psyc 320 study guide exam 2
what are the outcomes of an indulgent parenting style?
adolescents are less mature, less responsible, and more conforming to their peers
what are the outcomes of an authoritarian parenting style?
adolescents are more dependent, more passive, less socially adept, less self-assured, and less curious
what are the outcomes of an indifferent parenting style?
adolescents are often impulsive and likely to be involved in delinquent behavior, and in precocious experimentation
understand the current homelessness among adolescence and the developmental consequences of homelessness in adolescence
-1.3 million adolescents live on the streets any given night -runaway youth is mostly female (75%) between ages 12-17, and as much as 40% LGBTQ teens -homeless youth are more likely to engage in risky behaviors -consequences include illness, poor nutrition, mental health issues, substance abuse, "survival sex"
crowds
"reputation based clusters of youth, whose function in part is to help solidify young people's social and personal identity" -membership in a crowd is based mainly on reputation and stereotype, rather than actual friendship or interaction
how does sex segregation influence the nature of cliques?
- sex segregation in childhood and continues through most of adolescence, weakening later -it is due to early shared activities and interests -sex segregation also results concerns about behaving in sex-appropriate ways -once dating becomes the norm, those lacking relationships with peers of the other sex are objects of strong suspicion and social rejection
how prevalent is physical bullying?
-about 1/3 of students report physical bullying in the past year
explain how the orientation toward school, orientation toward the teen culture, and involvement in antisocial activity determine clique membership
-adolescents and their friends tend to be similar in their attitudes toward school, school achievement, course selection, and educational plans -students also influence each other's academic performance
describe changes in peer group structure as adolescents grow older
-adolescents become consciously more aware of crowd structure of their school and their place in it -crowd structure becomes more differentiated, more permeable, and less hierarchal, which allows adolescents more freedom to change crowds and enhance their status -female social groups are traditionally non hierarchal and malleable -male social groups are more hierarchal and stable
how does age grouping influence the nature of cliques?
-age grouping in jr and sr high schools make it unlikely that an individual will have friends who are substantially older or younger -age segregation in adolescents' cliques appears to result mostly from the structure of schools -adolescents online friends are less similar in age than the friends they make in school
explain why peer groups are necessary in the modern world
-all individuals expected to learn the same set of norms -rules governing behavior apply equally to all members of the community -socialization of adolescents is not limited to the family -society has universal norms for any activities -need for universal school based education creates age segregated peer groups
explain the specific impact of marital conflict
-children are more negatively affected when the marital conflict leads to feelings of insecurity or self-blame -children are more adversely affected when they are aware of it than when it is hidden from them and when the conflict disrupts quality of parent-child relationship
how does the transition to secondary school affect student performance?
-as children move into middle school or junior high, school grades, engagement, and academic motivation drop but standardized test scores do not decline -the drop in grades may reflect changes in student motivation and grading practices, not in student knowledge -the drop in academic motivation could be due to school transition itself or the nature of the differences between elementary school and jr high
explain the negative consequences of peer rejection
-being unpopular has negative consequences for adolescent's mental health psychological development -depression, behavior problems, alcohol use, interpersonal difficulties, academic difficulties
which groups are more vulnerable to the negative short-term effects of divorce?
-boys -younger children -children with a difficult temperament -children who do not have supportive relationships with adults outside of immediate family -children whose parents divorce during the transition into adolescence
how does peer victimization impact brain development?
-bullying increases number of suicide attempts in youth -victimization increases activation in brain regions associated with monitoring behavior of others
explain how the nature of bullying may be related to income inequality
-bullying is differentiated by its repetitive nature and by the imbalance of power between bully and victim -prevalence of bullying is higher in schools and in countries characterized by greater income inequality
how does youth's perception of school's crowd structure and strength of peer group influence change over development?
-by ninth grade, there is a universal agreement among students about their: schools crowd structure, and strength of peer influence -both decline by ninth and 12 grades. the decline is related to adolescents' developing a sense of identity and older adolescents may feel that being part of a crowd is stifling
how does pubertal development affect family transitions?
-changes in balance of power -biological and cognitive maturation at puberty throws the family system out of balance -diminished closeness is mostly due to increased teenager privacy and less physical affection than serious loss of love or respect -first half of adolescence might be strained or distant
during adolescence, what are the changes in family needs and functions?
-changes in financial strain (costs of clothing or cars, large expenditures like college, parents belong to "sandwich generation" -changes in family relationship to other social institutions
how do living arrangements and level of contact affect adolescent well-being after a divorce?
-children may fare better in the custody of the same-sex parent in short term, but these effects decrease over time -time spent with fathers often decrease after divorce, but children who have regular contact with their fathers have less problems -financial support from fathers is associated with less behavior issues and higher academic achievement
understand the similarity among clique members
-cliques are composed of people who share certain traits like age, race/ethnicity, and sex (at least during early and middle adolescence)
describe stability of adolescent friendships
-cliques show only moderate stability over the course of the school year, although they are more stable later in high school -only about 1/3 of students who name a best friend in the fall of a school year rename the same person as their best friend in the spring -boys friendships seem to be more stable (the most common cause of broken friendships is jealousy, incompatibility, betrayal, and aggression)
issues with standard based reform
-common core -difficult to establish standards -problems with a large proportion of high school seniors do not pass standardized graduation examinations -economic, social, and political costs of holding back large numbers of students
how does crowd membership affect adolescent identity and behavior?
-crowd membership is often the basis for an adolescent's own identity -the nature of the crowd is likely to have an important influence of the member's behavior, activities, self-conceptions, and opinions about others and themselves -self esteem is higher among students who are identified with peer groups that have relatively more status in their school
what is the relationship between reference groups and crowds?
-crowds act as reference groups and provide their members with an identity in the eyes of others -adolescents judge one another on the basis of the company they keep, and they become branded on the basis of the people they hang out with
describe the sex differences in family relationships
-differences between the family relations of sons and daughters are minimal -however, teenagers relate differently to mothers and fathers. they are often closer to mothers, fathers are viewed as relatively distant authority figures, and they fight more with mothers or view them as more controlling
how does placement in foster care relate to behavioral and emotional problems?
-emotional and behavioral problems may be a result of abuse or neglect -1/3 of young people in foster care placement enter due to parent maltreatment or delinquency
how does ethnic segregation influence the nature of cliques?
-ethnicity is not a strong determinant of clique composition in childhood but not by adolescence, it is an enormously powerful determinant -adolescents are more likely to have friends of the same ethnicity from a different social class than friends from the same social class but different ethnic groups -partially due to residential segregation, both adolescent and parental attitudes are factors
understand how ethnicity is associated with the formation of crowds
-evidence indicates that adolescents in multiethnic high schools first divide across ethnic lines, then form into the more familiar adolescent crowds within ethnic groups -adolescents from one ethnic group are less likely to see crowd distinctions within other ethnic groups than within their own group -the meaning associated with belonging to different crowds may differ across ethnic and socioeconomic groups -values associated with being in one crowd as opposed to another vary from school to school
explain how financial strain may impact youth developmental outcomes
-financial strain can cause disruptions in parenting -increases in adolescent difficulties, including a diminished sense of mastery, increased emotional distress, academic and interpersonal problems, and delinquency -increased depression and anxiety in parents and adolescents
how do the short-term effects of remarriage vary across genders and ages?
-girls have more difficulty than boys -older children have more difficulty than younger children
what are the aspects of classroom climate that may influence teenagers' learning and achievement?
-how teachers interact with students -how class time is used -the standards and expectations teachers hold for students -more important than school size, ethnic comp, approach to ability group, or age group combo
what are the benefits of authoritative parenting?
-it promotes an appropriate balance between restrictiveness and autonomy that sets standards and promotes self control and intellectual development that is the foundation of maturity -because it is based on warm parent-child relationships, adolescents are more likely to admire and form strong attachments to parents -child's own behavior, temperament, and personality shape parenting practices
how do school size and class size affect educational experiences?
-large schools have a more varied curriculum and more diverse extracurricular activities, but smaller schools have a higher performance -academically marginal students are outsiders in bigger schools -more inequality of educational experiences exists in larger schools
understand how cyberbullying affects youth emotional and behavioral problems. how does cyberbullying differ from/relate to other forms of peer victimization
-less common than in person harassment -affects victims in ways that are similar to physical bullying -becomes more common during adolescence -associated with both emotional and behavioral problems
how does chronic poverty negatively impact adolescent outcomes?
-makes parents harsher, more depressed and less involved, less consistent, more embroiled in conflict (leads to anxiety, depression, diminished school performance, etc.) -adolescents benefit from parental monitoring but not from excessive control
describe prior findings on adoption by same-sex parents
-numerous studies have found that there is no evidence that children or adolescents with lesbian or gay parents are psychologically different than those with straight parents -the parenting practices shown to predict adjustment in general have shown similar beneficial effects in families in which adolescents had been adopted by gay or lesbian parents
describe how peer rejection may influence adolescent developmental outcomes
-peer rejection in adolescence can often be traced to rejection during earlier periods of development -rejection by peers is a major source of stress for adolescents, who have a stronger biological response to it than children do
describe the bidirectional effect between peer victimization and emotional problems
-peer victimization diminishes adolescent's self-esteem, which often leads to more victimization and emotional issues
determinants of popularity and rejection
-popular adolescents are more socially skilled than unpopular peers -there is a lot of variability among popular teens in other characteristics, making it difficult to predict popularity
how do puberty, cognitive changes, and changes in social definition affect peer groups change during adolescence?
-puberty stimulates adolescents' interest in romantic relationships and distances them from their parents -the cognitive changes of adolescence permit a more sophisticated understanding of social relationships -changes in social definition may stimulate changes in peer relations as a sort of adaptive response
how does relationship with noncustodial parent affect adjustment to stepfamilies?
-relationship with noncustodial parent has a major impact on adjustment to stepfamilies -adolescents close to both father and stepfather have better outcomes
understand how readjusting to remarriage may create difficulties for children
-remarriage is stressful when new stepparent relationship is not accommodated -new authority figure -step-parents joining new roles -child adjustment declines each time household composition changes
what are some markers of a good classroom climate?
-responsive and demanding -positive with supportive and demanding teachers -moderate degree of structure -cooperation, not competition, between students
what might make an anti-bullying intervention effective?
-school based anti bullying programs have little effect during elementary school but may lead to bullying during high school -onlookers are more likely to intervene and defend the victims in schools where doing so was expected by other students -a significant amount of bullying occurs outside of school
explain how selection and socialization affect similarity between friends
-socialization is far stronger over day to day preferences in things like music than over many of the behaviors that adults worry about -adolescents' characteristics influence their choice of friends -adolescent's friends influence each other's characteristics
how does the development of intimacy influence peer groups?
-structure of peer group changes during adolescence, paralleling the adolescent's development of intimacy -in early adolescence, activities revolve around same-sex cliques -in middle adolescence, mixed sex and mixed age cliques become more prevalent. peer group is eventually entirely mixed cliques -as romantic interest builds, boys and girls cliques come together and sometimes couples split off from larger group in late adolescence
what has been found about the impact of adoption in youth outcomes? which factors may contribute to variability in findings?
-studies of psychological development of adolescents who have been adopted yield mixed findings -adopted individuals report relatively higher rates of psychological difficulties and poorer school performance -magnitudes of differences are very small -variations due partly due to variability in feelings about being adopted
what are the effects of tracking on student achievement?
-studies of the effect of tracking have produced a complicated answer variety of shown effects -both implementation and detracking and controversial -teachers may sort based on ability without forming tracking; this results raised expectations and evaluations for high ability students and lowered expectations for low ability students
what are schools within schools?
-subdivisions of the student body within large schools created to foster feelings of belongingness -smaller school size encourages participation, thus developing skills and abilities -smaller school students are more likely to hold leadership positions, do things that make them feel confident and diligent
current divorce trends
-the US divorce rate began increasing in to the 1960s, peaked during the 1980s, and has apparently been declining since -marriage rate has declined and cohabitation rates up -approximately one third of people who married in the 2000s will be divorced within 20 years
explain popularity's positive consequences
-the advantages of being popular outweigh the disadvantages -having friends outside of school can buffer the harmful consequences of having a few friends in school -popular adolescents are more likely to have close and intimate friendships, have an active social life, take part in extracurricular activities, and receive more social recognition -teenagers whose peers like them, or who merely believe that their peers like them, have higher self-esteem both as adolescents and adults
what are the long-term effects of parental divorce on children?
-the process of going through a divorce matters the most, not the resulting family structure -research has linked the adverse consequences of divorce to a number of factors not specifically due to having a single parent such as exposure to marital conflict and disorganized parenting -some effects may be caused by genetic differences between adolescents whose parents have divorced and those whose parents have not (adults who divorce may have genetic differences from those who do not, differences that are passed on)
in what ways are adolescent-siblings relationships related to adolescents' relationships to parents and peers?
-the quality of sibling relationships is affected by quality of parent-child relationships -with peers vice versa
describe the changes in the size of the youth population
-the teenage population grew rapidly between 1955-1975, then turned downward -baby boom -around 13% of Americans are between the age of 10-19 today -developing countries have higher proportion of adolescents than industrialized countries
describe changes to peer groups in adolescence
-there is a sharp increase during adolescence in the amount of time individuals spend with peers (more unsupervised time, opposite sex interactions) -children's peer relationships are limited mainly to small groups; adolescents spend more time with larger collective of peers (crowds)
Three types of unpopular adolescents
-those who have problems controlling aggression -withdrawn adolescents who are shy, anxious, and inhibited -those who are both aggressive and withdrawn
what might lead to differences between siblings?
-unless they are identical twins, two siblings might have inherited different genes from their parents, at least with respect to some traits -siblings may have different family experiences (treated differently by parents, perceive experiences differently, grew up in household at different time)
why might unpopular withdrawn children become targets for bullying?
-unpopular withdrawn children generally display hesitancy, low self-esteem, and lack confidence that make other children feel uncomfortable, and their submissiveness makes them targets for bullying
how does victimization impact youth well-being?
-victims report a range of adjustment problems: low self-esteem, depression, suicide, sleep difficulties, academic difficulties, loneliness, social skills decreased, and difficulty controlling negative emotions -psychological problems have been shown to be the causes of victimization as well as the consequences -undermines academic performance, school attendance, school engagement, and feelings of academic competence, all of which has cascading effects well beyond adolescence -many adolescents who report having been victimized also report bullying others
describe the 10 basic principles of good parenting proposed by Steinberg (2005)
1. what you do matters 2. you cannot be too loving 3. be involved in your child's life 4. adapt your parenting to fit your child 5. establish rules and set limits 6. help foster your child's independence 7. be consistent 8. avoid harsh discipline 9. explain your rules and decisions 10. treat your child with respect
percentage of children born outside of marriage
60%
routine activity theory
A perspective on adolescents that views unstructured, unsupervised time with peers as a main cause of misbehavior
big fish-little pond effect
The reason that individuals who attend high school with high-achieving peers feel worse about themselves than comparably successful individuals with lower-achieving peers.
learning disability
a difficulty with academic tasks that cannot be traced to an emotional problem or sensory dysfunction
internet addiction
a disorder in which an individual's use of the internet is pathological
reference group
a group against which an individual compares themselves
uses and gratifications approach
a perspective on media use that emphasizes the active role users play in selecting the media to which they are exposed
media practice model
a perspective on media use that emphasizes the fact that adolescents not only choose what media they are exposed to but also interpret the media in ways that shape their impact
cultivation theory
a perspective on media use that emphasizes the impact media exposure has on individuals
common core
a proposed set of standards in language arts and mathematics that all American schools would be expected to use
classroom climate and family income
a supportive school climate has a much greater impact on cognitive performance among adolescents from disadvantaged families than on their peers from higher income households
relational aggression
acts intended to harm another through the manipulation relationships with others (malicious gossip) "Mean Girls" -girls most likely to engage in it
how do adolescents relationship with siblings change?
as children mature, sibling conflict increases. over the course of adolescence, sibling relationships change becoming more equal, become more distant, and become less emotionally intense
what are the four parenting styles proposed by Baumrind?
authoritarian, authoritative, indifferent, indulgent
what are the peak times for dramatic changes in the relationships between adolescents and their families for girls and boys?
boys: age 13/14 girls: 11/12
what are some alternatives to standard-based public schools?
charter schools: public schools that have been given the autonomy to establish their own curricula and teaching practices school vouchers: government subsidized vouchers that can be used for private school tuition homeschooling
what are the differences between teachers at elementary school and middle/jr high school?
compared to elementary school teachers, jr high teachers have the following characteristics: -they are less likely to feel confident about their teaching ability -they are less likely to trust their students, more likely to emphasize discipline -they are more likely to believe that students' abilities are fixed
what are the outcomes of an authoritative parenting style?
considered the best parenting style, more psychologically mature, responsible, self-assured, creative, curious, socially skilled, and academically successful than those raised with other styles
what is the difference between correlation and causation
correlation is the extent to which two things vary systematically with each other causation is the association between two things attributable to the effect one thing has on another
how are adolescents sorted into crowds?
crowds include jocks, brains, nerds, populars, druggies, and changing crowds can be difficult
parental demandingness
degree to which parent expects and insists on mature, responsible behavior from the child, 1/2 of Baumrind's critical aspects
parental responsiveness
degree to which the parent responds to the child's needs in an accepting, supportive manner, 1/2 Baumrind's critical aspects
alleles
different versions of the same gene
understand the challenges typically faced by adolescents' parents. how do these challenges affect their relationships with their children?
during adolescence, most parents are in their early 40s. many parents may split between caring for their children and for their aging parents. dissatisfaction with the maturation process or the belief that possibilities in the future are limited.
three types of learning disability
dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalcula
what are the differences between jr high school in early 20th century and middle school in the late 20th century?
early 20th century: -most school districts separated students into an elementary school (six or eight grades) and a secondary school (four or six grades) -jr high school was designed during the early era of public secondary education, in which young adolescents are schooled separetely from older adolescents late 20th century: middle school was an educational institution housing seventh and eighth grade students more recent years: return of the two school model (usually k-8 and 9-12)
describe the relationship between popularity and relational health
students who are very high in popularity, as well as those who are very low, are less satisfied with their friendships and social life than their peers who fall somewhere in between those extremes
· What are structured leisure activities?
extracurriculars
peer groups
groups of individuals that are approximately the same age
perceived popularity
how much status or perceived an individual has
sociometric popularity
how well-liked an individual is
what are the affects of increasing percentage of adolescents in the US?
impact allocation of government funds, and size changes impacts of cohort
what are the four categories of victims?
mainly passive: ignoring the bully or walking away mainly aggressive: fighting back, either physically or verbally support seeking: telling an adult or other person those who do a little bit of everything
what does secondary school encompass?
middle schools, jr high schools, and high schools
spurious causation
relationship between two things due to the fact that each of them is correlated with some third factor
what do adolescents and parents usually argue about and why do they argue about these things?
most arguments in adolescents have to deal with changing roles and changes in authority. mostly about curfews, leisure time, clothing, cleanliness of rooms, mundane issues
nonshared environmental influences
nongenetic influences in individual's lives that make them different from the people they live with
shared environmental influences
nongenetic influences that make individuals living in the same family similar to each other
· Understand how adolescents' relationships with work changed.
o Before 1925, most teenagers, except for the affluent, entered the workforce full time by 15 years of age o Adolescents were either students or workers, not both o As secondary education became more widespread, more young people remained in school and fewer dropped out to work § By 1940, only 3% of high school students worked during the school year
reverse causation
relationship in which the association between two things is due not to the first thing causing the second, but to the second causing the first
understand the origins of secondary education
o Before compulsory secondary education, high schools were for the elite o By the 1920s, educators reformed curriculum to meet the needs of a diverse and growing population of young people § Focus on practical education (preparation for work and citizenship) § Presented as necessary part of Americanization o Comprehensive high school: general education, college preparation, and vocational education all housed under one roof
Understand how school climate may affect bullying
o Bullying is more likely in schools with unsupportive, harsh teachers, disorderly climate, and little respect for students o Given the higher prevalence of bullying of sexual minority teachers, creating LGBTQ focused policies is important o The role of school climate has raised legal questions about schools' legal responsibility for failing to take steps to prevent bullying o Experts recommend implementing evidence-based, antibullying programs, mental health services referrals, training for personnel, policies that make it easier to report bullying, and prompt investigations of bullying
describe the school reforms during the covid-19 pandemic
o During the COVID-19 pandemic, maintaining the academic side of school was only one consideration § Schools provide breakfast and lunch to impoverished students § Extracurricular activities keep students supervised during afternoon § Schools are important tools of social intervention
· How does social media impact socializing with others and social capital?
o Impact on social media on adolescents' moods depends on what they learn when they check their accounts o Fear of missing out (FOMO): excessive worry that others are having rewarding experiences without you o Social media sites are a context in which the socially rich get richer and the socially poor get poorer
· Explain the value of getting higher education.
o Individuals with more years of education earn more and are more likely to be employed o One important change that has taken place in recent years is a deadline in the value of going to college but not finishing o Completing a few years of college without getting a degree provides little advantage over just graduating from high school
what are the pros of extracurriculars?
o It improves students' performance in school, increases the odds of college enrollment, and reduces the likelihood of dropping out § It deters delinquency, drug use, and other types of risk taking § It enhances students' psychological well-being and social status § Increased contact with peers who influence them in a positive way § Increased contact with teachers and other personnel who reinforce the value of school
· Describe the education crisis within inner-city public schools.
o It is urgent o 10% of US high schools produce 50% of dropouts o Fewer than 20% of students are proficient in science o Concentration of poverty has produced a population of students with problems few schools are equipped to handle o Students report less of a sense of "belonging" to their schools o Fewer inner city job opportunities have left students with little incentive to remain in school or put effort into academic pursuits
· What are the effects of desegregation on adolescent outcomes?
o Landmark US Supreme Court rulings legally ended segregation of schools (Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 1954; 1955) o Effects of desegregation § Desegregation has little impact on achievement levels of either minority or white adolescents § Minority youngster's self-esteem is higher when they attend schools in which they are the majority § Students feel more engaged, safer, less lonely, and less harassed in relatively more diverse multiethnic schools than less balanced schools § Cross-ethnic friendships are more common among male than female students, in part because males are more likely to be involved in athletics
· What the positive and negative outcomes associated with working as an adolescent?
o Negative outcomes- some data indicate high rates of misconduct on the job o Positive outcomes- people's recollections are more positive regarding learned skills than research supports, money management is one positive effect
· What are the individual characteristics and contextual factors that may contribute to differences in the experiences of transitional problems?
o Not all students experience the same degree of stress o Students who have more academic and psychosocial problems before making a school transition have more problems coping with it o Poor, inner-city adolescents may be particularly at risk for the negative effects of school transitions § Boys, ethnic minority students, and students from poor families are more likely to become disengaged from school o Parental support and involvement are associated with better adjustment during school transitions
· Describe how adolescents' free time changed over the last 50 years. What are the three main types of how adolescents spend their free time?
o Over the last 50 years, there has been a significant decline in the proportion of time devoted to paid jobs and a significant increase in time devoted to leisure o Three main types § Well rounded adolescents with substantial time commitments across many different activities § Adolescents who tend to focus on one type of activity § Adolescents who do not do much outside of school
· What are the relationships between teacher expectations and student performance?
o Strong correlation exists between teacher expectations and student performance because teachers' expectations: § Are often accurate reflections of their students' abilities (which explains approximately 80% the relation) § Create self-fulfilling prophecies (which explains approximately 20% the relation)
· Understand how being a racial minority at school may lead to internalizing and externalizing symptoms.
o Students who are a part of a very small racial minority in their school (less than 15% of the students) are less likely to feel attached to school, which increases depression and substance use)
· How did the growth of retail and service sector impact adolescents?
o Teenagers were called upon to fill these positions o They worked for relatively low wages and short work shifts o Proportion of American high school students with part-time jobs rose dramatically during the 1970s o There have been steady declines in the proportion of teenagers who work for pay, have a driver's license, or go out on dates. Researchers speculate that adolescents prefer to spend time at home, online, then out of the house
· Describe the complicated impact of social media on adolescent health and well-being.
o The effects of internet use- positive or negative- are much smaller than claimed o Time the internet takes away from sleep and physical activity has a detrimental impact on adolescents' health o Excessive screen time is associated with poorer mental health, but a moderate amount of screen time may be better for adolescents than none at all
· How does having a job impact school performance?
o The issue is how many hours an adolescent works, not whether an adolescent has a job o Students working long hours are more likely to be absent from school, less likely to participate in extracurriculars, report enjoying school less, spend less time on homework, and earn slightly lower grades o Intensive part-time employment may even increase the likelihood of dropping out of school o Working fewer than 20 hours per week does not appear to have adverse effects
· What are some sources of out-of-school influences that may impact student engagement?
o The peer group's support, values, and norms also exert an important influence o Adolescents whose friends support academic achievement are more likely to feel connected to school o Students whose parents are involved in school activities, who encourage and emphasize academic success, and who use authoritative parenting practices do better in secondary school than their peers
what could be cons of extracurriculars?
o There is no empirical support for idea that extracurricular overscheduling has negative effects § One exception is team sports which has many psychological benefits but also increased alcohol use and delinquency § Possible antisocial behavior § Injuries § Increased anxiety due to competitive atmosphere
Understand the correlation between working and problem behavior.
o Working does not deter teens from delinquent activity by keeping them out of trouble, contrary to popular belief o Working long hours may actually be associated with increases in aggression, school misconduct, precocious activity, and minor delinquency o Correlation is not causation
gangs
organized peer groups of antisocial individuals
according to Baumrind, what are two critical aspects of parenting?
parental responsiveness and parental demandingness
diathesis stress model
perspective on psychological disorders that posits that problems are the result of an interaction between a preexisting condition (the diathesis) and exposure to stress in the environment
standards based reform
policies designed to improve achievement by holding schools and students to a predetermined set of standards measured by achievement tests
what are the differences between proactive and reactive agression?
proactive aggression is deliberate and planned, whereas reactive aggression is when the behavior is unplanned and impulsive
pros and cons of tracking
pros: allows teachers to design class lessons that are finely tuned to students abilities, account for mastery of certain basic skills cons: remedial track student generally receive poorer quality education, not just different education, students socialize only with peers on the same track, may discriminate against poor or ethnic minorities
latrogenic effects
unintended adverse consequences of a treatment or intervention. group based interventions for adolescents with conduct problems may not work
cliques
small, tightly knit groups between 2 and 12 friends, generally the same sex and age provides the main social context in which adolescents interact with one another
understand how socialization is bidirectional
socialization is a two way street- just as parents affect their adolescents' behavior, adolescents affect how their parents' behave
what are the two forms of popularity?
sociometric and perceived
classroom climate and trust
students engagement in school is likely to increase after they have been disciplined when they trust their school and their teacher
how are gifted students defined?
students who are unusually talented in some aspect of intellectual performance
what problems did no child left behind lead to?
teaching to test- subjects and skills not on the test at risk for being cut or ignored impossible to assess critical thinking through standardized tests no common set of standards, "gaming the system" through low standards
differential susceptibility theory
the idea that the same genetic tendencies that make an individual especially susceptible to develop problems when exposed to adverse environmental influences also make them especially likely to thrive when exposed to positive environmental influences
mainstreaming
the integration of adolescents who have educational handicaps into regular classrooms
social capital
the interpersonal resources available to an adolescent or family
What is No Child Left Behind?
the law mandates that all states ensure that students, regardless of economic circumstances, achieve academic proficiency on standardized annual tests
baby boom
the period following WWII, during which the number of infants born were extremely large
what is social promotion
the practice of promoting students from one grade to the next automatically, regardless of their school performance
what is tracking?
the practice of separating students into ability groups, so that they take classes with peers at the same skill level
age grading
the process of grouping individuals within social institutions on the basis of age
behavioral genetics
the scientific study of genetic influences on behavior
molecular genetics
the scientific study of the structure and function of genes
hostile attribution bias
the tendency to interpret ambiguous interactions with others as deliberately hostile
why do adolescents in gangs have worse developmental outcomes?
they are at risk for many types of problems (antisocial behavior, psychological distress, exposure to violence, victimization)
critical thinking
thinking that involves analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting info rather than simply memorizing
· What is the only way to examine the causal pathway between media influence and individual outcomes?
to conduct an experiment in which people are randomly assigned to be (or not be) exposed to the medium to see how it affects them
· Understand the adolescent workplace today.
today, the majority of teenagers are employed in the retail and service industries. older teenagers hold formal jobs like retail or in restaurants, and younger teenagers hold informal jobs like babysitting and yardwork.
what are the impacts of unstructured leisure time on adolescent outcomes
unstructured, unsupervised time with peers leads to depression, delinquency, drug and alcohol use, violence, sexual activity. adolescents who spend five or more evenings out in an average week are at least four times more likely to be involved in antisocial activity than those who go out less than twice a week
according to family systems theory, when do relationships in families change most dramatically?
when individual members or family circumstances are changing
crowds vary on involvement with which two dimensions?
with peers and involvement in adult institutions.
Downside of being on the wrong track
§ Early track placements result in a difficult to change educational trajectory § Tracking in one class may lead to tracking in others due to scheduling § More advanced tracking has more challenging instruction, better teaching, critical thinking classroom activities § Net effect is an increase in preexisting academic differences § Some exception exist, with lower tracks taught by exceptional teachers
· What are the characteristics of good schools?
§ Emphasize intellectual activities § Employ teachers who are strongly committed to students and have enough freedom to teach effectively § Well integrated into the communities they serve § Composed of classrooms, where students are active participants § Staffed by teachers who are well-qualified and who have received specific training in teaching adolescents
Six symptoms of internet addiction
§ Salience- being online is the most important thing in life § Mood change- one's mood fluctuates as a function of internet experiences § Tolerance- needing more and more internet time to feel satisfied § Withdrawal- experiencing negative feelings when prevented from being online § Conflict- the internet has caused problems in one's relationships or some other aspect of life § Relapse and reinstatement- returning to addictive internet behavior after getting it under control
adolescents and screen time
§ Until the last 20 years or so, research on the impact of media on adolescent development focused on TV, movies, and recorded music § As with traditional media, research into new media is slanted toward its corrupting influence
o Media saturation
§ Virtually all American households have at least one television and computers and internet access are present in virtually all homes § More then 93% of American teens go online daily, and nearly 75% report using one or more social media sites · About ¾ adolescents have their own smart phone · Average adolescent spends 9 hours per day using media · Internet use has increased o Adolescents and screen time
