
tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list
recency effect
tendency to remember words at the end of a list
belief perseverance
tendency to stick/persevere to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them vs confirmation bias: instead of taking information and interpreting it, u maintain a belief even after the information that originally gave rise to it has been refuted or otherwise shown to be inaccurate. Making up excuses to support preexisting opinions or beliefs is a form of confirmation bias. Belief perseverance concerns only continuing to believe in something regardless of the evidence
drive: state of _______________________ caused by biological/physiological needs. this is an unpleasant state (i.e. thirst) motivating us to engage in drive-reducing ____________(i.e. drink) : we are motivated to engage in behaviors that reduce drives in order to return out body to ____________________.
tension or arousal behaviors homeostasis
Eleanor Gibson: the visual cliff experiment
test given to infants to see if they have developed depth perception. visual cliff has taught us that human infants are born with an innate sense of depth, although some people may have difficulty with it
brain plasticity
the ability of other parts of the brain to take over functions of damaged regions. Declines as u grow older
emotional intelligence (Daniel Goleman)
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions some say both EQ and IQ are needed to succeed people with high EQs = easier achieve what they want to achieve (i.e. find jobs more well suited for what they want) relate to Gardner's intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences
interpersonal intelligence
the ability to read, empathize, and understand others
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
intrapersonal intelligence
the ability to understand oneself
Introspection
the act of looking into one's own thoughts and feelings reflect on current state of consciousness by responding to stimuli
positive punishment
the addition of something unpleasant following a voluntary behavior, with the intention of decreasing that behavior
stereotype threat
the apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype confounding variable
Object Permanence (Piaget)
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived sensorimotor stage
resistant attachment
the baby is really distressed when the mother leaves, fear/avoids environment w/ or w/o mom, remains upset or even angry when she returns and is difficult to console. resists physical contact w mother
delusions of persecution
the belief that people are out to get you
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily pattern that occur on a 24-hour cycle changes in hormones, blood pressure, internal temperature
step 2 of vision processing: within the eye (cornea, iris, pupil, lens, retina)
through cornea (windshield for eye) to iris (muscle controlling pupil size, the hole where light enters) to lens (bends light/accommodation, flips image to send to back of eye) to retina (Where transduction in the eye takes place. The light sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the photoreceptor cells that begin the processing of visual information. Rods and cones.)
how can situation affect our memory
through priming, context-dependent, state-dependent memory
free associate
to say whatever comes to mind without thinking, supposed to bypass the ego's censoring and defenses and go straight into the unconscious where the problems are common for psychanalysts
operant conditioning (Skinner) as treatment: uses behavior modification techniques to change unwanted behaviors through positively reinforcing desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesirable behaviors. ___________economy, desired behaviors rewarded with tokens to be exchanged for other privileges
token
trait theorists believe we can describe personalities by specifying ppl's main characteristics/traits, these traits are thought to be stable, have predictive validity: motivate behavior in making ppl keep with the ______. a finite #. believed mostly genetic however dont take context/situation into consideration
trait
Gordon Allport (trait theory)
trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits: cardinal (one trait v important/influential for this person), central (larger influence on personality than secondary), and secondary dispositions
treatment of insomnia
treated with changes of behavior: stress management medication
Behavioral Therapies
treatments designed to change behavior through the use of established learning techniques Therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors. systematic desensitization, counterconditioning, relaxation, anxiety hierarchy joseph wolpe, cover jones, Bandura, Skinner more beneficial when combined w cognitive therapy
2-stage theory of color vision:
trichromatic & opponent-process
massed practice
try to encode all at once. rehearsal that takes in one long period/several short sessions close in time cramming less effective than distributed practice for memory and learning
Amygdala (Limbic System)
two lima bean-sized neural clusters near end of each hippocampal arm linked to emotion: !!! fear, AAggression -younger children (prefrontal cortexes not as developed) tend to be driven mainly by emotional responses/amygdala
false positive (signal detection theory)
u think u perceive a stimulus that is not there
Carl Rogers believed that although people are innately good, require _____________________positive regard in order to recognize goals, develop self-concept and to ultimately self-actualize, move to self-fulfillment parents should ACCEPT and try to understand their children's feelings
unconditional accepted
Freud's impact on society many people believe children are sexual creatures and our behavior is shaped by ________thoughts greater impact on culture than psych
unconscious
