PSYCH 121 CHAPTER 1
Wilhelm Wundt
"Founder of psychology", first textbook "Principles of Psychological Psychology", First psychology lab at the University of Leipzig
Information about the study & debriefing
All participants must be provided with the opportunity to obtain information about the nature, results & conclusions of the research. Psychologists are also obligated to debrief the participants and to correct any misconceptions that participants may have had about the research.
What is psychology?
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
the placebo effect
an change attributed to the person's beliefs and expectations rather than to am actual drug, treatment, or procedure. Also called the expectancy effect.
main effect
any change that can be directly attributed to the independent or treatment variable after controlling for other possible influences.
Scientific method
a set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate in generating evidence, and in drawing conclisions
Informed consent & voluntary participation
a) Psychologists must inform the participants of the purpose of the research, and any potential risks, discomfort, or unpleasant emotional experiences. b) Participants are free to decline to participate or to withdraw from the research at any time.
The use of deception - psychologists can use deceptive techniques if:
a) it is not feasible to use alternatives that do not involve deception b) the potential findings justify the use of deception because of their scientific, educational or applied value.
Descriptive research methods
-Describe a set of facts -May or may not include numerical data -do not predict what may influence the facts -do NOT look for casual relationships between facts
How old is the discipline of psychology
140
3) Behavioral perspective
-Based on Watson, Pavlov, and Skinner - Study of how behavior is acquired and modified through experience and environment -mental health professionals may emphasize the behavioral perspective in explaining and treating psychological disorders.
Random assignment
--All participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the experimental groups or conditions. --Random assignment helps ensure that any potential differences among the participants are spread out evenly across all experimental conditions (i.e., the penicillin of experimental methology).
2) Psychodynamic (psychoanalytic) perspective
-Based on Freud's work -Emphasis on unconscious processes and early childhood experiences in personality -Current psychologists with this perspective may or may not follow Freud or psychoanalytic principles exactly; may also be referred to as psychodynamic -Basis for his theory of personality and psychoanalysis where he used techniques such as free association, dream interpretation and transference
4) Humanistic Perspective
-Based on Maslow and Rogers -Focuses on personal growth, interpersonal relationships and self-concept -Humanistic perspective is often emphasized among psychologists working in the mental health field -Basis for a type of psychotherapy called client centered therapy which uses techniques like unconditional positive regard, genuineness and empathetic understanding.
5) Positive Psychology Perspective
-Based on Seligman and others -Studies contributors to optimal functioning that counterbalances the traditional emphasis on problems and disorders (ex- psychopathology) -topics under the umbrella of positive psychology include personal happiness, optimism, creativity, resilience, character strengths and wisdom.
Psychologists
-Not all psychologists are clinicians -Clinical psychologists are trained in the diagnosis, treatment, causes and prevention of psychological disorders -Clinical psychologists have Ph.D. or Psy.D. degrees and engage in the practice of psychotherapy or counseling (i.e., talk therapy) to assist clients
Psychiatrists
-Psychiatrists have medical degrees (M.D. or D.O.) followed by specialized training in the diagnosis, treatment, causes and prevention of psychological disorders -They emphasize biological factors and use biomedical therapies, such as psychotropic drugs, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), an experimental procedure being studied to see if it's a viable treatment for mental illness
extraneous variable
-a factor or variable other than the ones being studied that if not controlled, could affect the outcome of an experiment -also called a confounding variable
Correlation
-a research strategy that allows the precise calculation of how strongly related two factors are to each other
8)Evolutionary Perspective
-applies the principles of evolution to explain psychological processes -Most adaptive characteristics are perpetuated through natural selection -David Buss (2008) "An evolved psychological mechanism exists in the form that it does because it solved a specific problem of survival or reproduction recurrently over evolutionary history."
Goals of Psychological Science Which Believes that Events are Lawful & Ultimately Explainable
-describe behavior -explain behavior -predict behavior -control or influence behavior
3) Surveys
-designed to investigat opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group; usually in self-report form -people may not answer honestly
2) Case Studies
-details, details, details -highly detailed ad intensive description of a SINGLE individual -may also be used to investigate a family or some other social unit who share similarity -generally used to investigate rare, unusual, or extreme conditions that do not occur often enough to premit a large number of examples - quite useful in clinical psychology and neuroscience where it can be used to evaluate and improve treatment; often used as a starting point in research
7)Cross-Cultural perspective
-emerged in the 1980's -emphasizes diversity of behavior across cultures and the fcat that many earlier findings were NOT universal -Prime example is the study of social loafing
dependent variable
-factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment thought to be influenced by the independent variable -also called the outcome variable
6) Cognitive perspective
-focuses on mental health processes, such as memory, perception, language, problem-solving and thinking, to include beliefs and attitudes -based on the use of computers (i.e. information processing) as a model for human mental processes -basis for a type of psychotherapy that focuses on helping clients change self-defeating negative beliefs and other maladaptive thoughts. -Changing the "life isn't fair" thoughts
Correlation coeficient
-numerical indication of magnitude and direction of the relationships between two variables - # = strenght - sign (+ or -) = direction -(-1.00 - 1.00)
independent variable
-purposely manipulated factor thought to produce change in an experiment. -also called TREATMENT VARIABLE.
1) Naturalistic Observation
-researchers DIRECTLY observe and record behavior rather than relying on subject descriptions (self-report) -goal of naturalistic observation is to detect the behavior patterns that exist naturally-- patterns that might not be apparent in a laboratory -allows researchers to study human behaviors that cannot ethically be manipulated in an experiment
experimental method
-used to demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables -Conducting an experiment involves deliberately varying one factor, which is called the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE. -the researcher then measures the changes, if any, that are produced in a second factor, called the DEPENDENT VARIABLE. -can only change one variable at a time while controlling other potentially confounding variables; ex- can I use different classes for my sauna study?
Research Strategies
1) Descriptive- strategies for observing and describing behavior. 1. Naturalistic observation 2. Case studies 3. Surveys 4. Correlational methods 2) Experimental- strategies for inferring cause and effect relationships among variables.
How do psychologists identify themselves?
1) The perspective they emphasize in investigating psychological topics 2) The speciality area in which they practice and have been trained 3) Some psychologists follow an eclectic approach which integrates various perspectives.
Use of the scientific method (steps)
1)formulate a specific question that can be tested 2)Design a study to collect relevant data 3)Analyze the data to arrive at conclusions 4) report the results
variable
A factor that can change in an experiment
theory
A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data
statistically significant
A mathematical indication that research results are not very likely to have occurred by chance.
meta-analysis
A procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies
Sample
A relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole.
Representative sample
A sample or subgroup of the population that possesses the same characteristics of the population
operational definition
A statement of the procedures used to define research variables
Theory
A tentative explanation that tries to integrate and account for the relationship of various findings and observations; we build theories by testing the hypotheses that theories generate.
hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Random selection
A way of ensuring that a sample of people is representative of a population by giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample
4) Behaviorism
BEHAVIORISM- school of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning. Ivan Pavolv (Russian Physiologist), John Watson (Coined the term "behaviorism"), and B.F. Skinner (classical conditioning, does not involve voluntary behavior) Reinforcement of behavior = saying hello
statistics
Collection of methods for planning experiments, obtaining data, organizing, summarizing, presenting, analyzing, interpreting, and drawing conclusions based on data.
How many and what are the major perspectives in psychology
Biological, Psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic, positive psychology, cognitive, cross cultural, evolutionary
Double-blind technique
Double-blind technique
1) Structuralism
Edward Titchener (Student of Wundt) developed structuralism. STRUCTURALISM- involving introspection and studying basic components of conscious experiences, focused on basic sensory and perceptual processes, measured reaction times. It was criticized for relying on introspection.
empirical evidence
Evidence that is based upon objective observation, measurement, and/or experimentation.
experimental group or experimental condition
Group of participants who are exposed to experimental conditions, including the independent variable
5) Humanistic School
HUMANISTIC SCHOOL- emphasizes each person's unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction. Founded by Carl Rogers- emphasized the person's conscious experiences, and the importance of choice in human behavior. Abraham Maslow- theory of motivation emphasized the importance of psychological growth.
Confidentiality of information
In their writing, lectures, or other public forums, psychologists may not disclose personally identifiable information about research participants
Contemporary Psychology
Modern psychology has become diverse with various perspectives
1) Physical/biological perspective
Neuroscience-study of the nervous system and brain. Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior. Focus could be at various levels- individual neurons, areas of the brain, specific functions like eating, emotion, or learning. Interest in BEHAVIOR distinguishes biological psychology from many other biological sciences.
Single-blind study
Researchers, but not the subjects, are aware of critical information
3) Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud (Austrian Physiciam, NOT a psychologist). Challenge to structuralism and functionalism, started school of thought called psychoanalysis. Behavior and personality influenced by UNCONSCIOUS conflicts, he stressed the importance of early childhood experiences on personality, Emphasized sexual and aggressive nature of unconscious processes, Powerful influence on last theories of psychology and Western Culture in general. PSYCHOANALYSIS- personality theory and form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the role of UNCONSCIOUS factors in personality and behavior.
Eclecticism
Since a one-size-fits-all approach will not work with humans due to our incredible variability in personalities (i.e., the individual's unique and relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving), many therapists today take an eclectic approach which allows them to pick and choose from techniques from different theoretical perspectives, depending on the client's personality and the problem being addressed. Statistically, this is how the largest group of clinicians describe themselves today.
James's students
Stanley Hall (First psychological lab in the U.S at John Hopkins founded the APA), Mary Whiton Calkins (elected president of the American Psychological Association- the firstg woman, but not the last, to hold that position), Margaret Floy Washburn (First American woman to earn an officil PhD in psychology), Francis C Sumner (First black American to receive a PhD in psychology, awarded by Clark University in 1920.)
What are the warning signs of pseudoscience?
Strategy 1) Testimonials rather than scientific evidence 2)Scientific jargon without scientific substance 3)Combining established scientific knowledge with unfounded claims 4) irrefutable or nonfalsifiable claims 5) confirmation bias; get out of the bubble 6) shifting the burden of proof 7) Multiple outs
The first Major psychological schools (perspectives)
Structuralism, Functionalism, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Humanistic,
Students as research participants
When research participation is a course requirement or an opportunity for extra credit, the student must be given the choice of an alternative activity to fulfill the course requirement or earn extra credit.
2) Functionalism
William James "Father of American Psychology" (Began psychology at Harvard in 1870's, opposed Wundt and Titchener's approach for being too subjective (structuralism), his idea's shaped the school of functionalism- he was also influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help us to adapt to the enviroment. FUNCTIONALISM- Stressed the importance of how behavior functions to allow people and animals to adapt to their enviroments (Influence of Darwin)
placebo
a fake substance, treatment, or procedure that has no effect.
Expectancy effects
change in dependent variable produced by subjects expectation that change should happen.
replicate
repeat or duplicate
hypothesis
specific question or prediction to be tested
demand characteristics
subtle cues or signals by the researcher that communicate the type of responses that are exposed
Ethnocentrism
the belief that one's own culture of ethnic group is superior to all others and the related tendency to use one's own culture as a standard by which to judge other cultures
Collectivistic cultures
those that emphasize the needs and goals of the GROUP over the needs and goals of the individual (ex- eastern or hispanic cultures)
Individualistic cultures
those that emphasize the needs and goals of the INDIVIDUAL over the needs and goals of the group (Most western cultures)
descriptive research methods
to observe and record behavior
