PSYC 328 Unit 1
President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice (1966)
a national crime survey that was the first government-sponsored victimization survey; it shed light on unreported crime (victim's reluctance to report)
NIBRS
a reporting system in which the police describe each offense in a crime incident, together with data describing the offender, victim, and property
lex talionis
an eye for an eye; criminal is punished to the degree deserved
Uniform Crime Report
an official measure of crime in the United States, produced by the FBI's official tabulation of every crime reported by more than 18,000 law enforcement agencies
hierarchy rule
an old police method of counting only the most serious crime in a single incident involving multiple crimes
retribution
the criminal is punished equal to the harm caused; was utilized during the Middle Ages
victimology
the study of the etiology of victimization, its consequences, how the criminal justice system accommodates and assists victims, and how other elements of society (media) deal with crime victims
suitable target
victims chosen by offenders based on their attractiveness in the situation/crime
victim facilitation
without realizing it, the victim's actions made it easier for the offender to commit a crime; these behaviors made them a more likely target
subintentional homicide
did victim make it easier to be victim of homicide by using poor judgment, placing self at risk, using alcohol?
Code of Hammurabi
early criminal code in Babylon that emphasized the restoration of equity between the victim and the offender
vicarious victimization
effect of victimization on those close to the victim who know of trauma
overseeing the flashbacks and then lacking the ability to tell a story that gives you peace
fMRIs have found: increased blood flow in PTSD patients to the visual cortex and reduced blood flow to the left cerebral frontal cortex where Broca's area (encoding words-- translating what we see into words). How is this problematic and related to PTSD symptoms?
victimization theory
generally a set of testable propositions designed to explain why a person is victimized
learned helplessness
in cases of trauma, victims might learn that responding is futile; they stay in risky situations leading to revictimization
just; good
"Simply by definition, mass shootings are more likely to trigger difficulties with beliefs that most of us have, including that we live in a _______ world and that if we make _______ decisions, we'll be safe,"
norepinephrine
"The Neurobiology of Trauma" noted that when the amygdala is triggered during a trauma, it releases what hormone/neurotransmitter?
capable guardianship
means by which a person or target can be effectively guarded so that a victimization is prevented from occurring
25; 28; 33
-Those who had high exposure to WTC on 9/11, _____% developed PTSD. -______% who have witnessed a mass shooting develop PTSD and about _____% developed Acute Stress Disorder
restitution
payment for an injury; compensation (utilized during the Middle Ages)
secondary victims
people affected by another's victimization
lifestyle theory
people may become crime victims because their lifestyle increases their exposure to criminal offenders
Characterological self-blame
person believes the victimization is deserved based on who they are as a person (type of self-blame)
behavioral self-blame
person believes victimization is due to behavior that can be changed (type of self-blame)
victim provocation
person's actions incite another person to commit a crime; crime would not have occurred without victims actions; constitutes blame
victim; ignored
1940s: -Attention returned to _________—not sympathetic -Research emphasized how victims contribute to their own victimization -Damage to victim __________(recognized/ignored)
marriage; employment
2 key social bonds of Age-Graded Theory of Adult Social Bonds:
million; 4; 7
2018 UCR data: Over a ___________ violent crimes A DECREASE of ____% percent from 2017 in first 6 months of each year. Around ____ million property crime offenses Down about 7% from 2017
community
2018 study documented effectiveness of ______________ memorial events being perceived as very therapeutic to survivors of mass violence events
acute; chronic; historical/generational; complex
4 types of trauma:
six; aversive; three; memories; nightmares
A new set of PTSD criteria was added for children ____ years of age or younger to reflect their levels of development. The criteria for younger children do not have the "repeated or extreme exposure to ____________ details of the traumatic event" exposure type, have only _________ symptom groups consisting of a total of 16 symptoms, have different symptoms grouped together compared to the adult symptom criteria, and indirect trauma exposure through a close associate is limited to a parent or care-giving figure. Additionally, intrusive ______________ in younger children do not have to appear distressing (as in play re-enactment) and ____________ do not have to be contextually based on the traumatic event.
suitable target
According to routine activities theory, a target for crime that is relatively valuable, easily transportable, and not capably guarded.
30
Across literature, studies looking at longitudinal effects of mass casualty events show percent of adults and kids who develop chronic psychological problems after event rarely exceeds _____% of population.
30; 25
Across literature, studies looking at longitudinal effects of mass casualty events show percent of adults and kids who develop chronic psychological problems after event rarely exceeds _____% of population. For example, those who had high exposure to WTC on 9/11, _____% developed PTSD.
terrorism
Act of ___________ puts people at risk for mass casualty event.
UCR; police; short; two
Advantages of NCVS: -Includes crimes not in Part I of _______ -Includes crimes not reported to _________ -_______(Long/short) recall period -_____-stage process is more conservative estimation method
97; geographical; trend; characteristics
Advantages of UCR: -Over _____% of U.S. population covered -Provides crimes by ______________ units -Provides ________ data -Reports crime __________________
No
After a mass casualty, is there a "typical" survivor pattern where people all have similar symptoms?
married; unemployed
Age-Graded Theory of Adult Social Bonds says being ____________(married/single) is protective. Being ____________(employed/unemployed) is protective.
Alcohol use may affect likelihood of reporting victimization
Alcohol may also affect how victim responds to incident. Why?
inhibition; vulnerability
Alcohol use also associated with victimization. Alcohol reduces ______________ and enhances _______________.
alcohol; behavior; reputation; female
Amir found that common examples of "contributing" to the rape are: -____________ use -Victim likely to engage in seductive ____________, wear revealing clothing, and use risqué language have bad ______________ -Offender may view victim as going against what he views as appropriate ___________ behavior (controversial)
acute stress disorder
An anxiety disorder in which fear and related symptoms are experienced soon after a traumatic event and last less than a month
female
Are males or females more likely to develop PTSD?
increases
As rates of residency increase, risk of crime ________________(increases/decreases).
cortisol; lower; normal; high
At risk for developing PTSD when ___________ levels are not at suitable levels in the body. -These levels are _________(higher/lower) in those who develop PTSD. -Sufficient in those who have a ___________(normal/abnormal) stress response -Too ______(high/low) of cortisol levels over an extended time is associated with brain shrinkage and other negative outcomes.
B
Benjamin Mendelsohn's system of victim culpability is based on the victim _______________ model. (A) provocation (B) precipitation (C) facilitation
urban
Both victims and offenders most likely to live in _______ areas.
equity
Code of Hammurabi: -Early criminal code in Babylon -Focus on restoration of _________ between victim and offender
esteem; worth
Common affective response of victimization: Reduced self-_________ and self-______: -Alter the way victims view themselves -Especially prominent in female victims
Anxiety
Common affective response of victimization: ____________ symptoms (not full blown disorder) -Irrational and excessive fear -Accompanied by physical symptoms
Depression
Common affective response of victimization: ______________ symptoms (not full blown disorder): -Symptoms vary by victim -Behavior changes, feelings of guilt, and worthlessness
knew; male; likely; Alcohol
Common factors Wolfgang found in his first empirical study: 1. Victim/offender _______(knew/didn't. know) each other 2. _________(Male/female) victims and offenders 3. Victim _________(likely/not likely) to have history of violent offending 4. ___________ involved
anxiety
Considerable research has demonstrated that PTSD entails multiple emotions (e.g., guilt, shame, anger) outside of the fear/anxiety spectrum, thus providing evidence inconsistent with inclusion of PTSD with the ___________ disorders
shutting off; sympathetic; sympathetic
Cortisol seems important in __________(turning on/shutting off) _______________ nervous system response after trauma. When not enough cortisol present, _______________ nervous system continues to be aroused & amygdala overactivated.
general theory of crime
Crime caused by single factor: low self-control
victim
Crime was seen as harm against the ________(victim/state) from the 5th-16th century (Middle Ages).
transport to hospital; doctor care and allied health services; prescriptions and medical devices; coroner payments; premature funeral expenses
Describe some medical care costs that come with victimization:
grieving, assessing ongoing damage from trauma
Describe some secondary consequences of stressors that occur during the post-impact period:
when trauma is occurring; cognitively understand what happened; secondary consequences of stressor occur
Describe the impact, recoil, and post-impact period:
etiology/causes of victimization, how the criminal justice system deals with it, how other aspects of society deal with it
Describe the pillars of victimology:
here provide reassurance of safety, practical resources, information
Describe what needs to happen in the acute stage after a mass shooting?
Mental health providers train community to be trauma-informed; Normalize and validate survivors' feelings; Continue to offer practical support services; Ensure they are feeling emotional support from personal support system; Helping them to know about mental health/coping options available as a safety net; RESEARCH HAS SHOWN THAT SOMEONE KNOWING THERE ARE RESOURCES THAT CAN HELP IS ASSOCIATED WITH PEOPLE FEELING CONNECTED AND LESS ANXIOUS
Describe what needs to happen in the intermediate stage after a mass shooting?
-Ongoing adjustment -Even relapse of some PTSD symptoms is normal -Monitor for actual PTSD or unhealthy behavioral coping (substance abuse, overeating, isolating, etc..) -Research shown influx in those seeking mental health treatment after community support/attention dies down
Describe what needs to happen in the long-term stage after a mass shooting?
recall; lie; series; victimless; victims
Disadvantages of NCVS: -Dependent on respondent ________ -Subjects could deliberately ____ -Treatment of __________ victimization -Excludes murder, "_________" crime, and commercial crime -Excludes some possible ________
victims; police; hierarchy; participation
Disadvantages of the UCR: No detailed info on _________; Only includes info on crimes known to _________; Part I crimes limited; _____________ rule; Accuracy limited by agency ______________
distress; aggressively; respond; victimize; cycle
Distress-and-reaction sequence (social interactionist perspective) -___________ leads to breaking of social rules -Others angered by this—respond ______________ -Distressed individual must __________ to aggression -Their response may lead others to _____________ them -Distressed individual may retaliate—continue ________ of aggression
social interactionist perspective
Distress-and-reaction sequence is a part of what theory?
no (more research needed)
Do SSRIs have a lot of evidence for their effectiveness in treating kids after a terrorist attack?
amygdala; norepinephrine
During "Impact" phase: Senses activate what part of the brain? What does it release?
norepinephrine
During flight/flight/freeze reaction, the amygdala naturally releases what hormone, which triggers other physiological responses?
state
During the Industrial Revolution in the mid 1800s-early 1900s, crime was now seen as a violation against the ________(state/victim).
Industrial
During the ______________ Revolution in the mid 1800s-early 1900s, crime was now seen as a violation against the state, not the victim.
1940
During the ________s, attention turned back to the victim. However, this was not sympathetic. Research emphasized how the victims contributed to their own victimization.
1960
During the ________s, there was an increased concern about crime.
amygdala; norepinephrine
During the impact phase: -Senses activate the ___________ -This part of the brain naturally releases ______________ and triggers other physiological responses (heightened arousal, inc. heart rate, deep breathing, pupils widen)
the way victims were viewed
During the mid-1900s, the Victims' Rights Movement contributed to a shift in what?
Cognitively; common; cortisol
During the recoil phase: -______________ begin to understand and make sense of what you experienced -Anxiety, hyper vigilance, sleep and appetite problems _____________(common/uncommon) -_____________, stress hormone, is released to shut off the body rush that norepinephrine produced
Middle Ages
During what time (5th to 16th centuries) did the burden of the justice system fall on the victim? The emphasis was on retribution and restitution, and the crime was seen as harm against the victim.
causes
Effective prevention programs/policies must target known _________ of victimization.
90s and 2000s
Effective prevention programs/policies must target known causes of victimization. When did these become prevalent?
safety; stability/calming; efficacy; hope; connectedness
Empirically supported interventions/Psychological first aid and crisis counseling models now based on these: 1) promote sense of ____________ 2) promote ___________/_____________ 3) Promote self and community ____________ 4) Instill ________ 5) promote ________________ with community
-Group based cognitive-behavioral treatments -Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR)
Empirically supported psychological treatment following terrorism for CHILDREN:
lock car; pepper spray; do not be alone; carry phone
Examples of giving yourself capable guardianship:
deep breaths
Explain an example of promoting a sense of stability/calming in psychological first aid and crisis counseling:
a person is distressed and breaks social rules; this angers other people who respond back aggressively; the distressed person has to respond; this might lead others to victimize them; the distressed person could retaliate which continues the cycle
Explain the distress-and-reaction sequence:
lasts for short amount of time; lasts for a long time; has been happening in family for multiple generations and behavior is normalized; many different types of trauma
Explain the four types of trauma: acute, chronic, historical/generational, complex
a national crime survey that was the first government-sponsored victimization survey; it shed light on unreported crime (victim's reluctance to report)
Explain what the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice (1966) was and what it did:
goes along with Maslow's hierarchy of needs, need to be safe before moving on; helpful with domestic violence victims
Explain why promoting a sense of safety is important as a psychological first aid and crisis counseling model:
people need to feel like they and their community can be successful
Explain why promoting self and community efficacy is important as a psychological first aid and crisis counseling model:
insulates person; strong predictor of victimization
Family can help or hurt your chances of being victimized. If you have strong attachments what happens? Weak attachments?
8
Federal government pays $___ billion annually for victim services
visual; Broca's
Functional MRI studies have found: Increased blood flow in PTSD patients to the ________ cortex reduced blood flow to the left cerebral frontal cortex where __________ area (encoding words—translating what we see into words)
victimization
General theory of crime is also applied to ______________ and says low self-control increased likelihood of this happening.
low self-control
General theory of crime says crime is caused by what single factor?
parental; 8
General theory of crime says self-control developed through _____________ socialization. Theory argues your self-control level set by age ____.
leaving purse or phone unattended; leaving car unlocked
Give an example of victim facilitation.
bounding
Giving a time frame to reference in order to aid recall (NCVS)
oppressed groups
Hans von Hentig came up with 13 categories of people who were more likely to be victims. What do all of these groups have in common?
characteristics; dyad; 13
Hans von Hentig: -Looked at the _____________ of victims that put them at risk -Examined criminal-victim _______ -Victims may provoke victimization based on characteristics -Identified _____ categories of crime victims Examples: Young, females, elderly, immigrants, those with psychological/mental illness, racial minorities, promiscuous, etc.....
30
Hospitals make about _____% of what they bill for patients.
intense immediate reactions that decline over time; different
How do most survivors react after a mass casualty event? Are these reactions similar or different?
it has been used to explain partner violence because if people have seen these situations, they will be more okay with participating in them
How does Social Learning Theory explain victimization as well?
it increases the likelihood that they will be in risky situations
How does exposure to delinquent peers increase the risk of victimization?
it can be difficult for a person to remember all of the times they have been victimized; they complete a report for the most recent time, and the maximum time is 10 so rates may be lower
How does the NCVS treat series victimization?
Proposes that amount of control people possess over others versus amount of control they are subject to affects risk of deviancy.
How is the control-balance theory used to explain criminal behavior or increased risk of being a victim?
6 months
How long does PTSD have to show up after trauma event for it to be considered "delayed expression"?
protect your vulnerabilities and reduce your risk of having a crime committed against you
How to give yourself capable guardianship:
Adverse Childhood Experiences; a score on a scale of 0-10. The number of these experiences has an impact on future health and functioning.
If a mental health professional is talking about an "ACE" score of a client, what are they referring to? Explain what this is?
political; international
If the cause of a disaster is __________ or ____________ people are at higher risk for PTSD.
Norepinephrine
If too much _____________ is present, overconsolidation may happen leading to uncomfortable, vivid bad memories in people with PTSD.
lifestyle theory
If you are a college student that needs extra money, and your only available times to work are third shift, you might be putting yourself in danger by taking a job at this time of night. What theory of victimization is best described by this description?
adjustment disorder
If you do not meet ALL requirements for PTSD, then you are often diagnosed with what kind of disorder?
defiance against someone when they feel oppressed
If you have a control deficit, you are more likely to do what kinds of crime?
exploiting or harming others
If you have a control surplus, you are more likely to do what kinds of crime?
victim compensation
In 1965, the first _________ ____________ program was created in CA.
victim assistance
In 1972, three ________ ____________ programs developed across the United States.
how victims contribute to their own victimization
In the 1940s, attention was given back to the victim. However, research emphasized what?
No; people do not have a clear understanding of what happened immediately after the trauma
In the 1990s when mental health professionals became involved in disaster mental health work, including post terrorism efforts, used debriefing/group models to assist those who experienced the mass trauma. Is this the process that is still used today? Why or why not?
the victim
In the Middle Ages, the burden of justice fell on who?
equal
In the cases of violent victimization (excluding rape/sexual assault) what is the gender distribution?
8; 1
In the month following 9/11, one study estimated Acute Stress Disorder rates to be around ____% for all residents of Manhattan. At 6 months post 9/11, same study showed PTSD rates of less than ____% of Manhattan population.
distress
In the social interactionist perspective, ___________ is the initial feeling that is felt, and then there are many other things that happen after that.
child, elderly, disabled
Instances where victims should have NO precipitation?
Trauma and Stressor-related Disorders
Instead of being described in the Anxiety Disorder Category, there is now a new category in the DSM and PTSD falls under what category of disorders?
45
Insurance companies pay about $____ billion annually due to crime
death; community; victims; media
Is there research to suggest that people can experience trauma symptoms after watching coverage of violent crime by media/other outlets? Likely to occur when seven factors present: -Realistic threat of _______ -Extraordinary carnage -Strong ties to community -Witnessing of event by ______________ -Symbolic significance of __________ to community -Need for rescue workers -Significant ________ attention
offenders; risk
Key elements in prevention include: -Discourage ____________ -Reduce opportunity -Address factors placing victims at _______
half
Less than ______ of all victimizations are reported to police
social; role
Lifestyle is structured by ________ constraints and _______ expectations.
Difficulty processing, storing, make accurate sense of new memories (as non-fearful vs fearful experiences)
Likely consequences of having a hypoactive hippocampus and overactive amygdala?
provoke; vulnerable; personality trait
Many factors may play some role in why victimization occurs to particular people Theory: Victims may _________ their own victimization Theory: They may be perceived by offenders as more ____________ Theory: There may be some ______________ ______ influencing victimization risk
cortisol; we can predict who might develop this
Many studies have found that those with PTSD have lower levels of ____________ and those tested soon after trauma and found to have these lower levels are more likely to develop PTSD. What does this tell us?
victim
Marvin Wolfgang: He concluded 26% of homicides had a factor in common—_________ was first to engage in violence with murderer.
26
Marvin Wolfgang: He concluded _____% of homicides had a factor in common—victim was first to engage in violence with murderer.
20
Menachim Amir studied rapes in Philadelphia where he saw victims as "contributing". He concluded that ______% of victims "contributed"
responsible
Mendelsohn and Schafer's models were based on how ________________ the victims were for crime.
victim culpability (blame)
Mendelsohn looked at victim-offender relationship. What was his system based on?
responsibility/precipitation
Mendelsohn's system of victim-offender relationships was based on what model? He looked at each crime and wanted to see where he could slot them in for this.
directly exposed
Meta-analysis examining PTSD symptoms (n>8000): "In mass shootings, if more __________ ____________ to the shooting—(physically injured, saw someone else get shot, lost someone, perceived own lives in danger, at much greater risk for long-term PTSD symptoms and other mental health consequences than survivors who may have been hiding nearby or otherwise farther proximity from the incident"
argument
Most common circumstance surrounding murder is a(n) ______________
larceny
Most common crime?
victimization
Most of the mental health care costs for crime-related issues come from victims seeking treatment to deal with effects of ______________
do not
Most victims _____(do/do not) experience temporary or permanent physical injury
163,000; 12; 3
NCVS: Administered by U.S. Census Bureau 95,000 households—___________ persons All household members aged ____+ interviewed Households participate for ____ years
36
NCVS: _____% of victims perceived offender to be under the influence of alcohol/drugs
victim; relationship; incident
NIBRS includes: information on crime ________, ______________ of victim to offender, and __________ info (when, where) etc...
-Feel to blame for event or death around them -Pre-existing mental health conditions -Age 40-60 -Female more at risk -Some research suggests Ethnic minority -Low SES -Someone with psychiatric hx -Avoidant coping style -If cause of disaster is politically related or intentional -Closer in proximity to disaster -In children, those with multiple exposures to trauma, much indirect or direct exposure to trauma, conduct problems, family hx of MH D/O
Name characteristics of people who are at a higher risk for PTSD.
child victims; victim of domestic violence; people who are out of society's power
Name examples of people who have been in a control deficit:
Stanford Prison Study; domestic violence; parent and child violence; financial crimes
Name examples of people who have been in a control surplus:
prevent future violence; stop offender; because it was a crime; to protect others
Name reasons for reporting a violent crime:
Dependent on respondent recall; Subjects could deliberately lie; Treatment of series victimization; Excludes murder, "victimless" crime, and commercial crime; Excludes some possible victims
Name some disadvantages of the NCVS:
Young, females, elderly, immigrants, those with psychological/mental illness, racial minorities, promiscuous
Name some of Hans von Hentig's 13 categories of crime victims:
private/personal matter; dealt with another way; not important enough; police wouldn't or couldn't do anything; fear reprisal; fear getting offender in trouble
Name some reasons for not reporting a violent crime:
thumb sucking; pee pants; afraid of the dark
Name some regression behaviors that occur in early childhood after a terrorist attack:
1) promote sense of safety 2) promote stability/calming 3) Promote self and community efficacy 4) Instill hope 5) promote connectedness with community
Name the 5 empirically supported interventions/psychological first aid and crisis counseling models now based on these:
Includes crimes not in Part I of UCR; Includes crimes not reported to police; Short recall period; Two-stage process is more conservative estimation method
Name the advantages of NCVS:
Over 97% of U.S. population covered; Provides crimes by geographical units; Provides trend data; Reports crime characteristics
Name the advantages of the UCR:
No detailed info on victims; Only includes info on crimes known to police; Part I crimes limited; Hierarchy rule; Accuracy limited by agency participation
Name the disadvantages of the UCR:
direct exposure, indirect exposure, witnessing the trauma, learning a close friend or relative was exposed to trauma
Name the four ways someone can be exposed to trauma:
depression symptoms, reduced self-esteem and self-worth, anxiety symptoms
Name the three common affective responses to victimization:
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
National survey of households conducted by Bureau of Justice Statistics
Residential mobility
Neighborhood context that increases the risk of being victimized: The more people in a neighborhood that have not lived there for at least 5 years, the higher the risk of crime victimization there.
hot spots
Neighborhood context that increases the risk of being victimized: crime-prone locations
family structure
Neighborhood context that increases the risk of being victimized: household headed by mom
Structural density
Neighborhood context that increases the risk of being victimized: when you have 5 or more units/apartments in building
12
One study of mass shooting survivors at Northern IL Univ—_____% reported ongoing persistent PTSD symptoms. Thus, survivors of mass casuality shootings linked to higher risk of long-term stress reactions.
21
Only _____% of victims murdered by an acquaintance.
is not
PTSD ______(is/is not) the typical reaction to a trauma
month
PTSD describes a cluster of symptoms that is ongoing for over a ________ following the trauma
anxiety; trauma and stress-related disorders
PTSD diagnoses used to be listed under the category of __________ disorders in the old DSM-IV-TR, but in the current DSM-5 it is listed under the category of ________________.
abnormal; abnormal
PTSD has been described as _____________ stress response due to _____________ physiological symptoms & psychological symptoms
stress
PTSD has been described as abnormal ________ response due to abnormal physiological symptoms & psychological symptoms
delayed expression
PTSD with _________ ___________ full diagnostic criteria not met until at least 6 months after trauma event
most difficult
Pain, suffering, and lost quality of life are _________(easiest/most difficult) to quantify as a cost of victimization
cope
People ________ in different ways with victimization. -Some internalize feelings/emotions -Others experience externalizing responses
we should have compassion and see where they are coming from, since they have likely been victims that cope in poor ways
People who are offenders are also often victims. What does that mean for those of us working with offenders?
less
People with PTSD have ______ response to physical pain.
low
People with _____(high/low) SES are more likely to develop PTSD.
avoidant
People with a(n) ___________ coping style are more likely to get PTSD.
African American; 24
Persons who are _________ ____________ and under age _____ have higher victimization rates compared to other combined age/race comparisons
compensation; assistance; professionals; amendment
President's Task Force on Victims of Crime generated major initiatives: -Federal legislation for state victim ______________ and local victim _____________ programs -Recommendations to ____________ about how to treat victims -Proposed federal victims' rights ______________
catastrophic; life threatening
Prevalence of PTSD is higher in child populations when trauma is more ________________/_____ ________________
offending
Prior victimization may increase risk of later involvement in _____________. Psychological consequences of victimization.
social interactionist perspective
Proposes that distressed individuals behave aggressively, which then elicits an aggressive response from others
Age-Graded Theory of Adult Social Bonds
Proposes that marriage and employment can help one desist from criminal behavior and therefore from victimization
-Kids having strong family relationships, -Children with parents who respond in reassuring/calming/stabilizing way, -Children with parents who focus on restoring sense of safety
Protective factors from kids developing PTSD?
NIBRS
Provides detailed information about crimes 23 Group A offense categories covering 49 crimes Arrest data for 11 additional Group B offenses
less; difficult
Recent immigrants may be _______(more/less) likely to report victimization to police. This has been __________(easy/difficult) to detect in research. Overall, need more research to fully understand if immigrant status plays a role in victimization risk.
series victimizations
Repeated incidents of a similar nature suffered by the same person
greater
Research also suggests that mass shooting survivors may be at ___________(greater/lesser) risk for mental health difficulties compared with people who experience other types of trauma, such as natural disasters.
symptoms
Research has supported the idea that most people have post traumatic stress ____________ but not a disorder right after a trauma.
overconsolidation of memories, which can lead to uncomfortable, vivid bad memories; people will keep going over these memories in their minds
Role of norepinephrine in PTSD: It plays a role in consolidating/tucking away and compartmentalizing bad dreams. If too much is present, what can happen? What is an implication of this?
internal
self-blame often occurs with victimization. it is associated with an ____________ locus of control.
C
Several months after the trauma, survivors _________ have developed PTSD reactions. (A) never (B) commonly (C) rarely
depends on what the person wants; severity of crime; time passed after crime
Should the terms of victim and survivor be interchangeable? How do we know which term to use?
Yes
So if anxiety, hypervigilance, sleep & appetite problems are common in recoil phase, would we say these are typical reactions?
cortisol; more
Some newer research in our reading suggested that those tested soon after trauma and found to have lower levels of ____________ were significantly ________ likely to develop PTSD.
70
Starting in the 19_____s, organizations created to address needs of this group (e.g., Parents of Murdered Children).
none; share; some; none; none; total; none
Stephen Schafer's typology based on social characteristics and behaviors has 7 categories. How much responsibility do each of these categories have? 1. Unrelated 2. Provocative 3. Precipitative 4. Biologically weak 5. Socially weak 6. Self-victimizing 7. Political
impact; recoil; post-impact
Steps of trauma: __________ period (when it's occurring), _________ period (danger passed but I'm aware what has happened), ____________ period (secondary consequences of stressors as you try to recover from trauma-- grieving, assessing ongoing damage from trauma)
214; 9
System costs of victimization: Criminal justice system spends over $______ billion annually Employs over 2.4 million people—collective pay over $___ billion
True
T/F: Concepts of victim precipitation, facilitation, and provocation can overlap.
True
T/F: Freezing is also common during the fight/flight phase.
True
T/F: In society today, there is now power with being a victim (in some cases). In the past, victim=powerless.
True
T/F: It is typical for survivors of some forms of trauma, especially more interpersonal forms of crime like rape, to experience various PTS symptoms (re-experiencing trauma memory, avoidance of trauma-related triggers, changes in mood/anxiety levels, heightened state of awareness sometimes thought as hypervigilance) in the immediate days or even 2-3 weeks after the trauma.
True
T/F: RESEARCH HAS SHOWN THAT SOMEONE KNOWING THERE ARE RESOURCES THAT CAN HELP IS ASSOCIATED WITH PEOPLE FEELING CONNECTED AND LESS ANXIOUS
False (stress changed the brain and people are not as capable of making good decisions)
T/F: The ACES studies have shown that rates of STDs and substance abuse in people with many ACES are simply due to poor behavioral choices.
False
T/F: Victimology is NOT a science
False
T/F: Victims almost never change routines and lifestyles as a result of a crime.
who is more likely to develop PTSD
Taking tests to determine levels of cortisol immediately after a trauma can help predict what?
offenders; victim
The Civil Rights Movement created awareness of mistreatment of minorities as both ____________ and __________.
B; many crimes go unreported
The NCVS and UCR's rates of crimes are ___________. (A) mostly similar (B) mostly different What does this show?
3.5; 6
The NCVS interviews people for a maximum of _____ years at ___ month intervals, so the same person is interviewed multiple times.
1929; FBI
The UCR began in ______ and is run by the ______.
20
The UCR includes arrest data on approx. _____ additional Part II crimes
murder, rape, robbery, arson, burglary, aggravated assault, motor vehicle theft
The UCR includes detailed information on eight "Part 1 crimes." What are examples?
criminals
The UCR is heavy on information about ______________(criminals/victims).
young white male
The UCR says the typical arrested offender is who?
domestic violence; rape
The Women's Movement was very influential movement for victims. Focused on female crime victims and children. Led to first __________ __________ shelters and _______ crisis centers in 1970s.
social interactionist
The __________ ______________ perspective proposed the link between distress and victimization. It says that stress affects behavior and demeanor.
control ratio
The amount of control to which a person is subject versus the amount of control that person exerts over others.
The more you spend time around people who break the law, the higher your risk of being a victim of crime.
The lifestyle theory describes the principle of homogamy. What does this say?
principle of homogamy
The more you spend time around people who break the law, the higher your risk of being a victim of crime.
Routine Activities Theory
The view that victimization results from the interaction of three everyday factors: the availability of suitable targets, the absence of capable guardians, and the presence of motivated offenders
Victims may provoke their own victimization; They may be perceived by offenders as more vulnerable; There may be some personality trait influencing victimization risk
There are many factors may play some role in why victimization occurs to particular people. What are three of the theories?
dose-response
There is a ________________ relationship between ACES and adverse health outcomes.
hippocampus; amygdala
Those with PTSD found to have smaller or hypoactive area of the brain in charge of consolidating memory known as the ________________ and overactive fear centers of the brain known as _______________.
difficulty processing or storing memories, making accurate sense of new memories (as fearful vs. non-fearful experiences)
Those with PTSD found to have smaller or hypoactive hippocampus and overactive amygdalas. What are consequences of this?
How often victimization occurs?; Who is the typical crime victim?
To understand why some people are victims, need to know:
connecting with client; helping them feel safe and that they can trust the staff physically and emotionally; they are in charge of their own lives; instill hope that client can build their own skills and be healthy in their coping and functioning
Trauma informed care agencies are focused on 4 essential practices: connecting, protecting, respecting, and redirecting. Explain these four practices:
What happened to you?
Trauma informed care: changing the way we think about people from "What is wrong with you?" to what?
impact; post-impact
Trauma literature refers to the __________ period, which is when the trauma is occurring and the person feels in danger or at-risk; compared to the ___________ period which is where people are grieving and trying to recover from the impact of the trauma.
connecting (with client), protecting (helping them to feel they can trust staff), respecting (seeing client as expert on self and having choice/control in life), redirecting (instilling hope in client that he/she can build own skill and become healthy in their coping and functioning)
Trauma-informed care agencies are focused on 4 essential practices. Name them:
victim precipitation
term that indicates there is a continuum on which we may assign responsibility to a victim; is problematic when we use it to blame the victim
white; black
UCR Data. In 2017, -68.9 percent of all persons arrested were _______ -27.2 percent were _______ -3.9 percent were of other races
characteristics
UCR includes little information about _______________ of criminal incidents.
males
Uniform Crime Report data on murder/nonnegligent manslaughter (2015). Majority of victims are ________(males/females) --79%.
male; African Americans; acquaintance; guns
Uniform Crime Report data on murder/nonnegligent manslaughter (2015): Majority of victims are -________(male/female) (79%) -______________ more likely than Whites to be murdered victims -Only 21% of victims murdered by a(n) ____________(stranger/acquaintance) -________ are weapon of choice when weapon used.
homicide; homicide
Vicarious victimization: ___________ survivors widely studied ___________ has profound effect on family Greater than non-homicide deaths
provocation
Victim _____________ constitutes blame.
A
Victim _______________ communicates that there is a continuum for responsibility, and this depends on the victim and what happened. (A) precipitation (B) provocation (C) facilitation
C
Victim facilitation explains why some individuals are targeted over others, and it is based on the victim's ________________. (A) responsibility (B) provocation (C) behaviors
young male in an urban area
Victimization surveys found that the typical victim is who?
surveys; more
Victimologists must know who is victimized. Official data sources are imperfect and lack detailed information on victims. Led to development of victimization ___________. It showed victimization is _________ (more/less) prevalent than thought.
etiology; criminal; society
Victimology includes the study of: -_________/causes of victimization -Its consequences -How the ___________ justice system (CJS) accommodates and assists victims -How other elements of __________ deal with victims
A
Victims and offenders have similar demographics—__________________ have highest risk of violent victimization and violent offending. (A) young African Americans (B) older African Americans (C) young White males
anxiety, depression; anger issues
Victims can react to a crime with internalizing or externalizing behaviors. Give examples of both.
nonstranger
Victims more likely to be injured by ______________(stranger/nonstranger) offenders.
if you know them, then you trust them. your guard is down, and they have more of an opportunity. there are also more emotions involved
Victims more likely to be injured by nonstranger offenders---Why might this make sense to us?
What happened to you?
We used to conceptualize work with behavioral or other mental health disorders as: "What is wrong to you?" 'Trauma Informed Care' invites us to frame our conceptualization differently, to what new question when we think about why someone is exhibiting the behaviors or symptoms they are?
reliability; accuracy; timeliness; accessibility
What 4 things with improve with crime reporting if/when all areas switch to NIBRS instead of the UCR?
40-60
What age group is at higher risk for PTSD?
incidents that harm social, cognitive and emotional functioning and dramatically upset the safe, nurturing environments children need to thrive
What are Adverse Childhood Experiences ("ACEs")?
acute, intermediate, long-term
What are stages that survivors of mass shootings seem to go through?
motivated offender, suitable target, lack of capable guardianship
What are the three things that NEED to be present in the routine activities theory for crime to occur?
where victims fall on the continuum of victim precipitation
What did Marvin Wolfgang's first empirical study include?
Most survivors experience intense immediate reactions that decline over time Survivors experience a variety of emotional and behavioral reactions, instead of there being a "typical" survivor pattern. Several months after the trauma, survivors rarely have developed PTSD reactions.
What do we know about those who have been through a mass casualty event?
adverse childhood experiences
What does ACE stand for?
it is more directive and pragmatic than normal counseling because people will likely need help with practical concerns that they are not tending to. also use specific cognitive-behavioral strategies.
What does crisis counseling entail for those that need such a referral?
focus on helping victims meet their basic needs; provide resources to help them adjust; connect survivors with support systems; refer people to more targeted treatment
What does psychoeducation for people after trauma entail?
criminal behavior is learned behavior; Learned through association, imitation, or modeling
What does the Social Learning Theory of crime suggest?
amount of crime known to police each year
What does the UCR show?
denial, shock, disbelief
What feelings often occur in the acute phase?
fear, anger, anxiety, difficulty paying attention, depression, disturbed sleep
What feelings often occur in the intermediate phase?
hot spots; family structure; structural density; residential mobility
What four things in a neighborhood context increase the risk of being victimized?
middle class people with private health insurance; shows this does not just happen to lower class people
What group of people did the ACES study use? Why is this significant?
you cognitively try to understand what happened; anxiety, hypervigilance, sleep, appetite
What happens during the recoil phase? What problems are common?
support; feeling connected to others who can relate or offer validation/care
What helps protect survivors from long-term PTSD?
Norepinephrine; cortisol
What hormone is released during the impact phase? Recoil phase?
person was exposed to trauma, and symptoms persisted for at least one month
What is Criterion A for PTSD?
event is persistently re-experienced; intrusive thoughts, nightmares, flashbacks, emotional distress after exposure, physical reactivity after exposure; one
What is Criterion B of PTSD? Give examples of this. How many are required?
avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma; trauma-related thoughts or feelings, trauma-related reminders; one
What is Criterion C of PTSD? Give examples of this. How many are required?
negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the trauma; inability to recall key features of trauma, overly negative thoughts and assumptions about oneself or the world, exaggerated blame of self or others for causing the trauma, negative affect, decreased interest in activities, feeling isolated, difficulty experiencing positive affect; two
What is Criterion D of PTSD? Give examples of this. How many are required?
trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma; irritability or aggression, risky or destructive behavior, hyper vigilance, heightened startle reaction, difficulty concentrating, difficulty sleeping; two
What is Criterion E of PTSD? Give examples of this. How many are required?
symptoms create distress or functional impairment (social, occupational)
What is Criterion G of PTSD?
symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness
What is Criterion H of PTSD?
might place blame on the victim when we describe their characteristics
What is a risk factor of building a profile of a crime victim?
even if they were a suitable target and had no guardianship, there was still the motivated offender needed for the crime to happen
What is something good about the routine activities theory that can be shared with victims?
convince the public of the prevalence of the ACES study, and know that these issues affect people like us
What is the GOAL of the ACEs study?
subjects asked if victimized during past 6 months (screen questions); complete incident report for each victimization experienced
What is the first stage of the NVCS? Second stage?
full state participation
What is the goal of NIBRS for 2021?
support
What is the main thing that helps protect survivors from long-term PTSD?
not all agencies participate
What is the problem with NIBRS?
translates what we see into words; decreased
What is the role of Broca's area? It tends to have ________________(increased/decreased) blood flow in patients with PTSD.
Regression behaviors
What is the typical reaction to terrorism for early childhood?
Anxiety/irrational fears, Somatic complaints, School and home behavior and focus negatively impacted, Sleep complaints
What is the typical reaction to terrorism for school age children?
Feeling emotionally numb, more traditional symptoms of PTSD, some research has suggested increase in suicidal thinking or substance abuse is seen
What is the typical reaction to terrorism for teens?
Uses violence to intentionally intimidate and scare, with a goal of derailing or destabilizing a society.
What is unique about terrorism or mass casualty shooting as the disaster?
psychoeducation
What method is used with victims of trauma to normalize their responses to trauma?
Civil Rights Movement
What movement advocated against racism and discrimination? Created awareness of mistreatment of minorities by CJS as both offenders and victims.
Women's Movement
What movement was very influential for victims? Focused on crime victims and children. Led to first domestic violence shelters and rape crisis centers in the 1970s.
Wisconsin
What state passed first Victims' Bill of Rights (1980)?
NIBRS
What system eliminated the hierarchy rule?
elevated
What then do we suspect is the role of norepinephrine in PTSD? Elevated or lower?
childhood abuse, household dysfunction
What two categories do ACEs fall into?
site has clinicians or therapists who are trained and delivering one or more evidence-based trauma informed type of psychological therapy; the entire site/organization's staff has been trained about the effects of trauma and is prepared to look at individuals with an attitude of "what happened" vs "what's wrong"
What two things could trauma informed care mean?
behavioral self-blame
What type of self-blame is being described? -Person thinks they are to blame because of an action that can be changed.
Characterological self-blame
What type of self-blame is being described? -Who I am as a person caused these problems for me.
it was the first empirical study
What was significant about Wolfgang's empirical study of where victims fall on the continuum of precipitation?
showed how underreported crime was
What was the point of the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice (1966)?
joint; domestic; sexual
When dealing with survivors: Idea of _______ healing with others seems important. Consider how joint healing is a possible intervention in more mass casualty events vs. traumas like _______________ violence or ________ assault.
resilient; full; without
When doing today's mental health disaster work: Acknowledge most people will be ___________, will restore to _____(half/full) functioning, and want to work on recovery _________(with/without) professional help
support
When doing today's mental health disaster work: Connect survivors with ____________ systems
basic needs
When doing today's mental health disaster work: Focus on helping victims meet their _________ _________ like food, clothing and shelter (Maslow's hierarchy of needs)
resources
When doing today's mental health disaster work: Provide ______________ that help them start adjusting to "new normal"
psychological
When doing today's mental health disaster work: Refer those in need to more targeted _______________ treatment
psychoeducation
When doing today's mental health disaster work: Focus on _________________ to normalize human responses to trauma.
sympathetic; amygdala
When not enough cortisol is present, ________________ nervous system continues to be aroused & ____________ overactivated.
existing data sources
Where do we usually obtain victimization characteristics?
type of crime; what you hope to get out of reporting
Whether you report a crime seems to be linked to what two things?
UCR
Which crime reporting method uses the hierarchy rule?
B
Which stage that mass shooting victims go through is described here? (days-weeks after) Mental health providers train community to be trauma-informed Normalize and validate survivors' feelings Continue to offer practical support services Ensure they are feeling emotional support from personal support system Helping them to know about mental health/coping options available as a safety net RESEARCH HAS SHOWN THAT SOMEONE KNOWING THERE ARE RESOURCES THAT CAN HELP IS ASSOCIATED WITH PEOPLE FEELING CONNECTED AND LESS ANXIOUS (A) acute (B) intermediate (C) long-term
C
Which stage that mass shooting victims go through is described here? (several months after trauma) Ongoing adjustment Even relapse of some PTSD symptoms is normal Monitor for actual PTSD or unhealthy behavioral coping (substance abuse, overeating, isolating, etc..) Research shown influx in those seeking mental health treatment after community support/attention dies down (A) acute (B) intermediate (C) long-term
A
Which stage that mass shooting victims go through is described here? here provide reassurance of safety, practical resources, information (A) acute (B) intermediate (C) long-term
homicide
Which type of crime has a profound effect on family (vicarious victimization)?
behavioral
Which type of self-blame is easier to fix?
Benjamin Mendelsohn
Who coined the term "victimology"?
Marvin Wolfgang
Who did the first empirical study of where victims fall on the continuum of victim precipitation?
Benjamin Mendelsohn
Who explored victim-offender relationships? System based on victim culpability. 1. Completely innocent victim 2. Victim with minor guilt 3. Victim as guilty as offender 4. Victim more guilty than offender 5. Most guilty victim 6. Simulating or imaginary victim
Directly thought life was threatened OR Thought loved one was in serious danger/saw loved one or friend die OR Don't feel practical and/or emotional support from those around you OR Have had mental health difficulties before the traumatic event
Who is most at risk for ongoing struggles after terrorism?
young male living in an urban area
Who is the "typical" victim?
Hans von Hentig
Who looked at the characteristics of victims that put them at risk and identified 13 categories?
Wolfgang
Who quantified how often provocative murders happened? Found that 26% of homicides had victims that engaged first.
Menachim Amir
Who studied extent of rapes in Philadelphia where he saw victim as "contributing"?
Female and African American victims
Who tends to be the type of victim that is physically injured?
females and African-Americans
Who tends to be the type of victim that is physically injured?
Mendelsohn
Whose system of victim-offender relationships was based on the precipitation continuum model? He looked at each crime and wanted to see where he could slot them in for responsibility.
Stephen Schafer
Whose typology uses social characteristics and behaviors based on victim responsibility? 1. Unrelated victims 2. Provocative victims 3. Precipitative victims 4. Biologically weak victims 5. Socially weak victims 6. Self-victimizing 7. Political victims
confidentiality; not bringing up trauma all at once; can build trust
Why are there two stages to the NCVS?
you trust them, your guard is down, more opportunity, more emotions involved; they care enough about them to not let it get too far
Why are victims more likely to be injured by nonstranger offenders? Why are they less likely to kill them, though?
less emotions are involved and they can take it further without guilt
Why are victims more likely to be killed by a stranger than a non-stranger?
a crime can cause fear in many people, which affects society; people can be neglectful and didn't regard others
Why did crimes become turned against society instead of the victim?
the country was growing, and the old system was not going to be effective with large amounts of people
Why did the Industrial Revolution become a time when the victim was secondary and the state became involved in crimes?
they look to their peers for validation
Why do group-based CBT treatments work for school-aged kids that have dealt with terrorism?
so immigrants are more likely to report the crimes that occur
Why do some cities have sanctuary city policies for immigrants?
you don't know your neighbors as much so you are not as quick to defend them in situations that might be dangerous; you will not be a capable guardian for them
Why do structural density and residential mobility increase the risk of victimization?
it involves more emotions than just anxiety, including guilt, shame, and anger
Why does PTSD not fit under anxiety disorders?
leaving the house more often
Why does employment make us more likely to be victimized (Age-Graded Theory of Adult Social Bonds)?
because it is a bigger deal when the trauma arises again
Why is an avoidant coping style so bad for people who are at risk for PTSD?
it talks about what the victim unintentionally did to make it easier; they are not implicated in this though
Why is discussing victim facilitation different than giving blame?
capable guardianship
Why is marriage protective (Age-Graded Theory of Adult Social Bonds)? (fitting this in with Routine Activities Theory)
all elements of a crime need to be present to count it as such
Why is the NCVS conservative in its information gathering?
to know who is more at risk, help people feel empowered; may be seen as putting blame on the victim
Why should we obtain victimization characteristics from existing data sources? What are problems with this?
so we know who we need to target for help
Why should we target people who are at higher risk for PTSD (age 40-60, low SES, females, avoidant coping style)?
people can vividly see what they have experienced but have trouble putting it into words, which is what helps them develop their narrative and recover from their trauma
Why would increased flow to the visual cortex and reduced blood flow to the left cerebral frontal cortex where Broca's area (encoding words--translating what we see into words) explain some symptoms that those with PTSD are experiencing?
1980
Wisconsin passed first Victims' Bill of Rights in what year?
know each other; male; history of violent offending; under the influence of alcohol
Wolfgang's study found common factors of homicides that were precipitated by the victim. -Did the victim/offender know each other, or were they strangers? -Were victims and offenders male or female? -Was the victim likely to have a history of nonviolent offending, or did they have a clean record? -Were people sober or under the influence of alcohol?
perhaps because more at risk of victimization for some interpersonal crimes earlier
Women tend to be more at-risk for developing PTSD after mass shooting. Why?
10; 20
____-____% of total mental health care costs in the United States are crime-related
55; 67
_____% of Iowans have at least one ACE. Nationally, it is about _____% for at least one.
94; No
_____% of rape victims displayed symptoms consistent with trauma related psychological and physiological difficulties 12 days after their rape. Is this a reasonable diagnosis then?
28; 33
_____% who have witnessed a mass shooting develop PTSD and about _____% developed Acute Stress Disorder.
many
______(Few/many) factors affect response to victimization
gun
_______ violence associated with substantial medical costs
Guns
________ are weapon of choice when weapon used for physical injury.
trauma
_________ is defined as: the person was exposed to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, actual or threatened sexual violence in one or more of the following ways: 1. direct exposure 2. witnessing the trauma 3. learning someone was exposed to trauma 4. indirect exposure
B
___________ survivors experience intense immediate reactions that decline over time (A) All (B) Most (C) None
Sexual
___________ victimization = largest mental health care costs
survivors
____________ experience many of the same psychological responses as victims
African Americans; Whites
____________ more likely than __________ to be murdered victims (whites/African-Americans)
Secondary
____________ victimization also associated with mental health care costs. This is for family members and close friends, etc. to get care
Cortisol
_____________, a hormone, is released to shut off the body rush or extreme reactions of the sympathetic nervous system?
Neighborhood
_______________ context increases risk of being victimized-- e.g., hot spots, family structure, structural density, residential mobility
proximity; duration
_______________ to the terrorist act and _____________ of exposure also impact risk level of developing PTSD
Norepinephrine
__________________ seems to play a role in the brain being able to consolidate/tuck away and compartmentalize "bad memories/dreams". This means that people with PTSD have more trouble with putting their memories in the past or away.
1965
________—first victim compensation program (California)
1972
________—three victim assistance programs developed across the United States
