Psych and Soc Ch 6.1 Personality

five psychosexual stages

Freud suggested that sexual energy is present from infancy and that each person matures through_____________________. each part of the body is the focus of sensual pleasure (oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages) adult personality is largely determined during the 1st 3 psychosexual stages.

Hans Eysenck

Biological Perspective proposed that a person's level of extroversion is based on individual differences in the reticular formation (which mediates arousal and consciousness) In this view introverts are more easily aroused and therefore require and tolerate less external stimulation, whereas extroverts are less easily aroused and therefore comfortable in more stimulating environments also proposed a persons level of neuroticism is based on individual differences in the limbic system (which helps mediate emotion and memory) Correlations have been found between extroversion and the volume of brain structures involved with processing awards, and between neuroticism anf the volume of brain regions involved with processing neg emotions and punishment In twin and adoption studies, have found strong evidence for heritability of extroversion and neuroticism

C. Robert Cloninger

Biological perspective also [Like Jeffrey Alan gray] linked personality to brain systems involved with reward, motivation, and punishment. Cloninger proposed that personality is linked to the level of activity certain neurotransmitters in three interacting systems. In this view, low DA [dopamine] activity correlates with higher impulsivity and novelty seeking, Low norepinephrine activity correlates with higher approval seeking and reward dependence, low serotonin activity correlates with risk avoidance. Correlations have been found between novelty seeking and grey matter volume in the cingulate cortex, between reward dependence and grey matter volume in caudate nucleus, and between harm avoidance and grey matter volume in the orbitofrontal, occipital, and parietal cortices.

Jeffrey Alan Gray

Biological perspective proposed that personality is governed by interactions among three brain systems that respond to rewarding and punishing stimuli. In this view, fearfulness and avoidance are linked to the "fight or flight" sympathetic nervous system, worry and anxiety are linked to behavioral inhibition system, and optimism and impulsitivty are linked to the behavioral approach system

cognitive behavioral therapy

behavior therapy combined with a cognitive approach (CBT) cognitive perspective= persons feeling and behaviors are seen as rxns not to actual events but to the persons thoughts about those events. Each person thus lives by self-created, subjective beliefs about themselves, other people and the world, and these beliefs color the person's interpretations of events. Many of these beliefs are formed during childhood, and are often unconscious. from the cognitive perspective, the roots of psychopathology are irrational or dysfunctional thoughts and beliefs. The goal is to help the client become aware of these and substitute rational or accurate beliefs and thoughts, which will lead to more functional feelings and behaviors

Person-situation controversy

aka *trait* *versus* *state* *controversy*, considers the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality trait or is due to the situation itself (trait). the primary question is whether personality is consistent over time and across situations and contexts a fair amount of research suggests that while people's personality traits are fairly stable, their behavior in specific situations can be variable. in other words, people do not act with predictable consistency even if their personality traits are predictably consistent Averaging behavior over many situations is the best way to reveal distinct personality traits

genital stage

begins in adolescence when sexual themes resurface and person's life/sexual energy fuels activities such as friendship, art, sports, and careers 12+ years

incongruence

humanistic theory people choose behavior consistent with their self concepts, if they encounter experiences in life that contradict their self-concepts they feel uncomfortable incongruence. By paying attention to their emotional rxns to experiences, a person in an incongruent state can learn what their values are and then become healthy again by modifying the introjected values and self-concept growing toward fulfillment and completness of self.

death instinct

drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to dies or to hurt oneself or others Freud/ psychoanalytic theory

Erik Erikson

extended Freud's theory of developmental stages in two ways. added social and interpersonal factors, to supplement Freud's focus on unconscious conflicts w/n a person. He delineated eight developmental stages and conflicts in adolescence and adulthood, to supplement Freud's focus on early childhood

personality trait

generally stable predisposition toward a certain behavior. Trait theories of personality focus on identifying, describing, measuring, and comparing individual differences and similarities with respect to such traits

self-concept

humanistic theory made up of the childs conscious, subjective perceptions and beliefs about him or herself The childs true values remain but are unconscious as the child pursues experiences consistent with the introjected values rather than the true values. the discrepancy between conscious and introjected values and unconscious true values is the root of psychopathology. This discrepancy between the conscious and unconscious leads to tension, not knowing oneself and a feeling that something is wrong

ego

ruled bu the *reality* *principle*, uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id. The ego tries to find realistic ways to satisfy the id's desire for pleasure

latency stage

sexual interests subside and are replaced by interests in other areas such as school, friends, and sports 6-12 years

anal stage

the child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination 1-3 years

oral stage

the child seeks sensual pleasure through oral activities such as sucking or chewing Birth to 1 year

phallic stage

the child seeks sensual pleasure through the genitals at this stage, the child is both sexually attracted to the opposite sex parent and hostile toward the same sex parent who is seen as a rival known as the *Oedipus* *complex* in a boy and the *electra* *complex* in a girl. Girls are also said to experience *penis* *envy* during the phallic stage 3-6 years

Five-Factor Model

trait persepctive. described by McCrae and Costa Widely accepted

Therapy: humanistic (aka client-centered or person-centered) Assumed problem: Therapy goals: General method:

Assumed problem: barriers to self-understanding and self-acceptance Therapy goals: personal growth through self-insight General method: active listening and unconditional positive regard

Therapy: cognitive behavioral (CBT) Assumed problem: Therapy goals: General method:

Assumed problem: maladaptive behavior and or negative self-defeating thoughts Therapy goals: extinction and relearning of undesired thoughts/behaviors and healthier thinking and self-talk General method: reconditioning, desensitization, reversal of self-blame

Therapy: psychoanalytic (aka psychodynamic or talk therapy) Assumed problem: Therapy goals: General method:

Assumed problem:unconscious forces and childhood experiences Therapy goals: reduce anxiety through self-insight General method: analysis and interpretation

trust versus mistrust

Erikson's 1st stage infants task is to resolve this crisis if an infants physical and emotional needs are not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust the world and interpersonal relationships Birth to 1 year

autonomy versus shame and doubt

Erikson's 2nd stage toddler must resolve this crisis If a toddler's need to explore, make mistakes and test limits are not met, as an adult he or she may be dependent rather than autonomous 1-3 years

initiative versus guilt

Erikson's 3rd stage the preschool age child must resolve this crisis. If a young childs need to make decisions is not met at this stage, as an adult he or she may feel guilty taking initiative and instead allow others to choose. 3-6 years

industry versus inferiority

Erikson's 4th stage if school age child needs to understand the world, develop a gender-role identity, succeed in school, and set and attain personal goals are not met at this stage, as an adult he or she may feel inadequate. 6-12 years

identity versus role confusion

Erikson's 5th stage If an adolescent does not test limits and clarify his or her identity goals, and life meaning, he or she may develop role confusion 12-18 years

generativity versus stagnation

Erikson's 7th stage. occurs in middle age. if a person does not at this stage feel productive by helping the next generation and resolving differences between actual accomplishments and earlier dreams, he or she may become stuck in psychological stagnation 35-60 years

integrity versus despair

Erikson's 8th stage and final stage later life If a person looks back with regrets and a lack of personal worth at this stage, he or she may feel hopeless, guilty, resentful, and self-rejecting. 60+ years

16 personality traits [Cattell] and the 5 Global Factors [Cattell] Trait perspective

Extroversion [1-5] 1. reserved/warm 2. serious/ lively 3. shy/bold 4. private/ forthright 5. self-reliant/ group oriented Anxiety [6-8] 6. emotionally stable/ reactive 7. trusting/ vigilant 8. assured/ apprehensive 9. relaxed/ tense Receptivity [1, 10-12] 1. reserved/warm 10. unsentimental/ sensitive 11. practical/ abstracted 12. traditional/ open to change Accomodation [3, 7, 12, 13] 3. shy/bold 7. trusting/ vigilant 12. traditional/ open to change 13. dominant/ deferential Self-control [2, 11, 14, 15] 2. serious/ lively 11. practical/ abstracted 14. expedient/ rule-conscious 15. tolerates disorder/ perfectionist 16. problem solving [doesn't fit into any global factors] 16 surface traits organized into 5 global factors

social cues

Person-situation controversy in unfamiliar situations, people tend to modify their behavior based on ______________ (verbal or nonverbal hints that guide social interactions); Therefore specific traits may remain hidden. For ex, a person who is normally quite extroverted may seem quiet and reserved in an unfamilar formal situation in familiar situations people act more like themselves. Averaging behavior over many situations is the best way to reveal distinct personality traits

states

Person-situation controversy are situational; they are unstable, temporary and variable aspects of personality that are influenced by the external environment. For example, extroversion is a trait, stress is a state.

traits

Person-situation controversy considered to be internal, stable, and enduring aspects of personality that should be consistent across most situations For example, extroversion is a trait, stress is a state.

Some common ego defense mechanisms

Repression: lack of recall of an emotionally painful memory Denial: forceful refusal to acknowledge and emotionally painful memory Reaction formation: expressing the opposite of what one really feels, when it would feel too dangerous to express the real feeling (such as acting hateful toward someone to whom one is sexually attracted) Projection: attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person (Im not angry, you are!) Displacement: redirecting sexual or aggressive impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one [someone kicks the dog instead of expressing anger at a boss] Rationalization: explaining and intellectually justifying one's impulsive behavior Regression: reverting to an earlier, less sophisticated behavior (as when a child reverts to bed wetting after a trauma) Sublimation: channeling aggressive or sexual energy into positive, constructive activities, such as producing art

intimacy versus isolation

The young adult faces Erikson's 6th stage if a person does not form intimate sexual relationships at this stage, he or she may become alienated and isolated 18-35 years

surface traits

Trait perspective are evident from a persons behavior ex, a person might be described as talkative. There are as many surface traits as there are adjectives for describing human behavior

source traits

Trait perspective factors underlying human personality and behavior; fewer and more abstract than surface traits. Each trait is not binary but a continuum ranging between 2 or more extremes such as extroversion and introversion

Raymond Cattell

Trait perspective used factor analysis with 100s of surface traits to identify which were related to each other by this process he identified 16 surface traits. Further factor analysis reduced 15 of these into five *global* *factors* (source traits): extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation and self-control

Trait perspective

a personality trait is a generally stable predisposition toward a certain behavior. Trait theories of personality focus on identifying, describing, measuring, and comparing individual differences and similarities with respect to such traits Trait theorists distinguish between surface and source traits personality traits are thought to help predict a person's performance and enjoyment in certain careers. Assessments of personality traits are often used for career counseling, human resources depts for hiring/ promotion. Trait-based personality assessments are also used to help people understand themselves and accepts themselves and others. Each personality has own strengths and weaknesses No type is identified as pathological, and weaknesses are viewed as characterisitics to be aware of and manage, rather than to change. Trait theories generally not concerned with explaining why a person has a particular trait, although some have proposed that certain traits are biological

psychologically fixated

according to Freud, adult personality is largely determined during the 1st 3 psychosexual stages. If parents either frustrate or overindulge the child's expression of sensual pleasure at a certain stage so that the child does not resolve that stage's developmental conflicts the child becoms ___________________ at that stage and will as an adult continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage. For ex, if a child represses their unconscious incestuous desires for the opposite sex-parent in the phallic stage, as an adult he or she may not full accept his or her sexuality

ego defense mechanism

according to Freud, anxiety is a feeling of dread or tension, a warning of potential danger, that occurs when a person beings to become aware of repressed feelings, memories, desires, or experiences. To cope with this anxiety and protect the ego, all people develop _____________________that unconsciously deny or distort reality. are therefore normal, become unhealthy only when taken to extremes

self-actualization

component of humanistic theory Like a child learning to walk, a person will grow toward *self-actualization* or realizing his or her human potential, as long as no obstacle intervenes

actualizing tendency

component of humanistic theory most basic motive of all people is the *actualizing* *tendency*,which is an innate drive to maintain and enhance the organism

observational (vicarious) learning

component of social cognitive perspective occurs when a person watches another person's behavior and its consequences thereby learning rules, strategies, an expected outcomes in different situations. ie "Bobo doll" experiements conducted by Albert Bandura in the early 1960s

Freud's Iceburg analogy to the human mind and personality

conscious level: thoughts and perceptions [superego], logic [ego]. EGO and SUPEREGO Preconscious level: morals, values, ideas [superego] and memories [ego]. EGO AND SUPEREGO Unconscious level: need for self-love and avoidance of guilt [superego], stored info [ego], sexual desires, fears, violent urges, selfish needs [ID]. EGO, SUPEREGO AND ID.

humanistic theory

contrast to psychoanalytic theory focuses on healthy personality development. Humans are seen as inherently good and as having free will rather than having their behavior determined by early relationships most basic motive of all people is the *actualizing* *tendency*,which is an innate drive to maintain and enhance the organism, Like a child learning to walk, a person will grow toward *self-actualization* or realizing his or her human potential, as long as no obstacle intervenes

Carl Rogers

developed humanistic theory when a child receives disapproval from a caregiver for a certain behavior, they sense that the caregivers pos regard is conditional In order to win caregivers approval and still see both self and caregiver as good, the child introjects the caregivers values, taking them on as part of his or her own *self-concept*

humanistic therapy

humanistic theory people usually find it easier to deny or distort incongruent experiences than to modify their self concepts the goal of humanistic therapy aka *person-centered* *therapy* is to provide an environment that will help clients trust and accept themselves and their emotional rxns, so they can learn and grow from their experiences. essential elements: therapists trust in the client, therapist communicating genuiness (congruence), unconditional pos regard, and empathetic understanding of the client using term client vs pt is meant to suggest the inherent health of the person and place the person on an equal level with the therapist

In psychoanalytic theory, psychic energy is distributed among 3 personality components that function together:

id, ego, and superego

superego

inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic and idealistic goals rather than just realistic goals strives for a higher purpose based on societal values as learned from ones parents makes judgements of right and wrong strives for perfection seeks to gain psychological rewards like feelings of pride and self-love, and to acoid psychological punishment such as feelings of guilt and inferiority

id

largely unconscious, source of energy and instincts. Ruled by the *pleasure* *principle*, the id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure. No logic or moral reasoning and it does not distinguish mental images from external objects. According to Freud, young children function almost entirely from the id

libido

life instinct, drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain avoidance, and pleasure. commonly referred to as sex drive, but the libido includes more than just sexual energy Freud/ psychoanalytic theory

Biological Perspective

much of what we call personality is at least partly due to innate biological differences among people. Support for this view is found in the heritability of basic personality traits, as well as in correlations between personality traits and certain aspects of brain structure and function

psychoanalytic theory

personality (made up of patternes of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors) is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. unconscious elements are derived from past experiences, particularly interactions with primary early caregvers what a person is conscious of is the tip of the iceburg compared to his vast unconscious stores of experiences, memories, needs, and motivations below the surface. the existence of the unconscious is inferred from behaviors such as dreams, slips of the tongue, posthypnotic suggestions, and free associations According to, at each developmental stage throughout life, certain needs and tasks must be satisfied. When these needs and tasks are not met, a person harbors unresolved unconscious conflicts that lead to psychological dysfunction. Two theories of developmental stages to be familiar with: Freud's psychosexual and Erik Erikson's psychosocial

behaviorist perspective

personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment. Behaviorism is *deterministic*, proposing that people begin as blank slates and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individuals subsequent behavior and personalities. Begins in childhood and continues throughout life. Learning, and thus development of personality occurs through two forms: classical and operant conditioning. classical= person acquires certain response to a stimuli after that stimulus is repeatedly paired with a second, different stimulus that already produces the desired response. aka association learning operant= behaviors are influenced by consequences that follow them. consequences are reinforcements or punishments, both of which can be pos or neg (present or absent- pos reinforcement is presence or rewarding stimulus, neg reinforcement is the absence of rewarding stimulus)

social cognitive perspective

personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive and environmental factors the behavioral component includes patterns of behavior learned through classical and operant conditioning, as well as *observational* *learning* cognitive component= mental processes involved in observational or vicarious learning as well as conscious cognitive processes such as self-efficacy beliefs (beliefs about one own abilities) The environmental component includes situational influences such as opportunities, rewards and punishments

Behavioral therapy

uses conditioning to shape a clients behavior in the desired direction Using the ABC model the therapist first performs a functional assessment to determine the antecedents (A) and consequences (C) of the behavior (B) Therapy then proceeds by changing antecedents and consequences using the least aversive means possible common applications of behavioral therapy include relaxation training and systematic desensitization to help clients manage fear and anxiety In systematic desensitization, the client is helped to relax while repeatedly being exposed to or imagining the situation that provokes anxiety. This technique allows the client to experience the problematic situation without experiencing any adverse consequences.

psychoanalytic therapy

uses various methods to help a pt become aware of their unconscious motives and gain insight into the emotional issues and conflicts that are presenting difficulties one goal: help pt become more able to choose behaviors consciously Another goal: to strengthen the ego, so that choices can be based on reality rather than on instincts (id) or guilt (superego). sometimes referred to as talk therapy bc therapy sessions usually focus on pts talking about their lives therapist looks for patterns or significant events that may play a role in the client's current difficulties. Psychoanalysts believe that childhood events and unconscious feelings, thoughts, and motivations play a role in mental illness and maladaptive behaviors. Psychoanalytic therapy may also use other techniques such as free association, role-play, and dream interpretation

personality

very hard to precisely define the individual pattern of thinking, feeling and behavior associated with each person. nuanced and complex theories and persepctives on personality to help explain: psychoanalytic persepective, humanistic perspective, behaviorist perspective, social cognitive perspective, trait perspective, biological perspective. Therapies to treat personality disorders are based on the first 4 perspectives

Sigmund Freud

within classical psychoanalytic theory as developed by Freud, two instinctual drives motivate human behavior. *libido* or life instinct and *death* *instinct*, aggressive beahviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself or others.