PSYCH 312 - Exam Part A

Test Assumptions

1. the tester is adequately trained 2. the sample of behaviour elicited in the test situation is adequate in amount and representative of the domain being sampled 3. the client has been exposed to a comparable but not necessarily identical culture 4. error will be preset in any measurement obained - measured error is unavoidable

Factors Affecting Reading Comprehension

3 main factors effect reading comprehension with sub-categories: 1. Background knowledge: - knowledge of the word: ----> general ----> specific - lingusitic knowledge: ---->Narratives ---->expositions 2. Language comprehension: - linguistic knowlege - syntax -vocabulary 3. Word Recognition Decoding: -phonological awareness -letter knowledge -naming speed

Numbers as quantities

A critical concept to the RightStart program. The concept that numbers occupy fixed positions and that higher numbers indicate larger quantities.

Learning Disability

A disorder in one or more of the basic processes involved in understanding spoken or written language. It may show up as a problem in listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing, or spelling or in a person's ability to do math, despite at least average intelligence. Does not include children who have learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or physical handicaps, mental retardation, or emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. Individuals with learning disabilities encounter difficulty in one or more of seven areas: 1. receptive language 2. expressive language 3. basic reading skill 4. reading comprehension 5. written expression 6. mathematics calculations 7. mathematics reasoning There are a number of children who have learning disabilities, and they all are often unhappy and have a poor opinion of themselves.

"Think Aloud"

A learning strategy where students say out loud what they are thinking while solving word problems or math problems. Useful to detect Buggy algorithms and other mistakes in the child's thought process when solving problems.

Think sheets

A novel way of approaching learning to read text structures is to teach children not to just read such texts but to write them. This technique also leads to measurable increases in reading comprehension of expository texts. Each think sheet deals separately with a critical component process of composing a short essay on a topic: planing, organizing, writing a first draft, thinking about the first draft, editing, revising, and final draft. Think sheets provide prompts for eah part of the process. By thinking through the think sheets and then writing such texts, children may be able to expect what to find in such texts when they subsequently read texts which have been written by others.

Rehearsal buffer

A part of the Control Processes. Has a limited capacity, and thus new information will bump out old information, unless that old information is stored into long-term memory.

Nelson Denny Test

A reading test for high school and college level students. This is a timed silent reading test in which students are required to read short passages and answer multiple choice questions about the passages. Normally students have 20 minutes to complete the test. Can provide a reading rate of the student.

Severe Discrepancy between Aptitude and Achievement

A significant difference between a child's current achievement and intellectual potential Can be assessed through the WISC-IV and WIAT-II or the W-J Aptitude and the W-J Acheivement One of the factors required to be considered to be learning disabled according the the Law 94-142.

Double Blind Trial

A trial where only the pharmacist knows whether the patient is recieving the drug or the placebo. the progress is monitored by parents and teachers of the patient. This is often done with children with ADHD in discovering which medication and dose works best.

Accretion, Restructuring, Schema Tuning

Accretion refers to the simple addition of new knowledge to an existing data structure or schema in long term memory Restructuring refers to forming new schemas in long-term memory completely reorganizing or re-conceptualizing knowledge about a topic or developing a new skill Schema tuning refers to making existing schemas more efficient. Highly tuned procedures may become automatic All three are ways in which new schemas can be aqcuired.They feed on each other. Through practice one may become an expert at one's craft.

Audiogram Auditory Discrimination

Acoustic features are assessed by a hearing specialist and the results are displayed on an audiogram.

Buggy Alorithims

An alternative way of counting in which a children uses in adding or subtracting, multiplying or dividing, may be a combination of a taught procedure, automatic, number facts, and the ability to count. Sometimes these inventive procedures can be ingenious - other times they can lead to errors known as Buggy Algorithms. Algorithms may be changed so that you can count when you don;t have automatic facts at your disposal. These types of procedures put more stress on your working memory. It is important to figure out when a child makes mistakes to what extent the child is carrying out a buggy algorithm. Buggy algorithms are based on rules. Some examples include: - adding sideways in a two digit problem - subtracting only smaller numbers from larger numbers - having a particular rule when zero comes in a problem - lining up numbers on the left and adding down.

Barkley's Attention Profile, Barkley's Home and School Situation Questionnaire

Berkley developped a variety of questionnaries and rating scales in order to properly diagnose a child with ADHD. They mark the presence of certain characteristics as well as the severity of them. Berkley also recommends a systematic behavioural questionnaire be made while a child works at usual classroom task, or in situations and locales. In addition, the child's parents should complete a detailed developmental history questionnaire

Counting on/Counting all

Both are counting strategies which are overly dependent on working memory. Chidlren cope with these demands on working memory by using different strategies. Counting all requires one to count all the number up to the last value (ex. 2+5=1,2,3,4,5,6,7) Counting on requires one to keep one number in their head and count up from that number. (ex. 2+5=2,3,4,5,6,7)

Response to Intervention (RTI)

Children encountering difficulty in school are provided by their teachers with the best evidence, age appropriate instruction which has been validated through scientific research. Children who do not respond or benefit from such instruction may then be classified as learning disabled and referred for Special Education Services by only after a comprehensive assessment.

Sound Blending

Children in phonics programs are asked to do an impossible task of blending sounds together. Without explicit instruction, the concept of blending is unclear to most children. Many will think it means to say individual sounds rapidly. Blending only makes sense if it is understood that the word "cat" has three phonemes. Lack of awareness or sensitivity to phonological structure of words will impede the development of word attack skills. This will lead to deficits in the letter-to-sound rules system, which in turn will impact the development of the OIL and result in limited sight vocabulary. It is also possible it that deficits in naming speed may lead to slowness elsewhere in the system, for example at the level of the phonological output lexicon. Slowness at this level would lead to slowness in retreiving words process by the orthographic input lexicon. Slow naming speed may reflect slowness in the operation of the entire system, from letter processing to saying words. Regardlesss of the source, the result of slowness is a lack of fluency in reading

Phonological awareness

Composes of: - identifying: individual speech sounds or phonemes in words and non-words - deleting: sounds in words to make other words - blending: individual phonemes to construct words and non-words - repeating: words or sounds in reverse order. Repeating strings of non-words - rapidly naming: strings of number, letter, colors, and objects Tests of phonological awareness assess an individual's sensitivity to the sound structure of the language they speak The Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing present different challenges in assessing sensitivity to the sound structure of language Delays in the development of theses skills are related to difficulty in learning to read and spell words (commonly seen in inidivudal's with dyslexia)

Reliability of Difference Scores

Conducted by subtracting one score from another Considerably less tan the reliability of individual scores The higher the correlation between aptitude and acheivement the lower the reliability of the difference between them ry-x = 1/2(ry +rx) - ryx) / 1-ryx

IQ classification

IQ classification classifies a person's intelligence based on their IQ score. Psych Corp's way of classifying performance uses the mean ant the inter-quartile range to define range. 130 and above - very superior 120-129 - superior 110-119 - high average 90-109 - average 80-89 - low average 70-79 - borderline 69 and below - intellectually deficient

Stimulus Seeking

If energy falls below a certain level, then mechanisms are commandeered to increase the energy in the system and the individual becomes engaged. when this happens, there are not enough reasouced left to focus on any particular task. If this condition becomes chronic, the result is a disorder of attention and the person may become hyperactive.

Executive Functions

Include: planning, organizing, monitoring, inhibiting, attending, and working memory time sampling techniques, or running behaviour commentaries can provide data for executive functioning People with learning disabilities often have difficulties in one or more of their executive functions.

Working memory

Included into many modern models of the control processes. Includes parts of short-term memory, long-term memory, the rehersal buffer, and has access to the control processes or procedures which are available in long term memory. Working memory's critical goal is the coordination of on-going information processing. It also plays a vital role in the development of skills such as reading, writing, arithmetic, sports, driving, etc.

Perceptual Organizational Skills (WISC-III)

Includes all of: picture completion, block design, coding and symbol search like the WISC-IV. Also adds in picture arrangement, object assembly and mazes. The additional subsets require the cognitive functions of non-verbal reasoning, plan, comprehend and size up a situation, anticipate and judge antecedents and consequences, richness of experience, extend of schooling, visual-motor coordination, and anticipation. the WISC-III subsets that are missing from the WISC-IV are often still used in assessing children

Standard Scores

Indicate the number of standard units above or below the mean that an individual's score is Use the standard deviation of the distribution of scores around the mean to show how far an individual's score differs from the mean Standard scores with the mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15 are commonly used (used in this course). Standard scores tell us how much better one score is compared to another Most jurisdictions prefer to use standard scores in computing aptitude-achievement discrepancies and use a difference of 2 standard deviations between aptitude (APT) and achievement (ACH) as indication the presence of a severe discrepancy

Percentile Ranks (PR)

Indicate the percentage of the normative or standardization group that is below an individual's percentile rank score Ordinal score

IDEA 2004, 2006

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, requires that services be provided for two different age groups of children with disabilities: 1. preschoolers, ages 3 through 5, and 2. infants and toddlers, birth to age 3. The policies for each age group differ. The infants and toddlers deal more with parenting of the child, whereas preschoolers focus is on intervention practices for the child.

IRI

Informal Reading Inventories assess comprehension by asking questions both oral and silent reading of graded passages. They are used to identify the level of material that a client can read and comprehend independently without difficulty, and the level of material that might be appropriate to employ during instruction. For some, comprehension is better following silent rather than oral reading The effort involved during oral reading in retrieving words with correct pronunciation may interfere with processing the meaning of what is read. For others, the reverse is true, and only by activating output phonology are the words in the text processed sufficiently deeply to enable questions to be answered correctly.

Letter to Sound Rules Whole Words Visual Errors (in reading) Phonological Recording Phonological Output Lexicon

Letter to Sound Rules allows individuals to be able to read words that they do not know. Letter to Sound Rules recieve the output from the Phonological output lexicon. Whole words are obtained by using the OIL when recognizing familiar words. Visual errors occur when unfamiliar words activate units in the OIL of familiar words, such as calm and clam. The processess of asssinging sound values to individual letters, and then blending them together is referred to as phonological recording. This is learned when learning phonics and used in letter to sound rules.

Informal Reading Tests

Often use more items in assessing word reading than standardized tests. The client is asked to read lists of graded words. Each word is printed one at a time on cards.

Grade Equivalent Scores (GE)

Ordinal score

Empower

Originally a pilot project offerred at SickKids Hospital. Not it is available in over 100 schools by teachers with special training in Empower reading stratemgies and materials. The program follows an apprenticeship model where students are apprentices to an expert reader. Initially the teacher is the expeert reader but later on students take turns as experts. The program is scaffolded and makes use of phonological training, and unlocking word training such as sounding out, using parts of words, and peeling off.

Bender Gestalt Test

Participants are provided with a clean sheet of paper and a pencil and asked to copy a series of nine abstract designs, one at a time. The child cannot rotate the design cards and is not instructed where to make the copies on the paper. The test requires fine motor coordination, common sense, and planning. It is scored on a negative basis with penalties for errors like rotations, inversion, omitting parts of a figure, distorting a figure of preservation in which parts are repeated over and over again. In this test, Michael made many errors, rotations, inversion, parts omitted, and preservation.

Object decision tests

Patients with visual perceptual problems are often tested with object decision tests where they are asked to judge whether a picture is real or imaginary If a patient does not know what an object is but still knows that it does not exist they still have some knowledge in the form of stored structural descriptions

Multitasking

Performing tasks simutaneously. Some of the schemas are so highly tuned that they run automatically. The ability to process information may only be limitted by the extent to which such schemas compete encoding mechanisms. Capacity may be limited by the ability to orchestrate the activity of several independant or overlapping subsystems or schemata Example of listening to a lecture: listening, writing, sitting, and extracting the message.

Phonological Awareness and Naming Speed

Phonological awareness and naming speed are key factors in learning language. Problems in both areas can cause a double deficit in phonology which results in poorer readers. Can commonly be seen in individual's with dyslexia

Model for visual object recognition

Proposed by Glyn Humphreys and Jane Riddoch who studied visual recognition problems in patients who have had strokes (Add photo)

Pure Word Deafness Word Meaning Deafness Word Finding Problems Speech Deficits Neglect Dyslexia Attentional Dyslexia Alexia Without Agraphia Surface Dyslexia Phonological Dyslexia Visual Errors

Pure word deafness results from the damaged component for analyzing auditory and basic acoustic features. Damage to this area also effects serious difficulties understanding or repeating speech. Word meaning deafness results from damage to the phonological input lexicon. Damage to this area additionally effects recognizing spoken words even though you may be able to repeat them. Word finding problems results from damage to the phonological output lexicon. Lesser impairments may lead to difficulty finding low frequency words as opposed to high frequency words, or being able to generate approximations to words or "neologisms" Speech deficits result from damage in the area of mechanisms for generating speech. This effects speech, such as stuttering, and mispronunciation. Neglect dyslexia is impairment in processing letter position. Caused by damage to the ALI Attentional dyslexia is migration errors in which letters from nearby words are incorporated into other words. Ex. "once hard" "One chord". Caused by damage to ALI. Alexia without agraphia is word reading that is abolished but the capacity for writing word remains intact. Caused by damage to the ALI. Damage to the Orthographic Input lexicon results in Surface dyslexia. Surface dyslexia is a drastic reduction in one's sight vocabulary. Only the lettter to sound rule system may be left which operates much slower than the OIL. Damage to the letter-to-sound rule compononent can result in phonological dyslexia. Phonological dyslexia is the inability to read unfailiar words or non-words. Many visual errors may be made by trying to use the OIL to read such material. Lesser degrees of impairment may lead to errors in applying phonic rules or in blending sounds to make rules.

Internal Consistency Reliability

Refers to the extent that items on the test assess comparable content. If items on a test measure different things, the test has low internal consistency We can determine the internal consistency by correlating each item within the test with the responses to all other items within the test. Internal consistency correlations may be higher than test-retest reliability. A correlation of +0.9 or greater is acceptable.

Test Retest Consistency Reliabiltiy

Refers to the stabiity in scores over time, determined by giving the test to a large group of individuals on one occasion and then giving it to the same group on another It is the relative standing of individuals caclulated by correlating the test scores of the 1st and 2nd attempt the results are expressed as a reliability coefficient (+1 - -1). - +1 means that the test is perfectly reliable with identical results - -1 means that the test is perfectly reliable with opposite results - a coefficent of +0.8 or higher is acceptable it is the relative standing that is important.

Anaphoric reference

Requires making bridging inferences to make sense of what is read. Writers of stories and even speakers during casual conversation make extensive use of anaphoric reference

Right start/Number words

RightStart is a program for financially underprivileged preschool children at risk for school failure. The program was designed to provide the children with a large variety of experiences using a large variety of games involving counting backwards and forwards and in which simple math concepts could be demonstrated and learned. A major concept to be demonstrated and learned was the critical idea that numbers represent quantities. It was later renames Number Worlds.

Comprehension strategies

Strategies are initially taught in the context of reading short segments of text and demonstrated after the fact. It is expected that with practice, the stratgies will become part of the student's armor to use when reading alone and which will become activated during working memory as reading proceeds. In addition, students have been taught proceedures for monitoring their own ongoing developing comprehension. Strategies must be demonstrated explicitly. The most benefit appears to come from using several strategies at once. Such strategies include: predicting, verifying, visualizing, relating prior knowledge, sumaraizing, questioning, classifying, monitoring, skipping, looking back, setting a goal for reading, and browsing/previewing.

Self regulatory speech

Talking through what the process to be completed will be. Allows one to be able to regulate their behaviours as they work through tasks. This is a very useful tool for children with ADD.

Word finding

Tests assess one's ability to recall the correct words to name common objects, or express one's intentions in replying to the speech of others

Public Law 94-142

The Education for All Handicaped Children Act, was passed by Congress in 1975. The law guarentees a free and appropriate public education to children with disabilities. The law stipulates that in order for a child to be considered learning disabled, they must meet certain criteria: 1. not achieving in school in comparison with their age and ability 2. exhibiting a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability

Orthographic Input Lexicon (OIL)

The OIL receives output from the ALI. The OIL identifies strings of letters that form familiar words. The OIL allows for recognition of words that an individual already knows. Connected to the semantic system in order to understand words.

TEACH

The Test of Everyday Attention for Children used to determine a child's strength and weaknesses in Selective attention and executive functioning in attentional control swtiching and the ability to sustain attention. Involves tasks such as sky search, map mission, creative counting, and opposite words. These are like games that children can play at home.

Word Reading Tests Non-word Reading Tests

The WIAT-II and informal tests of reading assess word reading by having a client read aloud lists of letters and words. In addition the client will us word attack skills in which a client is asked to read pronounceable non-words. Non-words are words that are pronounceable but do not have a meaning. Clients will be able to sound out these words using phonemes.

Assessment of Working Memory

The Weschler scales provide assessments involving recalling numbers backwards, and letter and number sequencing, and the arithmetic subtests. Such tests assess skills in verbal working memory Susan Gathercole and Tracy Alloway assessment battery provides a broader assessment of working memory and short-term memory skills. It includes testing in verbal short-term memory, verbal working memory, visuospatial short-term memory, visuospatial working memory.

Syntax

The grammar system of a language, the linguistic rules of word order; the function of words in a sentence. Tests of syntax include both expressive and receptive knowledge of language. The tests assess the meaning aspect's of the child's language in their working vocabulary. Children who fall behind other children in their similar age group, find many difficulties in school.

Phonology

The linguistic system of speech sounds in a particular language. The word "cat" has three sounds or phonemes. Expressive phonology is assessed through the Goldmond Fristoe Test of Articulation Receptive phonology is assessed through the Johns Test of Auditory Discrimination or Wepman's Test. Difficulty in any of these tests would indicate that a child has difficulty hearing, and thus they will require a general hearing test by an audiologist.

LDAO definition of LD

The psychological processes that may be impaired in a child with learning disabilities are: - phonological processing - memory and attention (short-term memory, working memory, long-term memory, retrieval, attention) - Speed of processing (excessively slow) - language processing - perceptual motor processing - visuospatial processing - executive functioning (planing, monitoring, slef regulation, orgnizational skills, metaacognition) Not only do weaknesses or impairments in such psychological processes impact school learning but they also impact work and skills

Reading Rate

The rate at which words are read. Can be determined by the Nelson-Denny test. It is measured by words/minute.

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

The system in the brain that causes arousal. Often, children with ADHD have something gone amiss in their RAS and are constantly under aroused. This is often corrected with a stimulant medication.

Cross Case Non-word Matching

This test was designed by Professor Max Coltheart to assess the abstract letter identification independently of anything else. The test uses upper and lower case versions of the same letter to see whether the client can judge that two letters are the same even when they are visually very different. Only letter that are visually dissimilar used. Easch test consists of 32 pairs of 2 non-matching words, one upper case and one in lower case. Half of the pairs are comprised of the same letters, while the rest are different. Non-word pairs are used to eliminate any contribution from the OIL while still trying to assess the skill in a context similar to reading. To remove any contribution from letter-to-sound rules pairs of strings of letters that are not pronounceable are presented. Such tasks can be done under 2 conditions: 1. each item may be presented for a short period of time (2 seconds) 2. Each item is present for as long as it takes the client to make a response and the response time is recorded These conditions allow one to assess if the problems surface only under conditions which might simulate rapid reading

Lexical Decision Task

This test was designed to assess the integrity of the orthographic input lexicon independently of any contribution from the letter-to-sound rules system of knowledge of phonics. The client is asked to judge whether a printed string is an English word or not. They are not required to read the string. Each item consists of a pair of strings of letters, one which makes a real word and the other which may look similar but is not a real word. Each pair is printed individually on cards. The task for the client is to point to the string that is a word. The client does not have to read the words. Even if the client does read the word, it will not help in this test. The spelling of both words make the same sound.

Text structure

Through experience in listening to stories read to them, mmost children implicityly develop knowledge of the structure of narratives. For those who don't, direct instruction in typical story grammars has been found to lad to gains in story comprehension. Children often have limited experience with texts that relate expository or factual material and those that relate an opinion. Make the structures of these texts explicitly improves comprehension of technical material.

Model of Reading Comprehension

Used to show how the various factors affecting reading comprehension bring together reading comprehension. It allows shows the critical role played by the Working Memory. The demands of the working memory are strong for reading comprehension - especially to novice readers. Because the working memory has a limitted capacity, the demands can be thought of as skills, and soon these skills will become automatic for children as they progress to expert readers. The skills therefore get shifted to the Long-term memory. Comprehension of words and reading will be slow if skills are not yet mastered. After years of experience, an individual will have quick reading comprehension.

Abstract Letter Identification (ALI)

When looking at a written word, basic visual processors are activated and fed to an initial component for reading termed the ALI. The ALI allows one to recognize a letter as being a particular letter regardless of he script that it is written in. This is required for perceiving the position of letters within words, and is thought to be necessary for grouping together letters which belong together. Problems with ALI could mean that a child has dyslexia. Further tests must be adminstered to confirm diagnosis.

Sight Vocabulary Phonological Recording

Words read correctly within one second or the time it takes to say "one thousand and one", are considered a part of one's sight vocabulary. Such responses reflect acitivty in the fast-acting OIL. Responses that take longer than one second reflect some decoding strategy like phonological recording in the letter-to-sound rules system component. It is also possible that in the absence of overt decoding, the process of whole word recognition is just slow.

Cogmed

a computerized program that includes exercises and tests deigned to improve weak working memory skills

Key math test

a diagnostic math test which includes separate tests of skills in numeration, algebra, geometry, measurement, data analysis, and probability. Provides an overall measure of basic concepts. The test of operations includes mental computation and estimation, addition and subtraction, and multiplication and division. The two tests of applications invovles problem solving foundations or strategies and applied problems involving money, interpreting graphs, etc.

Double deficit in phonology

a hypothesis that states that children with both phonological and naming-speed deficits will be poorer readers than children with just one or neither of these deficits

Semantics

a linguistic term referring to the vocabulary system of language. Often the semantics of language gets lost in reading for individuals with dyslexia, who mainly focus on the naming of specific words.

Parcentesis Tympani

a procedure where tubes are inserted in both ears to remove fluid build-up. commonly performed with children who have chronic ear infections. Without the procedure, early developmental milestones in cognition and language and motor development can be missed or not advance properly.

BRIEF

a questionnaire for parents and teachers which is used to assess executive function behaviour both at home and at school. It consist of 86 items within eight scales that measure different aspects of executive function (Inhibit, shift, emotional control, initiate, working memory, plan/organize, organization of materials, monitor)

Standardized Sample

a sample of people who is exposed to the same set of test items and materials under similar conditions as everyone else their age. In the WISC-IV the standardization sample is a sample of peers.

Base ten place value

a useful tool to use when adding, subtracting, mulitpying and dividing. Many tricks can be used to help kids learn to perform calculations using the base ten place value place, such as base ten blocks.

Behaviour management

employing behaviour modification used to help children persevere. Incentives are used to increse on-task behvaiour. Allows for children with ADHD to experience some success. Drugs canot make up for the absence of skills that were not learned in the first place so a combination of CBM and behaviour management is necessary.

Think Aloud

engaging the child to think aloud as they engage in tasks can also provide rich source of data that can speak to the integrity of executive functions

Naming Speed

important to the development of word reading. When naming speed reflects slowness at the level of initial visual processes, processing of the orthographic input lexicon may be compromised. Slow visual processing would lead to slow letter identification.

Figure copying

in figure copying, one has to notice critical features in the display and incorporate that information in a mental represenation of the figure to be copied. It is one's mental representation that guides the hand that holds the pen Therefore, patients who have difficulty in their working memory functions, would find this task to be difficult. In Michael's case, he did not nstruct himself to stop drawing circles in the Bender Gesalt test

Gross motor skills

includes running, walking, skipping jumping, etc .. Assessed with the WISC-IV through tests of walking, running, walking backward, anticipating events and adapting to the unexpected, and reacting to changes in context while they are occurring.

Perceptual Reasoning

includes: block design, picture concepts, matrix reasoning, and picture completion

processing speed

includes: coding, symbol search, cancellation

working memory (WISC-IV)

includes: digit span, letter-number sequencing, and arithmetic

Verbal Comprehension

includes: similarities, vocabulary, comprehension, information

Age Equivalent Scores (AE)

indicate the level of growth or development that a child has reached. Tests are given to a large representative samples whose scores provide the standards or norms for aptitude or achievement - standards to which everyone else is subsequently compared. Ordinal score

ACID Pattern on WISC-IV

initially it was proposed that ADHD leads to the ACID pattern. This is because most children with ADHD recieve low score in Arithmetic, Coding, Information, and Digit Span. However, there is not a WISC profile typical of ADHD. Not all children who show the ACID pattern on the WISC have ADHD.

Scaffolded Instruction

involves controlling the parts of a task that are initially beyond the current level of skill. Levels of support in scaffolding vary depending on the task. Once the child learns how to do the task, the scaffold is slowly removed. This process is used in remediation

Semantic Maps

involves using graphic pictures which show the relationships among concepts or events. Semantic maps can be used to assess and develop both vocabulary and prior knoweldge. They are particularly useful in science and social studies. Semantic mapping can be used as a road map for writing a composition or to keep track of one's representations of texts as or after one reads them. Maps can be constructed to graphically capture the plots of entire stories. These activities may address problems having to do with a lack of real world or domain knowledge, limited vocabulary, and keeping track of what happens in a story.

Information Processing View of ADHD

it is hypothesized that the executor can operately effecively only when it has an optimal amount of energy. I

Conners' CPRS, Conners' CTRS

popular devices for parents and teachers for obtaining systematic behavioural information and developmental history for diagnosing a child with ADHD. Includes separate norms for boys and girls and can be used for children and adolescents from age 3-15 years. Only those who are at the most extreme on the scale (2.5%) should be diagnosed with ADHD.

Intentional Practice

practice in which the child learns to slef monitor, self-correct, and how to cope when they do not know what to d. This sort of practic that is typical of experts.

Time Sampling

provide data for executive functioning in individuals

Scale scores

scale scores are used when scoring the WISC-IV. scale scores are the results of some transformation applied to the raw score. The purpose of scaled scores is to report scores for all examinees on a consistent scale. In terms of the WISC-IV, the child's individual score on each subtest are given a score between 1 and 19. Then the score is compared to children of a similar age in the normative sample. 10 is the mean score with a standard deviation of 3. Therefore, a consistency of scoring 10, the child would be considered average. Below 10, the child is below average and above 10, the child is above average. The average range on the WISC-IV is between 7 and 13.

IQ scores

standardized scores with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Useful in predicting academic achievement

Norms

standards of comparison. In devising a standardized test it is important to give it to a large group of people (standardization group) WISC-IV, WIAT-II, Woodcock Johnston APT & ACH are all normed tests

similarities

task for child: "in what way are ____ and ____ alike?" Cognitive functions: Abstract thinking and verbal reasoning

comprehension

task for child: answer orally presented questions about judgements of social conventions Cognitive functions: Common sense, and the ability to evaluate and use past experience in a practical way

Information

task for child: answer questions on general knowledge Cognitive functions: richness of experience and extent of schooling

Block design

task for child: arrange small coloured blocks to reproduce 2-D geometric designs cognitive functions: deliberate processing of visual features, analysis and reconstructions of designs' intricate relationships

matrix reasoning

task for child: choose patterns that complete matrices cognitive functions: abstract thinking with visual material, appreciation of the logic in each matrix

picture concepts

task for child: choose pictures that go together conceptually cognitive functions: abstract thinking with visual material

vocabulary

task for child: define selected spoken words Cognitive functions: Fund of information, richness of ideas, memory, concept formation, and language development

picture completion

task for child: detect missing essential elements in pictures of common objects and familiar scenes

coding

task for child: quickly and accurately record (using a pencil) geometric symbols for numbers from a template cognitive functions: visual-motor coordination; scanning, psychomotor speed and accuracy

arithmetic

task for child: rapidly answer within a time limit orally presented arithmetic reasoning problems doing rewuired calculations in one's head cognitive functions: rapidly reorganize and apply correct arithmetic operations to solve simple calculations and mah word problems.

symbol search

task for child: rapidly noticing (using pencil strokes) whether target(s) letter-like but abstract shape(s) is present in a sequence of such shapes cognitive functions: rapidly discriminating militarizes and differences in sets of shapes, scanning, visual-motor coordination

digit span

task for child: repeat series of numbers both in forward and backward order cognitive functions: attention, rehearsal, retrieval, rapidly reorganizing material for immediate recall (backward digits)

letter-number sequencing

task for child: repeat series of sets of mixed up random numbers and letters so that the number and letters are repeated in their natural orders cognitive functions: attention, rehearsal, retrieval, rapidly reorganizing material for immediate recall

cancellation

task for child: use pencil dtrokes to rapidly mark pictures of a particular class of objects embedded in a complex display cognitive functions: rapidly dicriminating similarities and differences in classes of objects, visual-motor coordination, and scanning

Contol processes, sensory resiter, short terms memory, long terms memory

the control processes where proposed by Atkinson and Shiffron, used to regulate information from one system to another. They occur rapidly and automatically and influenced by the individual's given and past experiences. Brain injuries can affect the way an individual is able to use each control process. The control processes have limitations. One of which is the number of items that the short-term memory is able to store (7 +/- 2). The information must be transferred into long-term memory, or else it will be bumped out of memory by new incoming information into the short-term memory store.

DSM-IV-TR Diagnostic Criteria

the disorder is currently referred to as Attention Defict/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), however an attempt is made to distinguish between those who are hyperactive, impulsive, and both. The disorder must be present before 7 years of age and in two or more settings. Clear evidence of clinically significant impairment in social, academic, and occupational functions.Symptoms do not occur exclusively in the course of other impairments. A diagnosis of ADHD requires a detailed developmental history a well as data from parents and teachers documenting the prevelence and severity of inattentive and/or hyperactive behaviours

Validity

the extent to which a test does in fact measure what it purports to measure Intelligence tests are difficult to validate. Often, the validity of intelligence tests is determined by how well they predict performance on achievement tests.

Lexical Decision Test Word Finding

the phonological input lexicon is assessed using lexical decision tests. Phonological output lexicon problems may be indicated by the presence of word finding problems, or difficulty in naming familiar objects. these tests are best assessed by someone trained in speech pathology

Pragmatics

the social side of language; the social context and social customs surrounding a language. deficits in this area can be a general communication disorder including problems in interpreting intentions, difficulty in communicating with others, and even difficulties involving appropriate tone of voice, facial expression, and gesture.

Proactive inference

the tendency of previously learned material to hinder subsequent learning. Children who are particularly vulnerable to PI may continue working on problems long after their classmates have moved on and thus, fall behind.

Anaphora

the use of words as regular grammatical substitutes for either a preceding word or group of words. Comprehension of speech or text depends on keeping track of anaphora. The reader must constantly keep track of who, what, where, when is being referred to now. In order to make bridging inferences, the reader must be able to retrieve in working memory the referents to anaphoric terms

Story grammar

used to help with a child's written composition. deficits in the area of telling stories or relating events to others, noticeable in how competent the child is in written composition is usually corrected with story grammars Instruction in story grammars leads to significant improvement in written composition and reading comprehesion.

Cognitive Behaviour Modification

used to teach childre to orchestrate subskills better. Uses self-instructional skills to teach a child's executive system how to better allocate reasources This teaching technique uses modelling, self verbalization, and self-reinforcement Steps: 1. the teacher acts as a model 2. the child performs the task with the help of the teacher's instructions 3. the child is requested to repeat the task while verbalizing the instructions out loud 4. the child completes the task while whispering 5. the child completes the task while talking covertly to themself 6. the child congradulates themselves after completing the task with self reinforcement Includes a number of self-regulation components: initial questions, self guidence, verbal cueing, and self reinforcement This method had been proven to give significant improvement in a specific task or situation. Problems arise for children with ADHD who find the task long and time consuming

Errors in Reading

when reading several sub-skills are required such as noticing internal details of words and be able to use context to facilitate word recognition. If the person has difficulty noticing internal details, she may attempt to only use context which would lead to a lot of guessing If both skills are weak, one may get focuses over the other at random