Psych 110 Midterm 2 (with examples)
Motor Memory
riding a bike
Habituation
repeat neutral stimulus, decreased response EX: AC making noises in Wendi's room (she learns to ignore it)
negative punishment
response decreases because remove a positive (e.g. take away TV privileges if room not clean)
positive punishment
response decreases because we get a negative (e.g. spank if room is not clean)
positive reinforcement
response increases because get a positive (e.g. give allowance if room is clean)
negative reinforcement
response increases because remove a negative (e.g. stop nagging if room is clean)
Dead Reckoning
"Superpower" Pormpuraaw group has as a result of their language featuring so many cardinal directions and their use of them (ability to calculate position without landmarks) 2nd EX (not answer): Sommeliers learn to discriminate scents and tastes better as they learn the vocabulary for the differences
preoperational stage
(2-7 yrs stage) Can oUse Language to gain information oBe aware of objects not in their immediate view oThink symbolically EX: Stick = sword to play with o Even though appearance changes quantity remains the same o Centration - focus on single feature EX: 2 glasses of water example
sensorimeter stage
(Birth ~ 2 Years) development stage Can - Obtain information through sensory and motor experiences - Create and adapt simple schemes • EX: Baby shaking Rattle, liking it, then shaking everything to see if it makes the same noise Cannot Obtain new information from part or future Object permanence (develops around 9 months) • The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be perceived EX: A wall between baby and item causes baby to forget
Sensory
1/3rd of a second, sensory information persists in its original form EX: Circle of light from sparkler (Type of memory)
formal operational stage
11+ years Can create and test hypotheses Can do abstract and hypothetical operations Concerned about the future
Romantic Nostalgia Anxious
3 ways strong classical conditioning happens
1. Functional for survival 2. Emerge Early in life 3. Universal across all humans and cultures 4. Linked to specific physiological states/experiences
4 characteristics of Basic Emotions (combination between structuralist and functionalist ideas)
concrete operational stage
7-11 years stage - Mental manipulation of actual objects EX: We can mentally flip Jose's microphone - Can solve conservation problems - Can. order their experiences logically Has difficulty with abstract and hypothetical operations
Encoding Failure
A failure to process to-be-remembered information well enough to ensure that it is fully entered into LTM.
Forgetting Curve
A graphic representation of the rate at which information is forgotten over time. information becomes harder to recall over time but that most forgetting occurs relatively soon after learning.
Logic
A set of rules that determines which conclusions follow from particular assumptions.
Symbolic
A word stands for something else - "Look at the puppy," (ears=part, fuzzy=adj, sitting=verb, puppy itself=category)
flashbulb memory
An unusually vivid and detailed memory of a dramatic event. EX: many people vividly recall the exact moment they heard about the planes crashing into the World Trade Center towers on September 11, 2001. (More likely to remember events that effect them... does not diminish over time and people more likely to remember nonemotional aspects)
Prairie Dog
Animal that has language similar to us - symbolic, semantic, generative, and rule-bound
Secure
Attachment theory type - comfortable with relationships, easily formed and trusted (65% in US) - **consistently** warm responsive parenting - Ainsworth Strange situation test as infant - explore, upset when leaves, can be comforted - Boyfriend study - sought and received comfort
Avoidant
Attachment theory type - distrusting of relationships, prefer self-reliance (20-25% in US) - parent unavailable/unresponsive...infant learns to self-soothe. EX: "sleep training" when kids cry in crib but parents don't come in so kids rely on themselves - Ainsworth strange situation test as infant - ignore, do not act upset (but show increased HR), do not greet upon return - Boyfriend study - sat further away from partner, did not mention it
anxious
Attachment theory type - want relationships but insecure in them (10-15% in US) - unreliably responsive parenting (parent warm when available, but not always available) - Ainsworth strange situation test as infant - cling, upset when leave, cannot be comforted easily - Boyfriend study - clingy, difficult to comfort, distress escalated
Disgust
Avoid bad food (reason for ? emotion)
Fear
Avoid danger (reason for ? emotion)
Immune
Classical conditioning can also happen in the ________________ system Ex: Ader's rats drinking sweet water that was previously infused with drugs that suppressed the immune system began to die... even plain sweet water suppressed their immune system
Mimic
Babies can perceive and ___________ basic emotional expression at birth EX: Wendi's baby doing this when she holds them up to her face
Emotional Regulation
By age 7 children have this as well as empathy similar to adults
Language
Characteristics of _____________________ symbolic: simpler than the objects they represent ◦ semantic/meaningful◦ generative: limited symbols, limitless possibilities ◦ structured/rule-bound
egocentric empathy
Children 4-6 yrs old try to reduce others' unhappiness by doing things that would help themselves feel better. This is demonstrating ___________ ___________
Quantity
Children can understand _____________ before they can count (3 Years)
dopamine active
Classical and Operant conditioning are very similar (association based/extinction etc) but they are different in the neural systems used in each. Operant conditioning uses the _____________ system in the brain and is inherently ______________ in that it includes planning and responses
Joy
Continue Action (reason for ? emotion)
Basic Trust vs. Mistrust
Depending on how well they are treated by caregivers, infants either develop a basic trust that their needs will be met or fail to develop such a basic trust. (0-1 years) Psychosocial stage of development
Constraints
Evolutionary ____________ on phonemes - vocal track can only make 100 different sounds and balance of perception vs ease of production EX: Vowel Triangle (a, I, u) is in most languages because it is easy to make the sound and easy to distinguish
vicarious reinforcement
EX: "Good guys" in movies smoking cigs in movies making kids want to do it
Observational learning
EX: Not clapping between orchestra symphonies (imitation)
synctactic cues
EX: Purple dinosaurs where "blicket" is Dino (13 months) and "blackish" for purple (21 months)
Anger
Express Dominance (reason for ? emotion)
8 10
Future "English speaking" infants can hear the distinctions in both Hindi and Salish until about _-__ months (then Salish falls off)
Taste Smell Light Sound
Garcia's rats - showed easier to condition __________/_________ with nausea (few trials to learn) than it is to condition________/___________ with nausea (more trials to learn). Why? We are Biologically prepared to pair internal threats with internal stimuli -and external threats with external stimuli. And it's always stronger with novel tastes
Mirror Tracing
H.M. Learned how to do ____________ ____________ - showing he could learn procedural memory even though he had no memory for the task. "I thought this would be difficult but it looks as if I've done pretty well"
Retrograde
In _______________ amnesia and other types of brain damage- semantic can be spared while episodic is lost. EX: soap opera memory loss, Bourne Identity
integrity vs despair
In reflecting back on life, a person either feels that life was worthwhile as it was lived or feels despair and fears death. Psychosocial stage of development
Hereditary Environment
Intelligence influenced by both ____________ and ______________ EX: adopted children were more similar to adoptive (biologically unrelated) siblings in IQ than they were to their biological siblings (raised in a different home)
retroactive interference
Interference that occurs when new learning disrupts the memory of something learned earlier.
Analog Sensory
Knowledge Coding (Two words) - corresponds to distinctive features of the stimulus (e.g. visual, olfactory, etc). EX: of visual correspondence - Kosslyn's maps: it actually takes longer to mentally scan between things further away on mental map (just in your "minds eye") EX: Apple
Propositional Symbolic
Knowledge Coding (two words) - non-sensory but meaningful, usually verbal concepts and knowledge EX: Justice
Classical Conditioning
Learning by association
Operant conditioning
Learning through consequences
False Recall
Memory Distortion - Words were semantically associated to unlearned target word "sleep", therefore it "feels" like it was also in the list -We are often freakishly confident in our false memories ◦ Particularly problematic given how easily our memories can be biased by others, and how important they can be, for example, in court cases
Suggestible
Memory distortion - Loftus experiment where video of car crash shown. "Collided" group guessed cars were going 15MPH and "Smashed into each other" group guessed 45-50 MPH and made up details like glass on the ground (even entire false memories can be implanted) Proves our memories are _______________
Reconstruction
Memory is ______________ not reflections
Context State
Memory retrieval is _______________ and __________ dependent EX: linking facts to smells is strong EX: People with clinical depression more likely to remember bad childhood memories
Schemes
Organized ways of making sense of experience and information
Ekman
People from all cultures can pick which face for "the woman's child has died/given a gift" - Changes in facial expression brings about emotion like changes in the body (Who's study?)
Supersticious Behavior
Pigeon operant conditioning with a random reinforcement schedule resulted in
inductive reasoning
Reasoning in which assumptions or observations suggest—but do not guarantee—specific conclusions. In most cases, induction uses examples to discover a rule that governs them; induction typically goes from the particular (examples) to the general (a rule). EX: if you were to examine the European paper money (one unit of which is referred to as a euro), you might notice that the 10 euro note (the paper bill) is physically bigger than the 5 euro note and that a 100 euro note is bigger than a 50 euro note. This might lead you to induce—correctly in this case—that the more valuable the bill is, the larger its physical size is.
Deductive Reasoning
Reasoning that applies the rules of logic to a set of assumptions (stated as premises) to discover whether certain conclusions inevitably follow from those assumptions; deduction goes from the general to the particular. EX: Hector is a man; all men are human; therefore Hector is a human.
Egocentrism
Sign of preoperational stage EX: Kid hiding behind skinny tree - they think nobody can see them because they can't see through tree
Sadness
Stop and Rethink (reason for ? emotion)
Creativity
The ability to produce something original of high quality or to devise an effective new way to solve a problem.
identity vs. role confusion
The adolescent either successfully grapples with questions of identity and future roles as an adult or becomes confused about possible adult roles. (adolescence) Psychosocial stage of development
Generativity vs. Self-Absorption
The adult in the "prime of life" must look to the future and determine what to leave behind for future generations; failing this task leads to a sense of meaninglessness in life. Psychosocial stage of development
Industry vs. Inferiority
The child either develops a sense of competence and ability to work with others or becomes beset with feelings of incompetence and inferiority. (6-11 years) Psychosocial stage of development
Initiative vs. Guilt
The child either develops a sense of purpose and direction or is overly controlled by the parents and made to feel constrained or guilty. (3-6 years) Psychosocial stage of development
Autonomy vs Doubt
The child either is allowed to choose and make independent decisions or is made to feel ashamed and full of self-doubt for wanting to do so. (1-3 years) Psychosocial stage of development
psychosocial development
The result of maturation and learning on personality and relationships (Erik Erikson)
Decay
The loss of memories over time because the relevant connections among neurons are lost. (one theory for LTM loss) EX: Aplysia, which has a relatively simple nervous system, researchers have shown that the strength of the connections among neurons established by learning fades away over time
Set point
The particular body weight that is easiest to maintain.
Punishment
occurs when the presentation of a negative consequence *decreases* tendency to make that response EX: Wendi punching us after a wrong answer
Metabolism
The sum of the chemical events in each of the body's cells, events that convert food molecules to the energy needed for the cells to function.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
The young adult either develops deep and intimate relations with others or is socially isolated (young adulthood) Psychosocial stage of development
Divergent Thinking
This sort of thinking occurs when you come at a problem from a number of different angles, exploring a variety of approaches to a solution; your goal is to generate as many relevant ideas as possible, free from concerns about practicalities
1. Need to eat 2. Feel Full
Two brain systems for hunger (comes from your body sensing not enough food molecules in your blood stream)
Declarative
Type of long term memory of stuff you can talk about (facts events etc.)
Physics
Very young toddlers can understand basic laws of ____________ (4 Months)
self-awareness
What we develop at 2 years old that results in us showing the social emotions (embarrassment, guilt, etc). Don't show these until pass the mirror test of self- recognition.
Unconditioned Response
an unlearned reaction to that occurs without conditioning, a reflex (e.g. salivating)
Fluid
__________ Intelligence - information processing and problem solving in novel circumstances, ability to understand relationships between new things or problems (depends on speed of processing and working memory) - Peaks in early 20s but begins to decline in 30s
anterograde
__________ amnesiacs have problems of encoding & storage (H.M., Dory from Finding Nemo, Momento) - can't make new memories
Retrograde
____________ amnesiacs have problem of retrieval (soap opera memory loss, Bourne Identity, The Vow)
Skinner
_____________ believed reinforcement generally preferable to punishment, especially compared to positive punishment - - Because punishment may carry unintended consequences (e.g., associate punisher with fear and anxiety). puppy training - You can't punish for peeing wrong spot just reward for the right spot.
crystallized
_______________ Intelligence - ability to apply and use acquired knowledge and skills to solve problems
Frontal Lobe
_______________ ______ important for encoding and working memory - Prefrontal activation associated with deeper encoding - also important for working memory -holding information in memory long enough to act upon it, important for goal pursuit • Monkeys with damage (and human babies who have undeveloped) cannot hold a goal in mind during delay/distraction
Hippocampus
_______________ important in explicit or declarative memory consolidation, the process of storing a long term memory - removal= anterograde amnesia - Also important for spatial memory
Memory Suppressor
________________ _____________ genes could cause the decay of connections that store memories.
Emotional Vivid
_________________ or ________________ events lead to encoding
Deja vu
a confusion in memory caused by cues in a new situation that are strongly similar to cues in a past situation, gives a feeling that the new situation is "remembered"
Conditioned Response
a learned reaction that occurs because of previous conditioning (e.g. salivating to a bell)
conditioned stimulus
a previously neutral stimulus that has acquired meaning through conditioning and the capacity to evoke a response (e.g. bell)
Ainsworth Strange Situation
a sequence of staged episodes that illustrate the strength of attachment between a child and (typically) his or her mother (room full of toys study) - boyfriend study is follow up similar to this with three stages - 3 stages -waiting room, stressor (malfunctioning pain machine), return to waiting room
Unconditioned Stimulus
a stimulus that provokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning (e.g., meat)
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past EX: People with umbrellas left the mall slower
Intelligence
ability to reason and use knowledge to problem solve
Exemplar
actual examples of the concept you have experienced -- often used to shape the prototype. Shaped by culture EX: Bird I saw last week/Cheerleader I know
Joint Attention
adult and child engage with same object or action in the world while adult talks about it - Child is learning more than 'words' -also learning norms of conversation EX: Adult pointing to butterfly and talking about it
Critical Period
an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development EX: case study of Genie - was tied to a toilet and neglected and really struggled to learn language later in life Deaf infants "babbling" with their hands using basic gestures of hands. Deaf infants of hearing parents are often not exposed to what will be their language (parents don't use ASL) until after babyhood --and as a result -are often never fully fluent -even after learning and using ASL for 30+ years
Semantic Networks
associations help explain how one idea might spur another idea, and how multiple cues might help you retrieve an idea
Rudimentary Learning
automatic/built in simple learning mechanisms
Sensitization
become more sensitive/increased response after threatening stimulus EX: 2nd time sitting down on an electric chair
Cannon-Bard Theory
bodily and mental emotional responses are separate, but simultaneous ◦ See a bear - think "scary" AND heart pounds at same time (butindependent). In fact, the brain seems to process thoughts of emotions and feelings of emotions separately
attachment theory
bonds between infant and caregiver will influence the individual's interaction with others throughout the lifespan
Learning
change in behavior or knowledge/skill that is due to experience
emotional expression
common human language
filial imprinting
critical period for attachment of younger to older birds - not limited to within species (first 12-18 hours critical in birds -imprint on first large moving objects they see). EX: Geese trusting humans if they see them first - we use this now to save endangered animals
display rules
cross-cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions. - Women are more expressive of all facial emotions except anger (not babies though) - People perform at MUCH greater than chance at recognizing the emotion of speakers of other languages, even though they do not understand the words EX: LESS INTENSE expression in Asian cultures in social settings MORE INTENSE expression in North American cultures in social settings
feeling full
does not depend on the level of food molecules in the blood - depends on the state of your stomach
Mineka's Monkeys
easier to teach a lab reared monkey to fear a snake (fewer trials) than a flower, even though had never seen either (so both novel and neutral) Presumably because primates are 'hard-wired' tofear snakes.
James-Lange Theory
emotion is embodied, bodily sensations can give rise to the emotion (not the logical reverse pattern) See a bear - fight/flight, tense muscles-> feel fear Evidence - pen & cartoon study. Bodily feedback enhances emotional experience. Evidence --Botox study - being BLOCKED from moving your corrugator muscles makes you slower to understand angry and sad sentences, but not happy ones
secondary reinforcer
events that acquire primary reinforcing qualities through association (e.g., money, grades, the 'clicker' for training animals, etc)
primary reinforcer
events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy basic or biological needs (e.g., sweet tastes, loud noises, pain, social approval)
Schemas
group information about common concepts, situations, and roles EX: Farm (animals, tractors, barn etc.) - Non prototypical makes us less likely to remember it (EX: male nurse or female doctors at hospitals)
Extinction
if a behavior was previously reinforced, then becomes unreinforced, behavior will __________ after a time
appetizer effect
if those first bites taste good, your appetite is stimulated (driven by opioids in the brain). Even if you have had your fill, a change in flavor, texture, color, or shape of a food is changed, will cause people to eat more of that food
overjustification effect
if you reward a behavior that otherwise was inherently interesting or rewarding, can reduce interest in engaging in the behavior without reward EX: Marker study with kids and free time / old guy with kids on his lawn
proactive interference
interference that occurs when information already stored in memory makes it difficult to learn something new.
Theory of Mind
knowing that others have knowledge or intentions that could be different from your own EX: Roommate leaves kitchen messy on a random Tuesday vs the morning before MCAT EX: Chimps get less angry at person tripping with their juice vs pouring it out in front of them
Shaping
learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior EX: Dolphins can't be taught to jump high immediately, instead their treats are slowly moved higher and higher
observational learning
learning through imination
Short Term
limited capacity that can maintain unrehearsed material 20 seconds. Multiple systems (visual spacial and auditory) EX: 7 digits Wendi says quickly fall out of our mind (Type of memory)
Stored
maintain encoded information over time
Deep
meaning-based -like how do they apply to you or the world at large-you are linking it to other knowledge you already have • You know the very most about YOU -so thinking about information and linking it to self-knowledge is a very good processing strategy for memory (Self-reference effect) (Level of Processing)
Episodic
memory for specific events (e.g., what did I have for dinner last night)
Cognition
mental content and processes, includes learning and memory but also. . . ◦ Representation ◦ Problem Solving ◦ Intelligence◦ Language
Lashley
more cortex removal, poorer performance, removed parts of the rat brain
accommodation
new information changes or adds schemes EX: Jose's nephew creating a new schema for "moo" when he sees a baby calf
Assimilation
new information fits into schemes EX: Jose's nephew saying "bow wow"
Novelty
newer stimuli lead to faster learning, because no other associations EX: Jaws sound
Current theory
no single store for memories, but rather memory traces all over cortex. - Visual cortex stimulated when we try to think of last time we saw an owl - Memory for sensory experiences activate same areas of sensory cortex as original experience- visual, auditory, etc. (Answer = "Current theory")
Reinforcement
occurs when the consequences of a response *increases* an organisms tendency to make that response
contiguity
onset of CS a bit before UCS, ends with UCS
intermediate
phonemic, what a word sounds like or rhymes with (Level of Processing)
biological preparedness
prepared stimuli are those that we are evolutionarily prepared to associate EX: Wendi nauseus to tequila/Humans showing physical negative response to snakes
Encoded
processed to form a memory
retrieved
recover information from storage
Variable Ratio
reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses EX: Slot machines/gambling
Chaining
reinforcing '--------' of behavior into one stream, only reinforce when entire "------" of previously reinforced behaviors are emitted in the right order • To build the -------- -reinforce each behavior as it occurs (in order), then withhold reinforcement until two behaviors are done in the chain, then three, etc until you build the full -------- (fairly easy to build up to 10 behaviors in a row, or even more) (Canvas video?)
Scripts
schemas that in addition carry information about appropriate sequences of behavior EX: Eating in a restaurant follows this - and it depends based on the restaurant
Amygdala
seat for emotional memories that are often implicit. - Behave in accordance with the memory but no declarative recollection -H.M.'s Mom died, and he grieved but did not know why; also explains why he and others like him could learn to avoid the "mean" stranger
Vygotsky
sociocultural theory researcher - focused on social interaction of developmental psych - People fluctuate between stages EX: Jose not being able to abstractly think about advanced math concepts
Piaget
stages of cognitive development researcher - babies are "smarter" than he thought - intuitive math and physics, fast word learning, strong social preferences.
Shallow
structural encoding, noticing physical features -like presence or absence of a letter (Level of Processing)
Procedural
stuff you can do, ways of responding (form of long term memory) EX: Violinist
Penfield
temporal stimulation led to recall of events, but so did stimulation of other areas of brain, they zapped open brain during surgery to figure out what parts of brain do stuff ------> brought up specific memories (scientist)
Phonemes
the basic sounds used in a language English uses about 40-45
Prototype
the best or idealized version of a concept, may be one you've never even seen but has the key features of the concept EX: bird - more like robin/blue jay, than ostrich - small, feathered, flies, sings
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
the idea that language structures thought and that ways of looking at the world are embedded in language
voice onset time
the length of time between when air passes through the lips and when the vocal cords start vibrating EX: Short VOT = di Short VOT = ti
Memory
the persistence of learning over time; capacity to acquire and attain usable skills and knowledge via the storage and retrieval of information
Long Term
theoretically unlimited in capacity and unlimited in duration/organized (Type of memory)
Convergence
to prune down the possibilities, refining at least one to the point where it can be used. In the process of focusing down to a solution, ___________________ thinking can itself produce new ideas.
Social Judgement
understanding of how others intentions/goals work and how other people help them with those goals EX: Infants preferring "helpful" shapes
Categorical perception
we perceive the sounds of language as falling into their meaningful phonemic categories, even though we can sense differences in the acoustic stream EX: Preschoolers learning language with an ease that computers have difficulty emulating. They learn to categorize different sounds (male versus female voice, person with a cold, person with an accent) as actually being the same phoneme.
continous reinforcement
when every instance of the desired behavior is reinforced, good for initial learning (housetraining a puppy)
Generalization
when learned CR to one CS generalizes to other, similar CS objects EX: Little Albert and the rat/loud noise/fur experiment
Discrimination
when learning becomes more specific (e.g. not all bells, *this* bell means meat) EX: Wendi's dog and doorbell on TV
functional fixedness
when representation is too rigid, specifically when you only imagine one function for an object, it is harmful for creative problem solving EX: Box/Tacks/Candles problem
spontaneous recovery
when the CR rebounds after a time of no exposure to the CS • implies we don't really 'unlearn' original association, rather extinction means we learned a new response to it
partial reinforcement
when the desired behavior is reinforced only some of the time. Can be better for long term persistence of behavior
Extinction
with repeated presentation of only the CS without the UCS, eventually the CR will extinguish (ring bell continuously without meat, dog will stop drooling at the bell).
Insight
with some problems, correct solution often seems to appear in a sudden flash of ______________ - thought to reflect a less conscious restructuring of problem EX: Find a word associated with Falling, Movie, Dust (Star) - LH