Psych 202 - Exam #2

punishment by removal

aka negative punishment operant is followed by the removal or subtraction of a reinforcing stimulus behaviors consequence is the loss of some privilege or object ex. because he was flirting with another woman (operant) a guy gets dumped by his girlfriend (loss of reinforcing stimulus)

punishment by application

aka positive punishment an operant is followed by the presentation or addition of an aversive stimulus ex. employee wears jeans to work (operant) and is reprimanded by his supervisor for dressing inappropriately (punishing stimulus)

addictive drugs

alcohol, cocaine, heroin, nicotine, amphetamines; all activate dopamine producing neurons in brains reward system after repeated use, the pathways adapt to high dopamine levels - create drug tolerance everyday experiences become no longer enjoyable

NREM rebound

also occurs if deprived of NREM 3 and 4 stages

how do psychoactive drugs influence brain activity?

altering synaptic transmission among neurons

psychoactive drug

alters consciousness, perception, mood and behavior

how were chinese early memories different from american?

americans more self centered and chinese were activities with family, friends, community members

sleep deprived

amygdala activates stronger so more prone to strong emotional reactions

what did skinner and other behaviorists believe about operant conditioning?

an animals natural behavior patterns could influence the learning of new behaviors

taste aversion

classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a certain food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food different from regular classical conditioning because it was a single paring and the time between the 2 stimuli was several hours a certain CS does make a different in classical conditioning ex. rats more likely to associate a painful stimulus (shock) with an external stimulus (light,noise). Likely to associate taste stimulus with internal stimuli

retrieval cue

clue, prompt, or hint that helps trigger recall of a given piece of information stored in LTM

Rescola

classical conditioning depends on the information the CS provides about the UCS CS must be reliable signal involves learning the relationships between events

what are circadian rhythms controlled by?

cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus - suprachiasmataic nucleus internal pacemaker that governs timing of the rhythms - also involves environmental cues such as sunlight

Tolman

cognitive processes play an important role in learning rats in mazes concluded that reward isn't necessary for learning to take place and rewards affect the performance of what they have learned

delirium tremens

confusion, hallucinations, tremors, seizures - sever symptoms

manifest content

consciously experienced an remembered by dreamer

william james

consciousness as a stream unified and unbroken changing focus of our awareness, our experience of consciousness as unbroken helps provide a sense of personal identity that has continuity from day to day

Williams study 1994

consider false positives and negatives when interviewing someone Question: Do women forget abuse that actually did occur? Sample: 129 women with documented histories of sexual abuse (looked at hospital records of women who had been sexually abused in childhood) Findings: False negatives: 1/3 didn't recall abuse that actually did happen Caveat: therapists need to avoid certain false memories (by suggestion, etc.) - false memory syndrome Need to consider that memories of abuse may be false memories Need to remember that most person reports of child abuse are "true positives" - it really did happen

hypnosis

cooperative social interaction where the hypnotized person responds to the hypnotists suggestions, with changes in perception, memory, and behavior hypnotist is just a coach/helper - DOESNT actually hypnotize the person can produce alterations in perception and sensation - blindness/deafness

over behavior

could be directly observed, measured, or verified

what was wrong with HM in regard to STM and LTM?

couldnt transfer STM -> LTM

psychedelic drug

create sensory and perceptual distortions, alter mood, and affect thinking DONT develop physical dependence or withdrawal

why do we lose information if we don't rehearse it?

decays with passage of time forget because of interference from new or competing information

REM sleep and the brain

decreased activity in frontal lobe (rational thinking) and primary visual cortex (external visual stimuli). increased activity in association areas of visual cortex (visual images that occur in dream) and limbic system (emotion, motivation, memory)

Stage 4

deep sleep" - also slow wave sleep, but slower and deeper than stage 3 Further respiration and body temp. Drop Over 50% of waves are delta Very difficult to arouse - seriously difficult to wake up, groggy, confused, disorientated, takes at least a minute to come to full understanding of where they are and what's going on

imaginative suggestibility

degree to which a person is able to experience an imaginary state of affairs as if it were real

inattentional blindness

deja vu produced when you're not really paying attention to your surroundings

schedules of reinforcement

delivery of a reinforcer according to a preset pattern based on the number of responses or the time interval between responses

Stage 4 NREM

delta waves exceed 50% total brain activity muscles can still move 20-40 min in first nights episodes

what was one of SKinner's weird ideas?

free will, self determination, and individual choice is just illusions behavior determined by environment control environment --> control human behavior could use operant conditioning to produce more socially desirable behaviors - by positive reinforcement

cocaine

from leaves on cocoa plant STIMULANT blocks re-uptake of NTs - dopamine, serotonin, NE (potentiates/increases effects of the NTs) euphoria, mental alterness, self-confidence

how do effects of drug vary?

from person to person age, gender, race, weight

what does the brain need to experience in regards to sleep?

full range of sleep states

Sensory memory

gateway into consciousness (holds an exact copy of what is seen or heard but for a very brief period of time; very similar to photographic memory - have it in all five senses

extinction

gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior. Occurs when CS is repeatedly presented without UCS CS repeatedly presented without being paired with UCS, CR gradually disappeared

extinction

gradual weakening and disappearance of conditioned behavior. In operant conditioning, it occurs when an emitted behavior is no longer followed by a reinforcer

EEG

graphic record of brain activity produced by electroencephalograph brian wave activity changes throughout sleep

post sleep

has 5 stages - finally asleep

conditioned reinforcer

has acquired reinforcing value by being associated with a primary reinforcer - aka secondary reinforcer ex. money, awards, college degrees, respect, approval

hidden observer

hidden/dissociated stream of mental activity that continues during hypnosis - doesn't mean they have multiple personalities - responds to hypnotists suggestions

melatonin

hormone manufactured by pineal gland that produces sleepiness decrease in light --> SCN --> increases melatonin sunlight regulates SCN to keep circadian cycles synchronized and operating on 24 hr schedule

age regression

hypnosis allows you to re-experience an earlier stage of your life combine memories of childhood fantasies hypnosis can create pseudo-memories

neodissociation theory of hypnosis

hypnotic effects due to the splitting of consciousness into 2 simultaneous streams of mental activity, only one of which the hypnotic participant is consciously aware of during hypnosis

visual sensory memory

iconic memory - brief memory of an image holds image for 1/4-1/2 second before its replaced by another "snapshot"

false memory syndrome

illusory memories of personal events that never happened - some may come from faulty post event information

operant conditioning

learning process that involves changing the probability that a response will be repeated by manipulating the consequence of that response voluntary behaviors in everyday life

classical conditioning

learning process that involves repeatedly paring a neutral stimulus with a response-producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response (Pavlov-dogs) learning association between 2 stimuli

latent learning

learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement but is not behaviorally demonstrated until a reinforcer becomes available

observational learning

learning that occurs through observing the actions of others

amount that can be held in LTM is what?

limitless

how can you control your dreams?

lucid dreams - become aware that you'e dreaming while you are still asleep

Psilocybin

magic mushrooms, shrooms - NATURAL PSYCHEDELIC

shallow processing

make a simple visual judgment (barely maintenance rehearsal) Simple visual judgment: is DOG printed in capital letters?

what are drawbacks of punishment?

may decrease a response, but doesn't necessarily teach/promote a more appropriate response to take its place punishment that is intense may produce undesirable results - fear, anxiety effects of punishment are likely to be temporary

describes relation of memories and the sleep cycle

memories formed during the day are reactivated in the sleep cycle - strengthens neural connections

lose dopamine receptors

memory and motor skill problems, cognitive and social skill deficits, depression, and violent behavior

source confusion

memory distortion that occurs when the true source of the memory is forgotten ex. false details provided after an event become confused with the details of the original memory

procedural memory

memory for skills and other procedures) e.g., reading, writing, tying shoelaces, riding bicycle, playing piano, kissing, cooking (demonstrated through motor/conceptual procedures - manifested through actual performance)

imagination inflation

memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the vent actually occurred

tip of the tongue experience (TOT)

memory phenomenon that involves the sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in LTM, but being temporarily unable to retrieve it more common among older adults 90% of these experiences are eventually resolved, usually within first few minutes

misinformation effect

memory-distortion phenomenon in which a persons existing memories can be altered if the person is exposed to misleading information

maintenance rehearsal

mental or verbal repetition of information in order to maintain it beyond the usual 20 second duration of STM ex. mentally rehearse a phone number

cognitive perspective

mental processes and external events are important in the learning of new behaviors

memory

mental processes that enable you to retain and retrieve information over time encoding, storage, and retrieval

cognitive map

mental representation of the layout of a familiar environment

how to prevent sleep problems

monitor intake of stimulants quiet bedtime routine create conditions for restful sleep consistent sleep-wake schedule

crack

more concentrated, smoked cocaine

what factors influence effectiveness of punishment?

more effective if it immediately follows a response more effective if it consistently follows a response

how can the association get stronger between two stimuli?

more frequent CS and UCS were paired, stronger was the association between the two

OxyContin

most abused OPIATE

suppression

motivated forgetting that occurs consciously; a deliberate attempt to not think about and remember specific information

repression

motivated forgetting that occurs unconsciously; a memory that is blocked and unavailable to consciousness

Ebbinghaus and the forgetting curve

much of what we forgot is lost relatively soon after we learned it amount of forgetting eventually levels off rapid forgetting of some information relatively soon after the original learning followed by stability of he memories that remain

what can you use hypnosis to understand?

multiple personality disorder

opiates

narcotics relieve pain and produce euphoria natural: opium, morphine, codeine synthetic: heroin, oxycodone, methadone, Vicodin mimic endorphins - occupy endorphin receptor sites reduce brains perception of pain have addictive potential

unconditioned stimulus UCS

natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for proper learning - ex. food in dogs mouth

adenosine

naturally occurring in body and influences the release of NT's in CNS. caffeine promotes alterness by blocking adenosine's sleep inducing effects

primary reinforcer

naturally or inherently reinforcing for a given species, such as food, water, or other biological necessities

what is more common in regards to emotions in dreaming?

negative feelings/events more common than postive aggression more common than friendliness more common to be a victim of aggression more than aggressor

REM on

neurons produce acetylcholine which promotes REM sleep

REM off

neurons produce norepinephrine and sertonin which suppresses REM sleep

unreliable signal

no relationship to presence of the object/signal

stimulus generalization

occurrence of a learned response not only to original stimulus but to other similar stimuli too

partial reinforcement

occurrence of a particular response is only sometimes followed by a reinforcer

reinforcement

occurrence of a stimulus or event following a response that increases the likelihood of that response being repeated defined by effect it produces ex. hitting vending machine is the operant (active response) and soda is the reinforcer (event sought in a particular action) positive and negative - increase the frequency of a particular behavior

absentmindedness

occurs because you don't pay enough attention to a bit of information at the time when you should be encoding it occurs because attention is divided ex. where you parked your car in a lot

shaping

operant conditioning procedure of selectively reinforcing successively closer approximations of a goal behavior until the goal behavior is displayed ex. rat reinforced step by step as it gets closer to the bar - what Skinner wants

schemas

organized cluster of information about a particular topic can integrate new information into knowledge base of existing schema can produce errors by prompting us to fill in the missing details/info. with schema-consistent information items that are inconsistent with our schemas are more likely to be recalled and recognized than consistent items

clustering

organizing items into related groups during recall from LTM

what else can be classically conditioned?

other emotionally responses - dislike, happy, sad

sleep paralysis

paralysis of REM sleep carries over to the waking state for up to 10 minutes

factors that increase imitation

people rewarded for behavior warm people people who have control over you or the power to influence you similar in age, sex, and interests have higher social status task imitated not really easy or difficult lack confidence in own abilities situation unfamiliar rewarded in past for imitating same behavior in the past

consciousness

personal awareness of mental activities, internal sensations, the external environment varies from moment to moment sense of continuity - one stream of conscious mental activity blends into the other

episodic memories

personally experienced events; NREM slow wave sleep

hyper-arousal

persons level of arousal interferes with their ability to go to sleep or stay asleep related to insomnia

physical dependence

physically adapted to a drug so that they must take the drug regularly in order to avoid withdrawal symptoms

reliable signal

predicts presence accurately

opening up techniques

present-centered awareness of the passing moment, w/o mental judgment (engage in the here and now without distracting thoughts) ex. zazen - just sitting technique

punishment

presentation of a stimulus or event following a behavior that acts to decrease the likelihood of the behaviors being repeated

conditioning

process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses

learning

process that produces a relatively enduring change in behavior/knowledge as a result of past experience adapt to your environment occurs in any setting at any age and to all animals too first studied learning in animals in controlled lab settings

placebo response

psychological and physiological response to waht is actually a fake treatment/drug aka placebo effect

consciousness

psychological, physiological, social and cultural influences most obvious form is sleep-wake cycle

NREM sleep

quiet, dreamless sleep where rapid eye movements are absent - divided into 4 stages and also called quiet sleep

REM sleep

rapid eye movements and dreaming usually occur and voluntary muscle activity is suppressed, active or paradoxical sleep

Little Albert

rat (CS) --> no fear Loud noise (UCS) ---> fear (UCR) rat + loud noise ---> fear rat (CS) ---->fear (CR) stimulus generalization occurred - feared other furry animals problems: not carefully designed or conducted, not ethical

spontaneous recovery

reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a period of time without exposure to the CS extinction is NOT unlearning

flashbulb memory

recall of very specific images or details surrounding a viviv, rare, or significant personal event; details may or may not be accurate function just as everyday memories do they're different in the high degree of confidence the person has in the accuracy of these memories

retrieval

recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it

drug abuse

recurrent drug use that results in disruptions in academic, social ,or occupational functioning or in legal or psychological problems in US, alcohol most abused

barbiturates

reduce anxiety and produce sleepiness similar effects as alcohol produce sleep where REM is reduced physical and psychological dependence

sleep restriction studies

reduce the amount of time people are allowed to sleep to as little as 4 hours a night concentration, reaction time, memory diminish motor skills decrease people think they're performing well, but they really aren't - not good at judging how bad their performance is impaired

alcohol

reduces tension and anxiety lessen inhibitions by repressing brain centers for judgment and self control (effects individuals differently) weight gender food rate of consumption effect alcohol level women metabolize alcohol slower than men

sensory memory

registers information from the environment and holds it for a very brief period of time information held here for small amount of time

insomnia

regularly experiences an inability to fall asleep, stay asleep, or feel adequately rested take 30+ minutes to fall asleep most common sleep disorder among adults transient: 1-2 nights to a couple of weeks chronic: 3 nights a week for a month of longer risk influenced by gender and age - women more likely can be traced to anxiety vicious cycle: concerns about inability to sleep make disrupted sleep even more likely

Bandura and BoBo doll experiment

reinforcement is NOT essential for learning to occur. Rather, the expectation of reinforcement affects the performance of what has been learned 1) pay attention to behavior 2) remember behavior to perform it later 3) transform into actions that you are capable of producing 4) motivation to imitate the behavior

fixed ration schedule FR

reinforcer is delivered after a fixed number of responses has occurred ex. 10-1 ration - hit bar 10 times to get 1 food pellet high rate of responding - burst-pause pattern

variable ration schedule VR

reinforcer is delivered after an average number of responses, which varies unpredictably from trial to trial high rate of responding but with hardly any pausing between reinforcers ex. gambling

fixed interval schedule FI

reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after a preset time interval has elapsed scallop-shaped pattern of responding - # of responses tends to increase as the time for the next reinforcer draws near ex. studying increases near the time of an exam

variable interval schedule VI

reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after an average time interval, which varies unpredictably from trial to trial moderate but steady rates of responding

what are sleepwalkers utterances like?

relatively accurate

transcendental meditation

relaxation technique that relieved stress can be quickly mastered doesn't require changes in lifestyle/beliefs taught to let distracting thoughts fall away

tranquilizers

relive anxiety Xanax, valium produce, similar less powerful effects as barbiturates

prospective memory

remembering to do something in the future WHEN something needs to be remembered rather than what due to retrieval cue failure

dopamine transporters

remove dopamine from synaptic gap and transporting it back to its producing neurons

obstructive sleep apnea

repeatedly stops breathing during sleep runs in families more common as people age and more common in men can be treated with lifestyle changes CPAP: wear a mask that blows air into the airway passage (treatment)

phallic symbols

represent the penis

LTM

represents the long term storage of information transfer from STM to LTM is two ways: STM-->LTM and LTM-->STM

social-cognitive view of hypnosis

respond to social demands of hypnosis situation; use their own expectations and situational cues

positive reinforcement

response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations something is added or presented

negative reinforcement

response results in the removal of, avoidance of, or escape from a punishing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations something subtracted or removed

law of effect

responses followed by a satisfying effect became strengthened and are more likely to recur in a particular situation, while responses followed by a dissatisfying effect are weakened and less likely to recur in a certain situation

storage

retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time

circadian rhythm

rhythm that is 24 hrs long; the cycle daily fluctuations in biological and psychological processes - varies over course of each day GH release synchronized with sleep wake; released ONLY during sleep

how are UCR and CR related?

same behavior ex. salivation in Pavlov dog experience

continuous reinforcement

schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a particular response in reinforced

script

schema for the typical sequence of an everyday event

stimulant induced psychosis

schizophrenic-like symptoms occur from prolonged use of cocaine

behaviorism

school of psychology and theoretical view-point that emphasize the scientific study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning - Watson believed all human behavior is a result of conditioning and learning - experiences and environment UCR --> fear, rage, love Little Albert

what did the bar graph show about the different types of processing?

semantic better than other two visual the worst

sleep disorder

serious and consistent disturbances that interfere with daytime functioning and cause subjective distress

what seldom occurs as events in dreams?

sex/sexual behaviors

mirror neuron system

simple behaviors and sensations involve groups of mirror neurons firing together rather than single neurons

K complexes

single high voltage spikes of brain activity

State 2 NREM

sleep spindles k complexes brain activity slows down theta and beginning of delta waves- longer and slower waves delta brain waves increase lasts 15-20 min.

sleep related eating disorder

sleepwalk and eat a lot females 2x more likely not associated with daytime eating disorder alcohol hardly ever consumed; can eat weird things

Stages 3 and 4 combined are called what?

slow wave sleep

Stage 3 NREM

slow wave sleep - delta waves (more than 20% of total brain activity) mixture of theta and delta waves

Stage 1 NREM

slower theta brain waves mixture of theta and alpha waves only last a few minutes disengage from sensations of surrounding world less vivid mental imagery - engaged in an everyday activity

discriminative stimulus

specific stimulus in the presence of which a particular response is more likely to be reinforced, and in the absence of which a particular response is not reinforced. ex. ringing phone is a discriminative stimulus that sets the occasion for a particular response - picking up the phone and speaking (how we learn from experience to associate certain environmental cues with particular operant responses)

as you age, what happens with the sleep cycle?

spend less time in slow wave sleep

dissociation

splitting of consciousness into 2 or more simultaneous streams of mental activity

anadamide

structurally similar to THC and binds to THC receptors in brain, regulates transmission of pain signals and reduce pain helpful in treatments - cancer to prevent vomiting, pain, glaucoma - interferes with muscle control and coordination doesn't interfere with heart or respiratory because few receptors on brainstem where they're controlled

Kosslyn 1978

subjects show treasure map and to memorize the map. Then they totally removed the map from sight. Then asked them to imagine a dot moving from one object on map to another object (dot from house to mountains) and what hey found was people formed visual image in order to do the task. Time it took them to move the dot was related to the actual distances on the map - farther apart the two locations were on the map, the longer it took subjects to actually move the dot from one part of the map to another part of the map.

posthypnotic suggestion

suggestion made during hypnosis that the person should carry out a specific instruction following the session only last a few hours or days

misinformation effect

supply totally new information and to find out that that influences what subjects think they saw 3 steps: 1.Step: subject shown series of slides 1/2 Subjects shown slide with yield sign 1/2 Subjects shown slide with stop sign 2. Subjects asked questions that were consistent or inconsistent with original slides a. Consistent with original slide "Did another car pass the MG when it reached the yield sign?" b. Inconsistent with original slide "Did another car pass the MG when it reached the stop sign?" (when actually they saw a yield sign) c. Neutral information: no mention of the sign 3. Subjects shown 2 slides (stop sign and yield sign) and asked to identify which slide they originally saw when they were the eye witness being shown original series of slides Results: subjects receiving inconsistent information were least accurate Red= inconsistent Black =consistent (most accurate) Blue= neutral Shows that memory of what subjects saw originally was reconstructed based on the post event misinformation - witnesses have difficulty disentangling original information from incorrect information they receive - cant separate out the two. Misinformation is distorting their memory of what they saw originally. Interesting b/c when you're an eyewitness there are many opportunities for missed information. Implication: Witnesses reconstructs memory based on post-event information (witnesses cant read a magazine or watch TV during duration of a trial so they don't get contaminated by misinformation and so their memory isn't effected by it)

meditation

sustained concentration techniques that focus attention and heighten awareness

designer club drugs

synthesized in a lab

LSD

synthetic PSYCHEDELIC similar to serotonin, mimic it in the brain and stimulate serotonin receptor sites in somatosensory cortex

working memory

temporary storage and active, conscious manipulation of information needed for complex cognitive tasks, such as reasoning, learning, and problem solving phonological loop: verbal material - numbers/words visuospatial sketchpad: spatial or visual material - remembering layout of room/city central executive: controls attention, integrates information, and manages activities of the loop and sketchpad

instinctive drift

tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that can interfere with the performance of an operantly conditioned response prevented animals from engaging in learned behaviors

context effect

tendency to recover information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting as the original learning of the information environmental cues in a particular context can become encoded as part of the unique memories you form while in that context - ex. take a test better in the spot/hall where you learned the information

serial position effect

tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle primacy effect: recall first items in a list recency effect: recall final items in a list serial recall: need to remember a list of items in their original order

recognition

test of LTM that involves identifying correct information out of several possible choices ex. multiple choice tests

cued recall

test of LTM that involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue ex. fill in the blank and matching

recall

test of LTM that involves retrieving information without the aid of retrieval cues - aka free recall ex. essay test

bizarre dream stories are what?

the EXCEPTION not the rule

What is the conclusion of ESP?

the bulk of evidence to date is against the existence of ESP

hypnotic susceptibility

the capacity to become hypnotized - individual differences in hypnotic susceptibility

stimulus discrimination

the occurrence of a learned response to a specific stimuli but not to other similar stimuli ex. salivate to high pitch tone but not to low pitched tone

extra sensory perception

the purported ability to perceive events in ways that cannot be explained by known sensory capacities (ex. Capable of paranormal accomplishments; palm readings, psychic readings)

parapsychology

the study of ESP and other psi (events that seem to defy known scientific laws) phenomena

hypermnesia

the supposed enhancement of a persons memory for past events through a hypnotic suggestion ex. enhance memory for victims and witnesses hypnosis DOESNT significantly enhance memory or improve accuracy

shared reminiscing

the way that mothers talk to their children about their past experiences differs in chinese and americans

nonsense syllable

three letter combination made up of two consonants and a vowel sounds like a word but its meaningless

what effects the strength of the CR?

timing of stimulus presentations

why in the 1950s did we go back to studying consciousness?

to understand behavior, needed to considered role of consciousness mental processes devised better ways to study conscious experiences

encoding

transforming information into a form that can be entered into and retained by the memory system

sleep/night terrors

type of parasomnia Horrific dream images - glimpse of something really horrible (different than a dream, which is a long drawn out story); screaming, might seem like they sit up in bed, sometimes might even run out (people really aren't awake during all these things - they're really asleep) Night terrors can last from 1-10 min. and they still remain afraid after the images go away Occurs during Stage 4 (NREM) sleep: white they have a night terror and they look like they are awake, its really hard to wake them up because they're in stage 4 sleep .If you wake them up, they're groggy, confused, and disoriented. They aren't having a dream, just images; if you wake them up really fast they might have memory of horrible images. The next morning after the night terror they hardly have any memory that they had a night terror - May only have a vague recollection. No sleep paralysis in stage 4, so they can sit up or get out of bed when they're having these terrors - capable of moving around. Night terrors are more difficult to remember because it's not a long dream. Night terrors are more likely early in the night because you have more stage 4 sleep in the early part of the night. They're more common in children, especially boys, but can continue into adulthood. They tend to not persist into adolescence or adulthood, but the person may continue to have them. About 3% of children and less than 1% of adults experience night terrors. Night terrors are also more likely to occur during stressful times.

duration of STM

typically no more than 20-30 seconds (without rehearsal). Can increase duration and possibly get it into long term memory by engaging in rehearsal.

latent content

unconscious thoughts concealed in manifest content of a dream

dream

unfolding sequence of thoughts, perceptions, and emotions that typically occur during REM sleep and is experienced as a series of real life events 4-5 dreaming episodes each night if awakened during REM people can report dream 95% of the time early morning dreams are easier to be recalled because REM is longer at that time

what must you consider when studying learning?

unique behavior patterns of different species

unconditioned response UCR

unlearned, reflexible response that is elicited by an UCS - ex. dogs salivation

withdrawal symptoms

unpleasant physical reactions, combined with intense drug cravings, that occur when a person abstains from a drug on which they are physically dependent

electroencephalograph

uses electrodes placed on the scalp to measure and record the brains electrical activity - brain waves

sleep thinking/mentation

vague, bland, thought-like ruminations about real life events that typically occur during NREM sleep can interfere with sleep - like if anxious about an exam the next day

reinforcing stimulus

vary from person to person, situation to situation and species to species may not be something we consider positive or desirable - teach scolding a student

introspection

verbal self reports that tried to capture the structure of conscious experiences

decay theory

view that forgetting is due to normal metabolic processes that occur in the brain over time

What would happen if that consolidation were disrupted?

Could happen with ECT, seizures, or use of certain drugs

Stage 2

1 sec. bursts of EEG activity (high amplitude sleep spindles) + large slow waves (K-complexes - larger and slower than sleep spindles but not as large as delta waves) - people who have difficulty sleeping have a hard time moving through this stage Deeper muscle relaxation: deeper and deeper you get into deeper sleep, your muscles relax, respiration decreases, and body temperature decreases. You're closest in deep sleep compared to stage 1 sleep. Can't be as easily awakened - but doesn't take long to be oriented either

support for dissociation theory

2 groups asked to immerse 1 hand in ice water (I group hypnotized and the other the control group whom was not hypnotized) Control group: repots a lot of pain (red line - normal waking pain) Hypnosis group: dissociation in two parts of consciousness Verbal report: no pain (executive function - part under hypnosis - green line) Free hand: "ouch!" (Hand not in cold water and press this key if some part of you is in pain; monitoring function which says a lot of pain - blue line) *Hypnotized subjects are reporting two different experiences at the same time

multiple personality disorder

2 or more independent personalities ("alters") within same person Etiology - study of causation (factors causing/factoring to MPD)

study of sleep deprivation: Peter Tripp

8 days without sleep (200 hrs.); experienced "sleep deprivation psychosis" after 4 days (hallucinations, delusions, etc.) - hallucinations more prominent every 90 minutes or so - brain goes into REM sleep every 90 minutes or so. Hallucinations corresponded to when people do REM cycles. Recover: Questionable Video: with the man constantly even when he went to the bathroom; started insulting people he knew, like his barber. First physical change: drop in body temperature (wore a coat and hat) - the lower it went the crazier he got. Rats could live 17 days without sleep. He started hallucinating after 4 days of no sleep, day 5 he would hear hallucinations. A night of sleep is 25% REM - produces eye movements, muscle twitches, dreams. He would hallucinate during the times he was likely to have REM - cycled into a waking dream. If he was asleep - he would have been normal and having a dream. He showed psychotic symptoms. Closer he got to 200 hr. goal; the closer the scientists came to stopping the experiment. On the last night, his EEG waves said he was technically asleep but he was walking around and functioning. After the experiment Tripp slept for 24 hrs. - When he woke up his delusions was gone. His marriage went bad and he got divorced, he got fired, and ended up drifting around the country - friends thought 8 hrs. Without sleep did permanent damage.

who is susceptible to hypnosis?

About 8/10 people can be hypnotized Only 15% are highly hypnotizable 10% are highly resistant When watching a thriller with a lot of suspense, you are involved in the movie and part of it and you feel the emotions from the movie - you are susceptible to what you are watching - let what you're watching take control over you. You get absorbed into the movie and feel the fear and other emotions

describe sleep cycles throughout the night

Each cycle lasts 90 min. but cycles differ as sleep progresses/through the night - early in the night you have a lot of 3 and 4 stages and the REM periods are relatively short -a lot of slow wave and deep sleep. Deep sleep early in the night because your body wants to make sure its rested/deep rest. Late in the night - a lot of and longer stage two, and longer REM periods compared to early in the night.

STM

Getting in: selective attention controls what enters STM Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items unless chunking (grouping similar stimuli together as a single unit Ex. OSUPHDNYUMAUCLABMIT Chunking: OSU PHD NYU MA UCLA BA MIT (increase # of items recalled by chunking them together)

how do night terrors compare to nightmares?

How do they compare to nightmares? Nightmares are easier to remember in the morning, because they are long and drawn out. They are associated with dreams and occur during REM sleep. You can't move around because you have paralysis. Nightmares are more likely to occur later in the night because that's when more REM sleep occurs. Nightmare and night terrors are different from each other.

explaining hypnosis: dissociated theory

Hypnotized persons are in an altered state of consciousness Hypnosis creates a split (dissociation) between 2 aspects of consciousness Executive function (1) : initiates/regulates behavior Turned over to the hypnotist and accepts suggestions Part under hypnosis that regulates the hypnotic behavior. Part of consciousness that has relinquished control Monitoring function: observes behavior ("hidden observer") Observes without participating Other part of consciousness - knows what's happening but isn't participating. Observes procedures and doesn't participate - reason why hypnotized people don't engage in repulsive behavior - killing someone or taking all of their clothes off. Monitoring behaviors and keep them from doing something they strong aren't supposed to. Executive: follow suggestion of hypnosis Monitor: describe their feeling - different from what the executive function is feeling

explaining hypnosis: role theory

Hypnotized subjects are merely complying with social demands, NOT altered state of consciousness - go along with what people expect them to do; NOT THE SAME AS FAKING HYPNOSIS - people who are hypnotized sincerely believe they are hypnotized and are under the hypnotists power, but their behaviors are due to their beliefs of hypnosis, not a different state of mind they are in. Placebo-like effect - hypnotized because of their strong belief in hypnosis. They may continue to do what the hypnotist told them, even in private - mental placebo effect. Support: motivated simulators can duplicate many aspects of hypnotic behavior; Have seen many movies about hypnosis - playing out the role that's expected of them and are reporting experiences expected of them. Something everyone is capable of.

two types of sensory memory

Iconic memory: when a visual stimulus produces a brief visual memory trace (last ¼ sec. or less - you have an almost perfect reproduction of the image in this short time); important b/c has continuity to our experience - w/o it a movie would look like a flickering series of still pictures Echoic memory: when an auditory stimulus produces a brief auditory memory trace (last 2 sec or less - if we didn't have it would be hard to understand spoken language, would seem like a series of blips rather than continuous words)

what is the hippocampus's role?

Involved in consolidation of STM into LTM But how does it consolidate? Once hippocampus receives information from sense organs, long term potentiation occurs

stage 1 NREM

Lose consciousness Alpha + slow theta waves (5-7 cycles/sec.) Can be easily awakened - doesn't take you long to get oriented was awoken

how is hypnosis performed

Many techniques, but all encourage the following: To focus attention on what is being said To relax and feel tired To "let go" and accept suggestions easily - want person to relax normal will power and self control To use vivid imagination - image as if its really happening

in whom are night terrors more common?

More common in children (esp. boys) but can continue into adulthood

functions of STM

Prevents accumulation of garbage in LTM (good we don't retain everything in STM for long periods of time and that not everything gets transferred to LTM - LTM would be disorganized The "workbench of consciousness" (mental workspace where we do much of our thinking) Rehearsal buffer and eventual transfer to LTM (depends on what kind of rehearsal we do - sometimes certain ones are better than others)

How is information stored in LTM?

Semantic network model: items are linked by their semantic relationships/meaning (colors linked together - red to roses, to fire engine) The principle of spreading activation - cued with the world fire engine, more likely to next be thinking about other concepts that are semantically related to fire engine. According to this, spreading activation will increase the accessibility of semantically related concepts. Fire engine will increase accessibility, of red, ambulance, fire, and truck. Stream of consciousness and conversation goes from ambulance, to fire, to house, to truck, etc. Organizational system that explains the stream of consciousness in our thoughts and conversation.

semantic memory

Semantic: facts about the world E.g., geographical locations, world history, knowing what a car is used for

why do we sleep: circadian theory

Sleep patterns evolved to keep us inactive when food was unobtainable or predators were numerous - increase their chances of survival. How long we sleep depends on what we need to do in order to survive. You want to sleep a long time - that's a luxury; you have to be safe from predators and you have to be able to find food pretty easily. Ex. doesn't sleep much - cows, horses (sleep and wake up when a predator comes by - the horse can get up in a split second b/c they sleep standing up, because of their locking ligaments and knee caps, and don't need much time to wake up; they sleep in short bursts and only require 3 hrs. out of every 24 hrs.), goats - grazing 85% of the day and they have to be awake because if they sleep too much the predator will get them. Lions are at the top of the food chain - don't have to worry about predators as much so they get the most sleep.

What contributes to faulty eyewitness testimony?

The confidence of the eyewitness Jurors are more likely to be swayed by confident witnesses (Lieppe et al., 1992) Problem: confidence weakly predicts accuracy The number of details reported by the eyewitness More detailed testimony is more likely to lead to guilty verdicts (Bell & Loftus, 1989) Problem: attention to details detracts from important aspects (criminals face) - situation happens so fast and they might not have been paying attention to the important details/not enough time to pay attention to everything Weapon or victim focus - ex. Gun in friends face; paying attention to gun and worrying about friend and their reaction - detracting attention from the culprit's face Problem: focusing on weapon or victims reaction distracts attention away from other elements - ex. Culprit's face Cross-racial problems in identification - large cities more multi-cultural When people have little contact with other racial groups, facial distinctions are more difficult (Brigham & Malpass, 1985) - applies to all ethnic-racial groups with each other Wording of questions (Loftus & Palmer, 1974) - try to be clever; ask leading questions (looked at effects of wording of question - subjects shown film of traffic action; groups asked the question below each with a different word in the blank) Subjects report of car sped depended on leading question they were asked. Wanted to know how long leading questions last. one week later asked: Did you see the broken headlight? Asked with contacted word: 7% Asked with smashed word: 15% Effects of leading questions were prolonged for a one-week period

What would happen if a person lost their capacity to transfer information from STM to LTM?

The story of HM - brain surgery for severe epilepsy - sucked out entire hippocampus (involved in consolidation of STM into LTM). Seizures diminished but produced amnesia What kind of amnesia? - Anterograde amnesia (inability to form new LT memories - every moment was a new surprise for HM) HM's uncle died - every time he learns his uncle dies he experiences a fresh grief all over again If HM rehearsed - he could retain information in STM - but could never transfer it into LTM (STM was fine if he rehearsed it as long as he continually rehearsed it - but if he stopped for 30 sec. it would disappear forever) DID NOT have retrograde amnesia - inability to retrieve past memories (NOT HIS PROBLEM - he could retain past memories that occurred before the surgery) Could engage in problem solving as long as he stayed focused on the task b/c his STM was fine - if the task required memory something he did 30 sec. ago, he couldn't do the task. He could carry on a conversation - if person didn't talk for more than 30 seconds - he couldn't remember what they first started talking about if they talked longer than 30 sec.

stimulation ---> Long term potentiaation

This reverberation of electrical impulses = STM (involved in STM) Reverberation changes strength of synaptic connections (E.g., increased dendrites) = LTM Functional changes in cortex - increase NTs (stronger memory= more NTs) Structural changes in cortex - dendritic branching, increase synapses and increase receptor sites Neurons in cortex after reverberation - undergo functional changes and structural changes Connections between hippocampus and cortex - stronger and stronger memory gets the more branching you have and more synapses and receptor sites - richer connection between the two Memory is related to structural and functional changes in the neurons All changes together=LTM

Stage 5

("paradoxical sleep - inconsistency") - go to stage 4, to 3, to 2. Instead of returning to stage 1 they go to stage 5 (90 min. cycle) Eyes dart back and forth (Rapid Eye Movement) - have beta waves that you see when a person is awake; brain wave activity resembles a person who is awake. Associated with dreaming - dreams seem more real and are more clearly remembered 80% of the time REM indicates that they are dreaming Spend 25% of your time in REM sleep HR, BP, Resp. & EEG (beta) resemble alert, wake person Muscle tone very relaxed (sleep paralysis)

declarative memory

(memory for facts - manifested through words/use words to demonstrate factual knowledge/knowledge that can be stated by verbalizing the knowledge)

LTM

(separate long term memory systems that handle different kinds of information) declarative - semantic and episodic procedural

what are 3 factors related to multiple personality disorder

1. Occurrence of severe trauma at about age 5 (Freud's theory of repression: person tries to repress/escape the trauma by creating another personality) -Person copes with trauma by creating alternate person - different consciousness, they feel better in their new personality 2. High hypnotizability (type of person that can create a new personality, high in imagination) 3. New personality has reinforcing value (once successful at escaping the trauma); reduces emotional distress related to memories to the trauma or any other life stress in the persons life - way of coping with the stress by becoming other people in their consciousness; split unconsciousness - person can dissociate and split their consciousness and transition from one personality to another by using self hypnosis - hypnosis creates this

what are strategies that can be used to reduce undesirable behaviors without resorting to punishment?

1) reinforce an alternative behavior that is constructive and incompatible with the problem behavior 2) extinction - eliminate the reinforcer; problem behavior may temporarily increase - so need to be consistent 3) set a specific time period after which the individual is reinforced if the unwanted behavior has not occurred 4) time out from positive reinforcement: child is removed from reinforcing situation for a short time, so that the access to reinforcers is eliminated. POSITIVELY REINFORCE THE BEHAVIORS YOU WANT TO INCREASE

two examples of hypnosis

Ex. Tells a woman that there are bugs in the ground and when they walk people are harming them - woman goes crazy trying to keep people from walking on the path to not harm the bugs Ex. People think they're aliens from outer space and communicate with other aliens - aka those with sunglasses. So they go up to random people on the street with sunglasses and talk to them in their odd alien communication

sleep walking

20% of children and 4% of adults Complex motor behaviors during sleep - sometimes they just sit up and look around, but others get up out of bed Can last from a few minutes up to 30 min. Person is asleep but part of their consciousness is aware of their environment Gently guide them back into bed, sooner or later, they are going to hurt themselves in some form of accident Capable of avoiding obstacles (but prone to accidents) Eyes usually open (blank expression, lack of recognition, shuffling feet movement indicates person is asleep) Occurs during stages 3 & 4 - common during first third of the night. They can sleep walk because it occurs during stages 3 and 4 and there is no sleep paralysis so they can get up - the pons isn't inhibiting the neural impulses from the motor cortex. If you wake them up, they're disoriented, confused. They don't remember sleepwalking because there is no dream/image associated with it and it also occurs during stages 3 and 4. Hereditary - YES! - 15% of their relatives will also sleep walk

impact of TV on sexual activity in US adolescents

2x likely to engage in sex if watched more TV with sexual content than those who didn't (shows that just talked about sex)

after the first cycle, how many more cycles usually occur in a night?

4

is ESP real?

49% of all Americans believe in ESP (Gallup et al., 1991) - a lot of experiments support ESP, more they are examined though, the more the results vanish

binge drinking

5+ drinks in a row for men, 4+ drinks in a row for women

how much time of sleep is spent in REM for newborns?

50%

eye witness testimony

72% and circumstantial evidence only 18% (guilty testimony - bar graph below) 5,000 people are wrongfully convicted each year due to faulty eyewitness testimony (Cutler & Penrod, 1995) Jurors give more weight to/more convinced to "eyewitnesses reports" than to circumstantial evidence

what percent of our dreams contain color?

80% soft pastel colors chosen if awoken while dreaming and asked to describe the colors seen

how long is one NREM-REM cycle?

90 min

how is a memory constructed?

ACTIVELY CONSTRUCTED actively encode and organize different types of information

meth

AMPHETAMINE can be made at home or street labs - brain damage meth users have 10% tissue loss in limbic system - emotion and reward and hippocampus - learning and memory takes years for brain to recover from meth

intermediate processing

Acoustic judgment: sound judgment - Does DOG rhyme with small? (Have to compare in your mind - little bit more processing here compared to simple visual)

pre-sleep

Awake and alert Beta waves (small high frequency waves) Drowsy (STILL pre-sleep; just on the verge of going to sleep) Pass into hypnagogic state (1-10 min.) during which thoughts are disorganized; dreamlike images (ex. Think you're falling so you have a hypnic jerk - keep yourself from falling and tense up and regain your position; hypnic jerk; NOT quite asleep yet but close; Alpha waves: occur in drowsy stage; people can sometimes produce these waves during meditation

differences between classical and operant conditioning: type of behavior source of behavior basis of learning responses conditioned extinction process cognitive aspects evolutionary influences

CC: reflexive, involuntary OC: non-reflexive, voluntary CC: elicited by stimulus OC: emitted by organism CC: associating two stimuli: CS + UCS OC: associating a response and the consequence that follows it CC: physiological and emotional OC: active behaviors that operate on the environment CC: condition response decreases when conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented alone OC: responding decreases with elimination of reinforcing consequences CC: expectation that CS reliably predicts the UCS OC: performance of behavior influenced by the expectation of reinforcement or punishment CC: innate predispositions influence how easily an association is formed between a particular stimulus and response OC: behaviors similar to natural or instinctive behaviors are more readily conditioned

higher order conditioning

CS from one learning trial functions as the UCS in a new conditioning trial. The second CS comes to elicit the CR, even though it has never been directly paired with the UCS ex. paired metronome with food until metronome became CS. Then repeatedly paired a new UCS, black square, with the metronome but NO food. Black square alone produced salivation because it was paired with food. Black square became new CS, by pairing it with first CS. new CS NEVER paired with UCS

when was classical conditioning most effective?

CS was presented BEFORE the UCS

4 basic forms of extra sensory perception (ESP)

Clairvoyance: perceiving objects/something written that's obscured from view Telepathy: reading someone's thoughts (psychic readings) Precognition: predict the future Psychokinesis: move physical objects through mental effort

what are the explanations for ESP?

Coincidence: psychic experiences/gut feelings that maintain their belief in ESP (ex. Woman has impulse to return home, when she returns home she finds house on fire - possible coincidence) - fallacy of positive instances; woman forgot about all the times she had an impulse and nothing was wrong and just focused on the one time she was right and now she believes more strongly in her ESP Poorly conducted experiments: ex. Use cards, marks on cards, person looking at card can give you facial, verbal cues - tell you which card is the right card Chance: some people beat the odds (ex. Tell whether or not a coin is going to fall on heads or tails, and you flip the coin ten times, if you have 1000 people in the test, one of those people is going to guess it right every time just by chance alone) - having a run of luck in a casino Fraud

W. Penfield

Concluded that experience leaves a permanent imprint; people are remembering things from their childhood - memories were like a video tape recording - having memories while Penfield was probing around in their brain during surgery with an electrode Memory storage localized in temporal lobe Problems: only 3% of his patients reported such experiences Most of the flashbacks were only dreamlike illusions that never happened No evidence that the flashbacks every happened

dissociative anesthetics

DESIGNER reduce sensitivity to pain and produce feelings of dissociation (PCP) high levels can induce coma effects glutamate, indirectly stimulating the release of dopamine in the brain

MDMA/ecstasy

DESIGNER stimulant and mild psychedelic effects euphoria increased well-being dehydration, tremors, muscle tension, increase heart beat, HYPERthermia causes release of serotonin and blocks its re-uptake depression when drug wears off b/c serotonin levels are depleted

what brain structures do procedural memories depend on?

Depend on brain structures other than the hippocampus, possibly the cerebellum (motor control - as long as this part is okay they can remember procedures and can improve on procedures.

can hypnosis aid memory?

Doubtful - when hypnosis does enhance memory, it also increases the number of false memories as well. You don't get more accurate memories, just a big increase in number of false memories - person feels confident memories are true but they really aren't

case studies: HM and Kent

HM: procedural memory fine (learn to play tennis and improve in it since having the surgery; he would get better at the puzzle task - get better at drawing a star by looking in the mirror - did a lot better on day 3 than he did on day 1) but episodic memory was gone (improved in tennis, motor functions, but he couldn't remember his last tennis lesson or that he ever played tennis; couldn't ever remember seeing the star puzzle before. Kent: Semantic memory (IS OK) Can report geographical locations Can tell you why dark clothes make you feel warm Procedural memory (IS OK) Can tell you how to change a tire Episodic memory (NOT OK) Can't recognize where he was in a picture of himself Can't tell you what he did yesterday Can't say what he does at work Not sure if he ever had car accident Not sure if he ever changed a tire

characteristics of susceptible people to hypnosis

Have vivid, frequent fantasies - daydreamers in a way -- Be high in visual imagery - see details as if something is really happening -- Be high on absorption (become deeply involved in imaginative experiences) Expect to be influenced - willing to be hypnotized changes are you will be. Hypnotism matters more on the willingness person rather than the skills of the hypnotist.

spring forward and fall behind: explain what happens in regards to sleep

In spring - move clocks ahead one hour and lose one hour of sleep (5% more traffic accidents on Monday after the weekend when they moved the clocks ahead). Fall - gain extra hour of sleep when they move the clocks back an hour (5% fewer car accidents the following Monday after when they moved the clocks behind)

what is the role of the hypnotist?

JUST A COACH - influences hypnosis of the person ex. dissociated consciousness - smelling two colognes blocks the sense of smelling ammonia - thought it smelled okay because he was told it was musky cologne

what is the accuracy of abuse recall?

LOOK AT LECTURE MEMORY

procedural memory

LTM that includes memories of different skills, operations, and actions ex. riding a bike

semantic memory

LTM that includes memories of general knowledge, concepts, facts, and names

episodic memory

LTM that includes memories of particular events autobiographical memory

what are men more likely to report in regards to dreams? women?

M: dreams with physical aggression W: more likely to report emotion

maintenance rehearsal vs. elaborative rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal (simple, mechanical repetition) vs. elaborative rehearsal (thinking about the material in a more meaningful way and associating it with other knowledge that's already in LTM) (Craik and Tulving, 1975) - every subject was asked to make different types of judgment for different words. Afterwards they had a surprise recognition test - how they recognized the words they just saw. Simple repetition and maintenance rehearsal is much less effective than semantic in transferring stuff into LTM.

how is hypnotizability measured?

Making a series of suggestions and counting a number to how the person responds

what is retrieving information NOT?

NOT an all or nothing process can retrieve bits of information that relate to what you're trying to remember - these bits can act as additional retrieval cues

parasomnia rules

NREM 3 and 4 - occurs first half of the night more common in kids and decreases with age genetic predisposition or susceptibility not fully understood

are hypnotized subjects faking?

No - they believe the effects are real but their behavior is due to their strong beliefs not because of an altered state of consciousness Hypnotized subjects do pass a lie detector test on whether or not they were faking it

is it dangerous to wake up a sleepwalker?

No, not necessarily

heroin

OPIATE most dangerous reaches brain in seconds, withdrawal (fever, chills, GI problems)

how stable is hypnosis?

Over 10 year period: stable and age 15 - hypnotically susceptible at age 25 more are less susceptible rather than highly susceptible to hypnosis

how are punishment and negative reinforcement different?

P: always DECEASES the future performance of the operant NR: always INCREASES the likelihood that an operant will be repeated in the future P: use radar detector, receive speeding ticket and fine for illegal use of radar detector, decrease us of radar detector in the future NR: use radar detector, avoid speeding ticket and fine, increase use of radar detector in the future

does hypnosis produce a measurable altered state of consciousness?

PROBABLY - get different results from different studies Shoe them black and white diagram and then imagine asked to imagine diagram in color - when looking and black and white and imagining the bright colors, color processing areas of the brain become more active. Suggests that hypnosis produces an altered state of consciousness that allows them to produce experience that a non-hypnotized person can't do. They can do it in reserve too - color to black and white (decrease in activity of color processing areas in the brain) - study done by Kosslyn in 2000

marijuana

PSYCHEDELIC hemp plant THC chemical in weed

Mescaline

PSYCHEDELIC derived from peyote cactus - NATURAL

what keeps the person from acting out their dream?

Person during dream sleep is in a state of sleep paralysis because the pons (brainstem) -motor area - its inhibitory and it inhibits NT's from the motor cortex and prevents neural impulses from reaching the muscles. You're dreaming, your motor cortex is saying move around, but the pons won't let you act out your dream - projections into spinal cord that are inhibiting/IPSPs and blocking NT's in the spine so the neural impulses can't reach the muscles.

Stanford hypnotic susceptibility scale

Postural sway - falls without forcing Eye closure - closes eyes without forcing Hand lowering - lowers at least six inches by end of 10 sec Immobilization - arms rises less than 1 inch in 10 sec Finger lock - fingers on both hands locked together and cant pull them apart at end of 10 sec Arm rigidity - less than 2 inches of arm bending in 10 sec Hands moving together - hands 6 inches or closer after 10 sec Verbal inhibition - name unspoken in 10 sec Hallucination - any movement, grimacing, acknowledgement of effect, eyes remain closed as end of 10 sec Posthypnotic suggestion - any partial movement response Amnesia test - 3 or fewer items recalled

stages of sleep

Record electrical activity in brain (EEG - look at brain activity) and muscles (EMG - muscle activity; relaxed or tense)

amphetamine

STIMULANT arouse CNS and suppress appetite, stimulate brain activity, elevate mood after use, progressive increases required to maintain effect withdrawal - crash: fatigue, deep sleep, mental depression, increase appetite

caffeine

STIMULANT coffee, tea, cola release of dopamine in prefrontal cortex blocks adenosine receptors stimulates indirect and mild dopamine release in brains reward system withdrawal symptoms if abruptly stop caffeine intake - headache, fatigue excessive use can lead to NREM parasomnia such as sleep walking

nicotine

STIMULANT tobacco similar effects to coffee increases neural activity in many brain areas reaches brain in seconds if inhaled, but effects diminish in next hours, so smoking is repeated physically and psychologically addictive

deep processing

Semantic judgment: Does the word fit into the sentence - I saw a DOG in the pond? (More elaborative processing - meaning of the word and the meaning of the sentence)

3-stage (structural) model of memory

Series of stages to which we store information - incoming info, sensory memory (similarities to photographic memory) etc.

why do we sleep: restoration theory

Sleep recharges the battery, enabling recovery from day's physical, emotional, and cognitive demands" - need to recuperate and give our brain a rest Ex. Take a group who is going to run a 26-mile marathon and measure there sleep two weeks before and after running the marathon. On control nights: 200 min. of deep sleep Nights right after the marathon: 1st and 2nd: twice a much deep sleep - using deep sleep to recover and need more recovery time. Deep sleep is stages 3 and 4 - but stage 4 performs a recovery function.

what are the effects of not getting enough sleep?

Slower reaction times, inability to concentrate, irritability

what is the capacity of sensory memory?

Sperling (1960) - Look at red dot and hold your attention on it. Then make dot go away and show you an image that consists of different letters. How many of these letters do you think remain in your iconic memory? Recollection depends on time between presentation and your report of what you see. Present 3 different pitch tones - high pitch show upper line sight, medium pitch middle line, etc. The sensory capacity for the 10 items on the screen was an average of 10 items rather than 4 items b/c within ¼ sec if you got the high tone you report ¾ of the upper line, medium tone - ¾ letters, low tone - ¾ letters (3 and 1/3 images on average from any line). After ¼ second your sensory memory deteriorates quickly. Results - capacity of sensory memory is far greater than only 4 items. The capacity deteriorates with time - within first ¼ second. % of correct answers was within the ¼ second (80%).

what do women report in their dreams? men?

W: males and females in equal proportions as other dream characters M: report males more

can false memroies be planted?

We can plant memories in a person that never happened Example from Loftus & Ketchum, 1994 Kris subject in the experiment - got Kris's older brother to tell him "Remember the time that when you were lost in a mall when you were 5 years old and you started crying and then you were found by a tall old many wearing a flannel shirt" Mother was interviewed and said this never happened to Kris - but they were able to make Kris believe that it DID happen ¼ subjects - they could plant false memories/false memory syndrome Memory being planted in patient by therapist - therapist is a trusted authority and trust is trying to help you and think they know what they're talking about. Therapist eager to find the rooted source of patient's problem - deep source is some trauma often sexual, which occurred to the person in childhood. Therapist uses a method that provides a lot of opportunities for suggestion - dream analysis and hypnosis - provide events that could be interpreted by therapist any way they want and implant those interpretations in the patient

what else did Watson use classical conditioning in?

advertising ex. get anxiety response in mothers by creating doubts about their ability to are for their kids - baby powder use low, rage, fear to get a response YES its effective

when are sleep cycles fully established?

age 5 - 90 min cycles

do deaf people who use sign language sleep sign during sleep?

YES

can viewing violence on TV lead to aggressive behavior in children? Does exposure to media violence have long term, real world effects?

YES YES

do animals dream?

YES - have sleep cycles too

can hypnosis reduce pain?

YES - only type of anesthesia some people may need to block certain pain - birth, migraines, dental work Ex. Put non hypnotized person and hypnotized persons hand in ice water - hypnotized persons tolerance of pain is much higher than non-hypnotized - hypnotized person can handle the cold water easier than non-hypnotized

hypnosis

a procedure that produces an altered state of consciousness and an increased openness to suggestion

source memory/monitoring

ability to remember the original details or features of a memory - when, where, and how you acquire the information or had the experience

parasomnias

abnormal behaviors occurring during sleep

sleep sex

abnormal sexual behaviors and experiences during sleep

dyssomnias

abnormalities in amount, quality, or timing of sleep, e.g., insomnia (amount of sleep - too little) hypersomnia (sleeping more than you need to feel resting), narcolepsy (abnormality in timing of sleep, when they feel most excited they suddenly fall asleep instantly and collapse)

retrieval

accessing stored information

REM sleep behavior disorder

act our your dreams Occurs during REM sleep, when they're dreaming, and muscles aren't paralyzed Muscles don't become paralyzed during REM - can act on their nightmares, sometimes in dangerous ways 85% have injured themselves and 44% have hurt their bed partners sometimes seriously This is more likely in older men, and older people in general Occurs because pons - pons deteriorates and can't inhibit neural impulses Ex. Lesion the pons in cats and when they sleep they are acting out their dreams - have no control over motor actions Have mobility to act on their nightmares

operant

actively emitted or voluntary behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences

Eidetic (photographic) memory

an extreme example of a sensory memory? Person looks at something and retains clear visual image for at least 30 seconds to even a few minutes- project the image in front of them. Best able to display this after looking at image on a plain surface - like on a plain piece of white paper. Project cartoon image to child and then have him project the image he saw on a white sheet of paper. They ask the kid questions about the image either 30 min or 1 min after seeing the image. Most often occurs in childhood - 8/100 kids - it disappears during adolescence. In adulthood - very rare (only retain the image for 30 seconds or maybe a few minutes) Test in adults: showed images with dots - image 1 and 2 would fuse together and fuse to produce a single image - ask them what letters they see (only if person can retain the top image while looking at the second image - they can report the letters VOH in the combined image - none of the adults could do the experiment.

Skinner box/operant chamber

animals conditioned to perform simple behaviors, ti receive a food reward (positive reinforcement) light in the cage functions as the discriminative stimulus - only works when light is on experimental apparatus to study the relationship between environmental events and active behaviors

stimulus

anything perceptible to senses

behavior modification

application of learning principles to help people develop more effective or adaptive behaviors apply operant conditioning ex. letting employees choose their own reinforcers (casual dress code and flexible hours) was more effective reinforcers than money - so reinforcers created desired behaviors

self reference effect

applying information to yourself

parasomnia

arousal during sleep or sleep transitions - sleepwalking, sleep terrors, sleep sex, eating disorder, REM sleep disorder

alpha brain waves

associated with relaxes wakefulness and drowsiness

episodic memory

autobiographical facts (facts about oneself) memory for specific personal experiences that took place at specific times and places E.g., what you did yesterday and what time you did it; buying your first guitar, your first kiss

under the right conditions, what else can be classically conditioned?

automatic responses cologne related to sexual partner

classical conditioning and drug responses

before: smell, taste, of coffee (CS) + caffeine (UCS) -->increased alertness (UCR) after: smell, taste of coffee (CS) ---> increases alertness (CR) *just this increased alertness without caffeine

Stage 3

beginnings of slow wave sleep" Delta waves begin to appear (very slow and large) Less than 50% of waves are delta waves (about 20%) A sign of deeper sleep and further loss of consciousness More difficult to awaken - groggy, confused, disoriented, takes them a little while to become oriented

partial reinforcement effect

behaviors that are conditioned using partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than behaviors that are conditioned using continuous reinforcement ex. organisms have experienced partial, they've learned that reinforcement may yet occur, despite delays and non-reinforced responses, if persistent responses are made

intrinsic rhythm

body goes to this when we have absence of ALL environmental cues 24.2 hrs normally coordinated rhythms become desynchronized ex. blind people

activation-synthesis model of dreaming

brain activity during sleep produces dream images - activation- which are combined by the brain into a dream story - synthesis (Hobson and McCarley) brainstem circuits arouse more sophisticated areas of the brain brain responds to its own internal signals instead of exernal environment dreaming is brain synthesizing and integrating memory fragments, emotions, and sensations, that are internally triggered meaning found by analyzing the way the dreamer makes sense of the progression of dream images

REM sleep

brain becomes more active - fast brain waves visual and motor neurons activate just like when awake dreams occur muscle (voluntary) activity suppressed 1st REM= 5-15 min

beta brain waves

brain wave pattern associated with alert wakefulness

REM sleep behavior disorder

brains failure to suppress voluntary actions during REM sleep resulting in the sleeper verbally and physically responding to the dream story males over age 60 chronic condition that gets worse

sleep spindles

brief bursts of brain activity that last a second or two

deja vu experience

brief but intense feelings of familiarity in a situation that has not been previously experienced brief feeling of familiarity - arises when enough features in the current situation trigger the sensation of matching features already contained in a previous memory

how is punishment defined?

by the effect it produces

how does Skinner believe behavior is determined and controlled?

by the stimuli present in a given situation determined by environmental stimuli and the persons reinforcement history in that environment ex. yelling at a football game vs. yelling in class

limits to hypnosis

cant be hypnotized against your will cant perform behaviors contrary to your morals and values - unlikely to do criminal acts cant make you stronger or bestow new talents

Miller's beliefs

capacity of STM is limited to 7 items at a time, plus or minus 2

what proof do we have that these really are separate memory systems?

case studies from people who have suffered brain damage

just imagining the past can do what?

change the way you remember it

depressant

depress or inhibit brain activity addictive - effects increase when depressant combine produce sleep, drowsiness, sedation, relieve anxiety

stage model of memory

describes memory as consisting of three distinct stages: sensory memory, STM, and LTM

semantic network model

describes units of information in LTM as being organized in a complex network of associations

dyssomnia

disruptions in amount, quality, or timing of sleep - insomnia, OSA, narcolepsy

memory trace

distinct structural or chemical change in the brain

false memory

distorted of fabricated recollection of something that did not actually occur

blind people and dreams

dont have visual dreams but their dreams involve the other senses

auditory sensory memory

echoic memory - brief memory that is like an echo holds sound for 3-4 seconds

mood congruence

encoding specificity phenomenon in which a given mood tends to evoke memories that are consistent with that mood ex. when you're in a positive mood, you're more likely to recall positive memories

sleep terrors

episode of increased physiological arousal, intense fear/panic, hallucinations, and no recall of episode - occurs during NREM 3 and 4 single terrifying sensation brief impossible to calm person down

microsleeps

episodes of sleep lasting only a few seconds that occur during wakefulness - usually when sleep deprived

what cant classical conditioning explain?

everyday activities

narcolepsy

excessive daytime sleepiness and brief lapses into sleep throughout the day sleep attack/micro-sleep: involuntary sleep episodes - can display automatic behavior during nut performance is impaired cataplexy: sudden loss of voluntary muscle strength and control that is usually triggered by an intense emotion effects males and females equally lifelong, chronic condition - onset in adolescence or young adulthood hypocretins: NTs produced during the daytime to maintain a steady state of wakefulness - produced by the hypothalamus (narcolepsy - low or nonexistent levels of hypocretins) medications can reduce symptoms of narcolepsy

phobia

extreme, irrational fear of a specific object, animal, or situation selective humans biologically prepared to develop fears of objects/situations (snakes, heights) that may once have posed a threat to humans evolutionary ancestors

what is most reported emotion for both sexes in dreams?

fear followed by happiness and confusion

mirror neurons

fire both when an action is performed and when the action is simply perceived - they mirror the observed action as though the observer were actually carrying out the action defined by function, NOT physical structure

concentration techniques

focus awareness on a visual image, your breathing, a word, or phrase (a MANTRA) that is repeated mentally

elaborative rehearsal

focusing on the meaning of information to help encode and transfer it to LTM relate new information to old information leads to better retention that maintenance rehearsal

yawning

followed by an increase in activity level - yarn after waking up, trying to stay awake at night, or when you're bored researchers don't know why we yawn yawning may be an adaptive social cue we yawn when we see/hear others do because we feel empathy for others

retroactive interference

forgetting in which a new memory interferes with remembering an old memory; backward-acting memory interference new interferes with old

proactive interference

forgetting in which an old memory interferes with remembering a new memory forward-acting memory interference

interference theory

forgetting is caused by one memory competing with or replacing another more similar - more it will interfere

conditioned stimulus CS

formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response - ex. bell

Sigmund Freud

founded psychoanalysis sexual and aggressive instincts are motivating forces that dictate behavior b/c urges are consciously unacceptable they're pushed in to our unconscious/repressed and surface in dreams

what do researchers suggest is the new magical number compared to what Miller suggested before?

four plus or minus one

learned helplessness

in classically conditioned dogs they learned that the shock was inescapable - the dogs learned to be helpless/learned the cognitive expectation that their behavior would have no effect on the environment exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior ex. college kids when they fail in an academic setting, don't step up to the challenge and develop learned helplessness

biological preparedness

in learning, the idea that an organism is innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses association may not occur if its not one that the animal is biologically prepared to associate applies to taste aversion (ex. coyotes and lambs from lecture)

Sleep walking, night terrors, sleep talking all begin when?

in slow wave sleep

when do sleep cycles emerge in new borns?

in the last trimester of prenatal development

forgetting

inability to recall information that was previously available does NOT refer to loss or absence of once-remembered information

retrieval cue failure

inability to recall long term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues memories only appear to be forgotten, with the right retrieval cue, you can often access stored information that seemed to be unavailable

posthypnotic amnesia

inability to recall specific information because of a hypnotic suggestion temporary

encoding failure

inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in LTM ex. why you forget a persons name - info. present in STM but never encoded to LTM

stimulants

increase brain activity, arouse behavior, and increase mental alertness - mildly addicting

why do we get sleep?

increase in adenosine= increase in need for sleep slow wave NREM reduces adenosine

REM rebound

increase the amount of time spent in REM sleep - sometimes by as much as 50%

what is the time spent in REM like as you age?

increases in childhood and adolescence remains stable through adulthood decreases during late adulthood

drug tolerance

increasing amounts of a physically addictive drug are needed to produce the original, desired effect

chunking

increasing the amount of information that can be held in STM by grouping related items together into a single unit or chunk also involves the retrieval of meaningful information from LTM credit cards and social security chunked

source amnesia

indirectly experienced this scene or situation before but forgotten memory source

STM

information is stored for up to about 20 sec. info. transferred here from sensory memory active, working memory system imagining, remembering, and problem solving take place here provides temporary storage for information that is currently being used in some conscious cognitive activity

explicit memory

information or knowledge that can be consciously recollected aka declarative memories - declare the information

implicit memory

information or knowledge that effects behavior or task performance but cant be consciously recollected memory without awareness aka non-declarative memory - unable to declare information - can type words without looking at the keyboard but cant tell someone what the exact order of letters are in each row on the keyboard

inhalants

inhaled to produce an alteration in consciousness (ex. paint solvent, spray paint, gasoline) inexpensive and readily available CNS depressants effects only last a few minutes suffocation, toxic to organs, brain damage (more drain damage than cocaine users)

myoclonic jerk

involuntary muscle spasm of the whole body that jolts the person completely awake

aversive stimuli

involve physical or psychological discomfort that an organism seeks to escape or avoid behaviors negatively reinforced when - escape aversive stimuli that are already present or avoid aversive stimuli before they occur

when does the sleeper usually shift positions?

just before and after REM periods

reflex

largely involuntary, automatic response to an external stimulus

conditioned response CR

learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus - ex. salivation to sound of bell

procedural memories

learning a new skill until it can be performed automatically; REM and NREM stage 2

Skinner

learning demonstrated by new behaviors that were actively emitted by the organism (like the cats trying to get out of the box)

how are some mages represented in the LTM?

visual images mental visual images that can be mentally manipulated. Show subjects just as capital "R" - is it upside down or it is a mirror image of a capital "R" - time it took subjects to answer was directly related to how much they had to rotate the image in order to answer the question. Some subjects started out with image that was reversed 180degrees and others reversed at different degrees. How long it took them to answer was directly related to the degree of rotation that they had to do. Memories are represented as visual images - tasks we perform that use these visual images are related to how much time it takes to manipulate a visual image. Subjects mentally rotating the letter to answer the question.

nightmare

vivid and frightening/unpleasant anxiety dream that occurs during REM sleep dream imagery accelerates causing person to wake up more common among adults women have more frequent nightmares

hypnagogic hallucinations

vivid sensory phenomena that occur during the onset of sleep/pre-sleep phase most common sense is falling aka sleep starts

REM deprivation

wake sleepers when instruments indicate they're entering REM - after a couple times they're allowed to sleep uninterrupted what occurs is REM rebound

sleep walking

walking/performing other actions during NREM 3 and 4 can engage in elaborate and complicated behavior

motivated forgetting

we forget because we are motivated to forget, usually because an memory is disturbing or unpleasant

encoding specificity principle

when the conditions of information retrieval are similar to the conditions of information encoding, retrieval is more likely to be successful more closely the retrieval cue matches the original learning conditions, more likely it is that retrieval will occur

what do sleep disorders depend on?

which stage of sleep it occurs in

drug rebound effect

withdrawal symptoms that are the opposite of a physically addictive drug action ex. not drinking caffeine can produce depression or fatigue

is it possible that dreams could coincide with the future?

yes by chance