PSY260 EXAM 1

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According to the book, a central question motivating the study of personality is

"Who am I?"

Which of the theoretical approaches to personality is best?

-All of them provide some insight -It is a difficult question to answer

________ is/are an important potential drawback to using case studies.

-Finding an unrepresentative person to study -Observer bias

According to one ancient typology of personality, popular through the middle ages, there are four types of personalities (based on four humours). Two of these are

-Sanguine (even-tempered; blood) -Choleric (irritable; yellow-bile) -Melancholic (depressed; black bile) -Phlegmatic (low energy; phlegm)

Through history, measurement has evolved toward

-agreed upon standards (and away from variable standards) -better specification of measurement conditions -greater precision of measurement.

Personality psychology can be

-an inspiration for films and and art -a basis of some forms of economic theory. -critical in politics and diplomacy.

Personality psychology helps people learn about themselves by

-developing tests and measures of personality -offering a sophisticated language for parts of personality -providing a meaningful language about the organization of personality.

Personality variables can be used to predict future performance. For example, good police officers generally score

-high on intelligence (cognitive capacity), conscientiousness, maturity, and commitment to values. -high on extraversion, friendliness, moderate on openness, and field dependence -low on neuroticism, anxiety, and absorption

Once personality psychologists have conducted a study, they publish their results in

-peer-reviewed scientific journals -chapters in edited books -full length books

The brain influences personality through its

-size, as in the case of intelligence -neurochemistry, as in the case of neurotransmitters -influence on the immune system

Personality assessment often or always involves

-sizing people up -using psychological tests or other forms of measurement -answering a particular question about a person depending upon the context.

One difficulty with experimental manipulations of personality is that

-they are short-term whereas real personality characteristics often are long-term -they are isolated changes rather than coherent systematic changes.

Paul Erdos

-worked 19 hours a day during the last 25 years of his life -believed he might die at any moment -published with over 400 coauthors.

A rough sequence of the modern history of personality psychology would proceed

1) grand theories of personality 2) expansion of graduate training and research 3) development of a common language and integrated frameworks.

Perfect relationships between two variables are represented by correlation(s) of

1.0 and -1.0

A theory says that there are four types of aggression. A test is constructed based on the theory and a factor analysis indicates that the test measures two factors. What can you conclude?

According to the theory, the test is structurally invalid

________ are individuals who pursue a relatively collectivist culture, seeing themselves as interdependent with others.

Allocentrics

"What motives have evolved to help the person adapt to the environment and reproduce?" This question would most likely arise from which perspective?

Biological

________ validity can be determined by knowing a correlation between a test and a criterion.

Criterion

ITEM FACTORS I II Happy-go-lucky .90 .14 Outgoing .88 -.10 The correlation of .90 between Happy-go-lucky and Factor I above is known as a

Factor loading

An early personality psychologist who collected definitions of "personality" and applied the term to the field was

Gordon Allport

The psychologist who was centrally responsible for defining "personality" and applying the label to the field was

Gordon Allport

An ancient figure who developed a four-fold classification of personality types, based on bodily humours

Hippocrates

Four test items, L, M, N, & O were administered to 200 people and intercorrelated between r =.40 to .60. The test is known to measure one factor. Why weren't the correlations closer to 1.00?

Individual items typically are low in reliability, which reduces their intercorrelation

________ data are an example of external-source data that come from a system that is molar relative to personality.

Institutional

What new statistical technique was developed in the 1970's?

Meta-analysis

A book that suggested that people's behavior changes from situation to situation was

Mischel's (1968) "Personality and Assessment."

________ twins share all their genes in common.

Monozygotic

Two psychologists whose careers are highlighted in the case study box of the chapter are

Nancy Cantor and David Buss

________ describes how organisms with certain characteristics are better able to adapt to hostile forces of nature than others

Natural selection

________ data arises from within personality.

Self-judgment data

What theoretical perspective do most psychotherapists employ?

Systems, Including Eclectic and Integrative

________ are five traits that were identified from trait terms in English and other languages.

The Big Five

What role did Wilhelm Wundt envision for personality psychology?

The discipline that would be responsible for describing how all the parts of a person's psychology worked together

According to Classical Test-Score Theory, if the unchanging characteristic of a person were measured ten times over ten weeks, which scores would be likely to change over those ten times?

The error score and the obtained score

________ data arises when an individual constructs a response to an ambiguous stimulus or stimuli.

Thematic

An ancient figure who described various types of people (e.g., flatterer, garrulous, tactless), was

Theophrastus

Please select "Funder's Second Law" from the list below. (Hint: It is the only actual law below from Funder's list).

There are no perfect indicators of personality; there are only clues, and clues are always ambiguous

A theory is developed that there are multiple forms of intelligence. Researchers from different laboratories develop different tests to measure intelligence. Factor analyses of all the tests together suggest that they collectively measure only one factor. What makes the most sense to conclude?

There may be one general type of intelligence

A theory is developed that there are specific individual emotions. Researchers from different laboratories develop different tests to measure emotions. Factor analyses of every test agree that each test measures only two factors: pleasant-unpleasant emotion and arousal-calm emotion. What makes the most sense to conclude based on the logic of factor analysis?

There may be two dimensions of felt emotion

The fundamental formula describing the relation between data and what is measured in Classical Test-Score Theory is

X = T + e.

When a test has no reliability

X = e

A field of science can be best described as

a coherent body of knowledge created and renewed by an organized group of individuals who study it by developing theories and using publicly observable, empirical methods to test the theories

The concept of structural validity can best be described as referring to

a match between how many things a test claims to measure and how many things it actually measures. (as determined by empirical mathematical analyses

The correlation of r = 0.90 would define

a nearly perfect relationship

Trait theories in general emphasize that

a person's behavior is consistent in some ways over many different situations and different times

"Trait" theories in general hold that

a person's behavior is in many ways consistent over time

Predictions from traits to an individual's behavior can be enhanced if

a person's individual behaviors are aggregated together to form a more reliable criterion

Mischel suggested that r = .30 was generally the upper limit of any correlation between

a personality trait and an individual behavior in a situation

The scope of personality psychology centrally includes all of the following except

a philosophical treatment of the best ways to live an ethical life

If a student wants to be trained in personality psychology, he or she would probably attend ________ for a Ph.D. in the subject.

a psychology department with a specialization in personality or personality/social psychology

A personality perspective is

a set of assumptions or beliefs about what the most important influences on personality are

What is the best definition of a system?

a set of interrelated parts

Classical test theory (CTT) is

a set of scientific assumptions about tests, from which mathematical derivations are derived and used to describe how tests operate

When Freud studied his patients, he often instructed them to say whatever came into their minds,

a technique called free association.

The dominant field-wide framework for personality psychology in the latter half of the 20th century was

a theory by theory approach, covering psychodynamic, humanistic, trait, and other theories

A micro-theory is

a theory concerning the operation of a relatively specific aspect of personality under carefully described conditions

In the cross-cultural view of personality

an individual is a carrier of his or her own cultural knowledge

Operant conditioning emphasizes

an individual's behaviors and their consequences

A field-wide framework can be considered

an outline of the key topics that a field studies, and the findings related to them

Personality traits such as intelligence and extraversion

are moderately to highly heritable

Process-report data

arises from the individual's report of an ongoing mental process such as an emotion or thought at the time it arises

Gottman and Silver found that successful marriage partners

asked each other how their days were and mentioned positive aspects of each other

X = T + e, means that every obtained test score is

assumed to possess error

According to the four-fold division of personality popular in ancient Greece and the middle ages, a person with a preponderance of the humour "phlegm", who would be called "phlegmatic", would

be overweight, sleep too much, dream of watery things or fish, and be slow, dull of intellect, and cowardly

The ________ perspective emphasizes the influence of biology on an individual's mental and social functioning.

biological

Which of the following are two examples of personality perspectives?

biological and intrapsychic

The idea that traumatic memories cause symptoms, arose through

case studies and observationism

The intensive study of a single individual over some period of time is referred to as a ________ design.

case study

A tall, lean irritable individual would fit the label of

choleric

People view themselves as highly interdependent in ________ cultures and focus more on their personal goals in ________ cultures

collectivist; individualist

Factor analysis is a multivariate technique in that it

concerns the analysis and grouping of multiple variables

ITEM FACT ORS I II III IV Conscientious .90 .14 .01 .01 Responsible .89 -.10 -.02 -.02 Thoughtless -.70 .02 .11 .11 Cultured .15 .76 .08 .08 Artistic -.12 -.73 -.07 -.07 Intense .00 .05 .71 .02 Test-takers indicated the degree to which each trait above described them. The best interpretation of factor I is that it measures

conscientiousness-carelessness

Freud's topographic model divides personality into the

conscious, preconscious, and unconscious

In the social-cognitive view of personality, the individual is viewed as

constantly adjusting to external situations so as to look for personal advantage and to meet society's demands

A class arithmetic test is composed of items that were carefully chosen so as to correspond to the exact types of problems the students were taught. The resulting test has ________ validity for what was taught in class.

content validity

A test that possesses a high correlation with a predictor variable (such as, GPA, job success, or a different test) is said to have

criterion validity

If a test asks a question, and the test-taker's answer is then scored according to how correct it is, the test data is called

criterion-report or mental ability data

As an infant develops into toddlerhood

cuddliness recedes in importance and self-control grows in importance

The systems framework for personality uses this set of primary topics for studying the personality system

defining personality, its parts, organization, and development

Personality ________ involves the changes that a person makes or undergoes over their lifetime.

development

Freud, Jung, Adler, and other early systematizers were known for their

development of grand theories that organized the psychology of the individual to that time

Personality ________ concern(s) the ways in which self-control, honesty (as opposed to defensiveness) and social skills bring about, or cause, certain patterns of behavior.

dynamics

Rogers emphasized that one characteristic of the therapist that would promote good therapeutic outcomes was

empathy

Microtheories usually emerge from ________.

empirical research work in psychological laboratories

In Morokoff's study of sexual guilt among women, high sex-guilt women who watch erotic videos report less sexual arousal to the experimenter although they are

experiencing more sexual arousal, measured by physiological indicators

Which of the following is NOT the name for a way of computing reliability?

external repetition

Data that originates from the systems surrounding personality (e.g., groups, the situation, and the brain) are called

external source data

ITEM FACTORS I II Happy-go-lucky .90 .14 Outgoing .88 -.10 Lively .70 -.02 Hostile .15 -.12 Frustrated -.12 .13 Intense .00 .05 The best interpretation of factor I is that it measures

extraversion

Today, a ________ is basically an outline for outlining and organizing all that is known about a field so that others can learn about the field.

field-wide framework

A ________ outlines a field's most significant topics

framework

Becoming a personality psychologist

generally leads a person to question and think about why other people are the way they are, more often than others

If the researchers who wrote an Honesty Test were trying to predict cheating at chess, and the correlation between the test and cheating at chess was r = 0.40 for a large sample, then the researchers could most directly conclude that the test

had predictive validity for predicting honesty at chess

The humanistic approach is most centrally concerned with

healthy human development toward self-actualization

Humanistic and positive approaches to personality centrally emphasize

how a person can grow holistically, developing positive attributes, and growing into a state of fulfillment

Psychology is best defined as the study of

how a person's mind works

When personality psychology addresses questions of psychology and life, the focus is on explaining

how an individual's psychology works and how he or she functions best

Classical conditioning emphasizes

how an organism's natural responses to certain environmental stimuli can become paired with other stimuli

The concept of structural validity can best be described as referring to a match between

how many things a test claims to measure and how many things it measures according to empirical mathematical analyses

Factor analysis most directly tells you about

how many things a test measures

The biopsychological approach to personality examines

how the nervous system, brain, and surrounding biology influence a person's mental life

What is one possible empirical indication of which theories are most correct as mentioned in the book?

how well psychotherapies based on the theory work

In which occupation is someone with some training and interest in personality psychology most likely to be found?

human resource officers interested in executive development

If genetic influences help determine a trait, the correlation of the trait should be highest among pairs of ________, medium for pairs of ________, and lowest for pairs of ________.

identical twins, siblings, unrelated individuals

Exemplification refers to the use of case studies to

illustrate examples of a particular part, process, or cause of personality

Students who begin a personality course often hold ________ such as that "unconscious influences help direct people's behavior," and "it is as important to watch a person's actions as to listen to what the person says."

implicit personality theories

Our own informal and sometimes unstated theory of who we are and how others behave is called

implicit personality theory

According to Erikson, trust is learned by the infant

in Erikson's first stage, through testing and tasting, in a manner similar to Freud's idea of the oral stage

Some examples of hormones that influence personality

include sex hormones such as estrogen and testosterone

The study of how people differ from one another - their relatively consistent characteristic behaviors that vary from one another - is most central to a personality psychology defined as the study of

individual differences

A central dimension of difference across cultures, studied today in cross-cultural psychology, is the difference along a continuum of

individualism-collectivism

"How do people form mental models of themselves and the world and what are those mental models?" This question might most likely arise from which perspective?

intrapsychic

"What are a person's most important psychological motives?" This question might most likely arise from which perspective?

intrapsychic

In a 1954 book entitled "Social Learning and Clinical Psychology," Julian Rotter proclaimed the principle, central to the social-cognitive approach, that

investigators should focus on the interaction between the individual and his or her meaningful environment

Observationism is related to case studies in that it

involves the multiple, repeated examination of many different cases

Research on self-judgment and observer data indicate that observer data

is best when judges record readily observable ("subjectively observable") traits such as extraversion

A love test claims to measure three types of love and yields three scores for each person. Factor analysis suggests the test measures two things. From this, you can conclude the test

is not structurally valid

The use of psychiatric drugs to improve personality

is now a real possibility, referred to as "cosmetic" psychopharmacology

When X = T, the reliability coefficient

is perfect (r = 1.0)

A love test provides subscores for three types of love; factor analysis suggests the same test measures three things. From this, you can conclude the test

is structurally valid

A mental test is considered reliable if

it consistently measures whatever it measures

If a test has construct validity it means

it has a number of relationships with various criteria that are consistent with theory or concept it measures

More molar psychological parts, relative to molecular parts, are

larger and combine more parts

The areas surrounding personality are sometimes referred to as the

life space or life sphere

Four central topics covered in the book that are used to organize the study of personality are

location/identification, components, organization, and development

A test in which one half does not correlate with the other half is said to have

low or no reliability

A beginning definition of personality psychology views it as the study of a person's

major psychological subsystems such as motives and emotions

The molecular -- molar dimension is used by scientists and philosophers of science to locate the position of ________ along a continuum.

many different objects of scientific study

The "natural" part of a natural experiment refers to the fact that

membership in the comparison groups arises naturally rather than by using random assignment

Evolutionary theory predicts that men, relative to women, should be more concerned about their partner's sexual fidelity because

men need to ensure their genes are passed on under conditions of potential uncertainty as to being the father of a child

The idea below most central to the theory called evolutionary psychology is that

mental adaptations that enhance survival are selected for by evolutionary processes

Micro-theories are also known as

mid-level and limited-domain theories

The personality system can be located amidst other objects of scientific study according to several important dimensions. Two such dimensions are

molecular-molar, internal-external

ITEM FACTORS I II III My mood is clear. .90 .14 .01 I understand my feeling. .89 -.10 -.02 My mood is confused. .70 .02 .11 I accept how I am feeling. .15 .76 .08 How I am feeling is wrong. -.12 -.73 -.07 I am feeling intensely. .00 .05 .02 The best interpretation of factor I is that it measures

mood clarity

ITEM FACTORS I II III My mood is clear. .90 .14 .01 I understand my feeling. .89 -.10 -.02 My mood is confused. .70 .02 .11 I accept how I am feeling. .15 .76 .08 How I am feeling is wrong. -.12 -.73 -.07 I am feeling intensely. .00 .05 .02 The best interpretation of factor II is that it measures

mood-acceptance-rejection

A micro-theory is ________ specific in comparison to a perspective

more

In a study of criminals, higher levels of testosterone were associated with

more interpersonally violent crimes, such as rape and murder

Neurotransmitters are different from hormones because

neurotransmitters are mostly released by neurons into synapses; hormones are produced by glands

A correlation of 1.25 between two variables indicates

nothing because it is impossible

ITEM FACTORS I II Happy-go-lucky .90 .14 Outgoing .88 -.10 Lively .70 -.02 Hostile .15 -.12 Frustrated -.12 .13 Intense .00 .05 The best interpretation of factor II is that it measures

nothing important

ITEM FACTORS I II III My mood is clear. .90 .14 .01 I understand my feeling. .89 -.10 -.02 My mood is confused. .70 .02 .11 I accept how I am feeling. .15 .76 .08 How I am feeling is wrong. -.12 -.73 -.07 I am feeling intensely. .00 .05 .02 The best interpretation of factor III is that it measures

nothing important

Freud maintained that

observationism, when done properly, represented the best of all possible scientific methods for studying psychology

If a friend describes the personality of someone he or she knows, the kind of data involved is

observer or informant data

Four test items, L, M, N, & O were administered to 200 people and intercorrelated between r = .40 and .60. A factor analysis of this data would probably conclude

one single (underlying) variable was being measured

A person begins to attend parties, and finds that others respond positively to him, making him feel good. As a consequence, he attends more parties. This description explains how extraversion might emerge through

operant conditioning

An individual might take two forms of a test considered to be identical (on a theoretical basis), so as to examine the test's

parallel forms reliability

In a true experimental design

participants are assigned randomly to control and treatment groups

In Classical Test-Score Theory, a true score is one that

perfectly reflects a person's actual ability or quality

Data that originates from inside personality is called

personal report data

The temporal-developmental perspective focuses on

personality viewed over the lifespan, including optimal development

A systems approach to personality is best described as the study of

personality's parts, the organization of those parts, and their development

Personality is caught between the individual's biological desires, on the one hand, and society, on the other. This is a central idea of

psychodynamic theory

Two examples of theories of personality given in the book are

psychoevolutionary and trait

Interest in understanding relationships among psychological processes and how they influence a person's life is called

psychological mindedness

The subdiscipline of psychology that is concerned most centrally with measurement is called

psychometrics

The correlation matrix used in factor analysis contains correlations that

range from -1.0 to 1.0

Better self understanding is a(n)

reason for studying personality psychology

A test in which one half correlates highly with the other half is said to have

reliability

Bathroom scales typically produce a slightly different weight each time you step on one. The reason for that has to do with the scales'

reliability

The expression "measure twice, cut once," was intended to remind the carpenter to be certain the measure taken was accurate before going ahead and cutting the wood. The fact that measures of length (or height, etc.) vary a bit from one time to the next is an issue of

reliability

George Kelly compared the individual to a

scientist, always trying to anticipate events so as to control the environment

Freud's claim that observationism was a reliable method

seemed plausible until Jung, Adler, and others claimed to observe different material than Freud

Idiocentrics tend to feel more ________ relative to others.

self esteem and loneliness

If a person describes him or herself, the kind of data is called

self-judgment data

A personality theory is a(n)

set of statements or assumptions about how personality operates

) Freud's version of psychodynamic theory proposed two primary instinctual motives

sex and aggression

Adaptation is a process by which a mental (or physical) feature of the individual is

shaped, generation after generation, for current advantage

Contemporary training programs in personality psychology are often part of

social/personality areas within psychology departments

In psychosocial stage theory, an individual's psychological development is mirrored or marked by

specific social activities, rituals, observances, and institutions tailored to each phase of life

At Camp Wediko, each camper's aggression was examined in situations with adults and with their peers. The researchers found that

stable patterns of aggression existed for different situations. For example, a given camper might always exhibit more aggression with adults than with peers

Structural organization refers to

stable, basic, divisions of personality

Factor analysis is most closely related to determining this type of validity

structural

A test or scale consists of a(n) ________ procedure of administration during which people's ________ or responses to ________ are collected.

systematic; answers; items

A person's physiologically-based motivational and emotional styles is best described as his or her

temperament

Psychodynamic theory is most centrally concerned with the

tensions, conflicts, and interactions among personality's parts

A group of people take a given test on October 3rd, and then again on October 20th. This group of people's scores correlate r = .90 between the two testings. From this, one can most directly conclude the

test has test-retest reliability

If-then traits are traits

that are triggered if a certain cues within a situation are present

Measurement can be defined as

the assignment of numerals to properties of objects

According to the book, the scientific systems typically described as surrounding personality are

the brain and nervous system, the external situation, and groups including personality

The technical definition of reliability is

the correlation between a test's true score (T) and obtained score (X)

Characterology involves

the literary description of individual types of people

Intrapsychic perspectives emphasize

the parts and organization of the mental system itself

The integrated approach used here places its emphasis on

the personality system itself, and uses all the historical and contemporary perspectives on personality, as needed

A correlation describes

the relationship between two variables

A scientist believes personality psychology is, most centrally, the scientific activity of measuring differences among people, classifying people according to those differences, and predicting people on the basis of those differences. This scientist would most likely define personality as

the study of individual differences

The analysis of how people differ from one another is called

the study of individual differences

The best definition of personality psychology (according to the book) is that it is

the study of the organized, developing system within the individual that represents the collective action of that individual's major psychological subsystems

One very important contribution of Maslow to the field of personality has been his emphasis on

the study of very healthy people

Which approach focuses on the idea that multiple theories are complementary of each other?

the systems approach

Walter Mischel concluded that people's behavior was far more inconsistent from situation to situation than previously had been appreciated. Central to his argument was that

the typical correlation between a person's trait and his/her behaviors was r = .30

According to Freud, non-rational, instinct-driven, associational thinking is most likely to take place in

the unconscious

According to Freud, unacceptable urges, feelings, and ideas reside in

the unconscious

When different psychologists use observationism to study individuals

they often do not agree as to why a person thinks, feels, and/or behaves as they do

According to the book, ________ is an important dimension that helps identify the personality system and relate it to other systems.

time

What is the role of a meta-analysis?

to combine the results of smaller studies into a larger analysis in order to clarify the collective meaning

Two examples of intrapsychic perspectives are the

trait and psychodynamic

If people are asked how "happy" they are on a mood scale, and later how "joyful" they are, and their responses were highly positively intercorrelated (e.g., people answered them the same way) then their responses will best be described by

two items and one factor

If people are asked whether they are "moody" and whether their "mood goes up and down," and their responses were highly positively intercorrelated (e.g., people answered them the same way) then their responses will best be described by

two items and one factor

If people are asked whether they are "moody" and whether they are "even-tempered," and their responses were negatively correlated (e.g., people answered the items in opposite ways) then their responses will best be described by

two items and one factor

) If people are asked whether they are "moody" and whether they are "outgoing," and their responses were uncorrelated then their responses will best be described by

two items and two factors

Clinicians like Erikson and Freud believed

you could learn a lot by observing people in depth


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