Psych Ch. 5: Consciousness

Consciousness

A concept with many meanings, including sensory awareness of the world outside, direct inner awareness of one's thoughts and feelings, personal unity, and the waking state.

Stimulant

A drug that increases activity of the nervous system.

Neodissociation theory

A theory of hypnotic events as the splitting of consciousness.

What are the effects of alcohol?

Alcohol, the most widely used drug, is a depressant. It belongs to the group of substances that act by slowing the activity of the central nervous system. Alcohol is also intoxicating and can lead to physiological dependence.

Barbiturate

An addictive depressant used to relieve anxiety or pain and to treat epilepsy, high blood pressure, and insomnia.

Hypnosis

An altered state of consciousness in which people appear to be highly suggestible and behave as though they are in a trance.

Psychoactive substances

Drugs that have psychological effects such as stimulation or distortion of perceptions.

Narcotics

Drugs used to relieve pain and induce sleep. The term is usually reserved for opiates.

_________ differentiated among ideas that are conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

Freud

Why do we dream what we dream?

Freud believed that dreams reflected unconscious wishes and "protected sleep" by keeping unacceptable ideas out of awareness. The activation-synthesis hypothesis suggests that dreams largely reflect automatic biological activity by the pons and the synthesis of subsequent sensory stimulation by the frontal part of the brain. The content of most dreams is an extension of the events of the previous day.

Sleep terrors

Frightening dreamlike experiences that occur during the deepest stage of NREM sleep. Nightmares, in contrast, occur during REM sleep.

Hallucinogenic

Giving rise to hallucinations.

Tolerance

Habituation to a drug, with the result that increasingly higher doses of the drug are needed to achieve similar effects.

______ substances distort perception.

Hallucinogenic

Neal Miller taught rates to increase or decrease their ________ rates by giving them an electric shock in their "pleasure centers" when they performed the targeted response.

Heart

LSD

Lysergic acid diethylamide. A hallucinogenic drug.

What are the effects of meditation?

Meditation often has the effect of inducing relaxation. Transcendental meditation appears to reduce the blood pressure of hypertensive individuals.

Women seem to be _______ affected by alcohol than men.

More

Tobacco contains the stimulant _________.

Nicotine

Opiates are used in medicine to reduce ________, but they are bought "on the street" because of the euphoric rush they provide.

Pain

Theta waves

Slow brain waves sometimes accompanied by a hypnagogic state.

Suppression

The deliberate, or conscious, placing of certain ideas, impulses, or images out of awareness.

Marijuana

The dried vegetable matter of the Cannabis sativa plant.

True or False: Heroin was once used as a cure for addiction to morphine.

True.

True or False: The number of people who die from smoking-related causes is greater than the number lost to motor vehicle accidents, abuse of alcohol and all other drugs, suicide, homicide, and AIDS combined.

True.

True or False: Coca-Cola once "added life" to its signature drink through the use of a powerful--but now illegal--stimulant.

True. Cocaine.

Narcolepsy

A "sleep attack" in which a person falls asleep suddenly and irresistibly.

Abstinence syndrome

A characteristic cluster of symptoms that results from a sudden decrease in an addictive drug's level of usage.

What is a circadian rhythm?

A circadian rhythm is a cycle that is connected with the 24-hour period of the Earth's rotation, such as the sleep-wake cycle.

Wernike-Korsakoff syndrome

A cluster of symptoms associated with chronic alcohol abuse and characterized by confusion, memory impairment, and filling in gaps in memory with false information (confabulation).

What kinds of sleep disorders are there?

A common sleep disorder is insomnia, which is most often encountered by people who are anxious and tense. Deep sleep disorders include narcolepsy, sleep apnea, sleep terrors, bed-wetting, sleep talking, and sleepwalking.

Delirium tremens

A condition characterized by sweating, restlessness, disorientation, and hallucinations. The DTs occur in some chronic alcohol users when there is a sudden decrease in usage.

Repression

A defense mechanism that protects the person from anxiety by ejecting anxiety-evoking ideas and impulses from awareness; in Freud's psychodynamic theory, the automatic (unconscious) ejection of anxiety-evoking ideas, impulses, or images from awareness.

Cirrhosis of the liver

A disease caused by protein deficiency in which connective fibers replace active liver cells, impeding circulation of the blood. Alcohol does not contain protein; therefore, persons who drink excessively may be prone to this disease.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

A disorder that begins in childhood and is characterized by a persistent pattern of lack of attention with or without hyperactivity and impulsive behavior.

Hashish

A drug derived from the resin of Cannabis sativa; often called "hash."

Depressant

A drug that lowers the rate of activity of the nervous system.

Opiates

A group of narcotics derived from the opium poppy that provide a euphoric rush and depress the nervous system.

Mescaline

A hallucinogenic drug derived from the mescal (peyote) cactus.

Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep

A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, which have been linked to dreaming.

Role theory

A theory that explains hypnotic events in terms of the person's ability to act as though he or she were hypnotized. Role theory differs from faking in that subjects cooperate and focus on hypnotic suggestions instead of pretending to be hypnotized.

Physiological dependence is evidenced by tolerance or by an _______ syndrome when one discontinues use of the substance.

Abstinence

Substance ______ is characterized by repeated use of a substance although it is impairing functioning.

Abuse

According to the _________-synthesis model, dreams reflect neural activity.

Activation

Electromyograph (EMG)

An instrument that measures muscle tension.

Phencyclidine

Another hallucinogenic drug whose name is an acronym for its chemical structure.

Ritalin is used to treat ______ deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children.

Attention

Consciousness has several meanings, including sensory awareness, the selective aspect of attention, direct inner ________, personal unity, and the waking state.

Awareness

What are the effects of barbiturates?

Barbiturates are depressants. They have medical uses, including relaxation, pain management, and treatment of epilepsy, high blood pressure, and insomnia. Barbiturates lead rapidly to physiological and psychological dependence.

John B. Watson argued that only observable ________ should be studied by psychologists.

Behavior

What is biofeedback training?

Biofeedback is a method for increasing consciousness of bodily functions. In biofeedback, the organism is continuously provided with information about a targeted biological response such as heart rate or emission of alpha waves.

Investigators have shown that meditation can reduce high ________ pressure.

Blood

Barbiturates are used medically to treat epilepsy, high _______, and insomnia.

Blood pressure

EEG research shows that different stages of sleep are characterized by different ______ waves.

Brain

Psychedelic

Causing hallucinations, delusions, or heightened perceptions.

Hydrocarbons

Chemical compounds consisting of hydrogen and carbon.

Opioids

Chemicals that act on opiate receptors but are not derived from the opium poppy.

_________ is a stimulant that boosts self-confidence but also triggers rises in blood pressure and constricts the coronary arteries.

Cocaine

How do modern psychologists explain the effects of hypnosis?

Current theories of hypnosis deny the existence of a special trance state. Rather, they emphasize people's ability to roleplay the trance (role theory), to strategically follow hypnotist's instructions (multifactorial theory), to do what is expected of them (response set theory), and to divide their consciousness (neodissociation theory) as directed by the hypnotist.

Sleep terrors, bed-wetting, and sleepwalking all occur during ______ sleep.

Deep

Nonconscious

Descriptive of bodily processes, such as growing hair, of which we cannot become conscious. We may "recognize" that our hair is growing but cannot directly experience the biological process.

Flashbacks

Distorted perceptions or hallucinations that occur days or weeks after LSD usage but mimic the LSD experience.

What are dreams?

Dreams are a form of cognitive activity that occurs mostly while we are sleeping. Most dreaming occurs during REM sleep. Nightmares are dreams that tend to occur during REM sleep.

True or False: It is dangerous to awaken a sleepwalker.

False. Contrary to myth, there is no evidence that sleepwalkers become violent if they are awakened, although they may be confused and upset.

True or False: The effects of hypnotism are due to a special trance state.

False. It has not been shown that the effects of hypnotism are due to a special trance state. Role theory, multifactorial theory, and response set theory appear to be supported by research evidence that suggestible people want to be hypnotized, are good role players, have vivid and absorbing imaginations, and also know what is expected of them. The fact that the behaviors shown by hypnotized people can be mimicked by people who know what is expected of them means that we need not resort to the concept of the "hypnotic trance"--an unusual and mystifying altered state of awareness--to explain hypnotic events.

True or False: You can be hypnotized against your will.

False. It is extremely unlikely that someone could be hypnotized against his or her will. However, in a nightclub act, the social pressure of the audience may further encourage the subject to play along with the suggestions of the hypnotist.

True or False: Substance abuse is on the rise in high schools.

False. Substance use and abuse among high school students seems to be experiencing a slight decline in the early years of the 21st century.

True or False: We act out our forbidden fantasies in our dreams.

False. There is no evidence that we act out our forbidden fantasies in our dreams. However, Freud theorized that dreams reflect unconscious wishes or urges. He argued that through dreams we can express impulses we would censor during the day. Moreover, he said that the content of dreams is symbolic of unconscious fantasized objects such as the genitals. A key part of Freud's method of psychoanalysis involved interpretation of his clients' dreams.

During a typical 8-hour night, we undergo about ____ trips through the different stages of sleep.

Five

Hypnosis typically brings about the following changes in consciousness: passivity, narrowed attention, _______ (detailed memory), suggestibility, assumption of unusual roles, perceptual distortions, posthypnotic amnesia, and posthypnotic suggestion.

Hypermnesia

What is hypnosis?

Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness in which people are suggestible and behave as though they are in a trance. People who are hypnotized may show passivity, narrowed attention, hypermnesia (heightened memory), suggestibility, assumptions of unusual roles, perceptual distortions, posthypnotic amnesia, and posthypnotic suggestion.

What is meditation?

In meditation, one focuses "passively" on an object or a mantra to alter the normal relationship between oneself and the environment. In this way, consciousness (that is, the normal focus of attention) is altered.

Unconscious

In psychodynamic theory, descriptive of ideas and feelings that are not available to awareness.

Preconscious

In psychodynamic theory, descriptive of material that is not in awareness but can be brought into awareness by focusing one's attention.

Passive smoking

Inhaling smoke from the tobacco products and exhalations of other people; also called secondhand smoking.

Direct inner awareness

Knowledge of one's own thoughts, feelings, and memories without the use of sensory organs.

What are the effects of LSD and other kinds of hallucinogenic drugs?

LSD and other hallucinogenic drugs produce hallucinations. Some LSD users have "flashbacks" to earlier experiences.

Franz Mesmer explained the hypnotic trance through his concept of animal __________.

Magnetism

In meditation, one focuses passively on a _______ to alter the normal person-environment relationship.

Mantra

_________ often produces feelings of relaxation and empathy, the feeling that time is slowing down, and reports of new insights.

Marijuana

What are the effects of marijuana?

Marijuana is a hallucinogenic substance whose active ingredients, including THC, may produce relaxation, heightened and distorted perceptions, feelings of empathy, and reports of new insights. Marijuana elevates the heart rate, and the smoke is harmful. Although it has some medical uses, it impairs learning and memory and may affect the growth of adolescents.

What are the effects of nicotine?

Nicotine is the addictive stimulant in cigarettes that can paradoxically help people relax. Cigarette smoke also contains carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. Smoking has been linked to death from heart disease and cancer and to other health problems.

Because EEG patterns during REM sleep resemble those of the waking state, REM sleep is also called ________ sleep.

Paradoxical

How is biofeedback training used?

People and lower animals can learn to control their heart rate, blood pressure, and even the emission of certain brain waves through biofeedback training.

What are the causes of substance abuse and dependence?

People usually try drugs out of curiosity, but usage can be reinforced by anxiety reduction, feelings of euphoria, and other positive sensations. People are also motivated to avoid withdrawal symptoms once they become physiologically dependent on a drug. People may have genetic predispositions to become physiologically dependent on certain substances.

Dreams are most vivid during ______ sleep.

REM

Alpha waves

Rapid low-amplitude brain waves that have been linked to feelings of relaxation.

Circadian rhythm

Referring to cycles that are connected with the 24-hour period of the Earth's rotation. (From the Latin circa, meaning "about," and dia, meaning "day.")

Substance abuse

Repeated use of a substance despite the fact that it is causing or compounding social, occupational, psychological, or physical problems.

According to _______ set theory, knowledge of what one is expected to do is a key component of being hypnotized.

Response

Why do we sleep?

Sleep apparently serves a restorative function, but we do not know exactly how sleep restores us or how much sleep we need. Animals and people who have been deprived of REM sleep learn more slowly and forget what they have learned more rapidly.

What are the effects of amphetamines?

Stimulants are substances that act by increasing the activity of the nervous system. Amphetamines are stimulants that produce feelings of euphoria when taken in high doses. But high doses may also cause restlessness, insomnia, psychotic symptoms, and a "crash" upon withdrawal. Amphetamines and a related stimulant, Ritalin, are commonly used to treat hyperactive children.

Amphetamines

Stimulants derived from alpha-methyl-beta-phenyl-ethyl-amine.

Delta waves

Strong, slow brain waves usually emitted during stage 3 and 4 sleep.

What are substance abuse and dependence?

Substance abuse is the use of a substance that persists even though it impairs one's functioning. Dependence has behavioral and physiological aspects. It may be characterized by organizing one's life around getting and using the substance and by the development of tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, or both.

Sleep apnea

Temporary absence or cessation of breathing while asleep. (From Greek and Latin roots meaning "without" and "breathing.")

Hypnagogic state

The drowsy interval between waking and sleeping characterized by brief, hallucinatory, dreamlike experiences.

Non-rapid-eye-movement sleep

The first four stages of sleep.

Selective attention

The focus of one's consciousness on a particular stimulus.

What are the effects of opiates?

The opiates morphine and heroin are depressants that reduce pain, but they are also bought on the street because of the euphoric "rush" they provide. Opiate use can lead to physiological dependence.

Transcendental meditation (TM)

The simplified form of meditation brought to the United States by the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and used as a method for coping with stress.

What are the effects of cocaine?

The stimulant cocaine provides feelings of euphoria and bolsters self-confidence. Physically, it causes spikes in blood pressure and constricts blood vessels. Overdoses can lead to restlessness, insomnia, psychotic reactions, and cardiorespiratory collapse.

Biofeedback training (BFT)

The systematic feeding back to an organism information about a bodily function so that the organism can gain control of that function.

What is consciousness?

The term consciousness has several meanings, including sensory awareness, direct inner awareness of cognitive processes, the selective aspect of attention, the sense of self, and the waking state.

Activation-synthesis model

The view that dreams reflect activation of cognitive activity by the reticular activating system and synthesis of this activity into a pattern.

Multifactorial theory

The view that hypnotized people engage in strategic role enactment to behave in the way that they imagine a good hypnotized person will behave.

Response set theory

The view that response expectancies play a key role in the production of the experiences suggested by the hypnotist.

True or False: A drink a day is good for you.

True. But most health professionals are reluctant to advise that people drink regularly, though lightly. Some effects of having a drink a day: increased levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, or "good" cholesterol) and thus decreased risk of cardiovascular diseases, decreased likelihood of loss of cognitive abilities during aging, decreased risk of Alzheimer's disease, increased flow of oxygen-laden blood to brain.

True or False: Many health professionals calm down hyperactive children by giving them a stimulant.

True. Hyperactivity may be connected with immaturity of the cerebral cortex, and stimulants may stimulate the cortex to exercise control over more primitive centers in the brain. On the other hand, these stimulates place children--and adults who may continue to use them--at increased risk for sleep disorders and loss of appetite.

True or False: You can teach a rat to raise or lower its heart rate.

True. N.E. Miller implanted electrodes in the rats' pleasure centers. Then some rats were given a burst of electricity in their brain's pleasure center (that is, rewarded) whenever their heart rate increased. Other rats received the stimulus when their heart rate decreased. After a single 90-minute training session, the rats learned to alter their heart rates by as much as 20% in the direction for which they had been rewarded. (This is an example of biofeedback training or BFT).

True or False: Many people have insomnia because they try too hard to fall asleep at night.

True. People with insomnia tend to compound their sleep problems when they try to force themselves to fall asleep. Their concern heightens autonomic activity and muscle tension.

How do we describe the stages of sleep?

We undergo several stages of sleep. According to electroencephalograph (EEG) records, each stage of sleep is characterized by a different type of brain wave. There are four stages of non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep and one stage of REM sleep. 1 sleep is the lightest, and stage 4 is the deepest.