Psych Ch 5,6,7 & 8
receiving a paycheck once a week
fixed interval schedule
Fixed schedules are
predictable
Variable schedules are
unpredictable
When is the posterior cingulate activated?
when engaging in active rehearsal to remember specific information and when retrieving that memory
What do the capacity of iconic memory?
everything that can be seen at one time
What do long term memories include?
general facts and knowledge, personal facts, performed akills
getting it out: retrieval
getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used
example of positive reinforcement
getting money for working because the person gets koney (an added, pleasurable consequence) for the behavior of working
example of punishment by removal
grounding a teenager (removing the freedom for the teenager to do what they want to do); placing a child in time out (removing the attention of the others in the room); during someone's for disobeying the law (removing money)
responsible for the formation of new longterm declarative memories
hippocampus
keeping it in: storage
holding on to information for some period of time; the period of time can be different lengths depending on the system of memory being used
How does an incoming sensory message enter consciousness?
if it is important enough that message will move to the next process of memory, called short term memory
What do both positive and negative reinforcement do?
increase the likelihood of the behavior they follow; they both have the effect of strengthening, or reinforcing, the behavior
masking
information that has just entered iconic memory will be pushed out very quickly by new information
What is analytical intelligence measured by?
intelligence and academic tests; "book smarts"
How are memories retrieved in recognition?
involves looking at or hearing information and matching it to what is already in memory
What is the capacity of echoic memory?
limited to what can be heard at any one moment and has a smaller capacity than the other memory, although it lasts longer — about 2 to 4 aeconds
What is forgetting in sensory and short term memory?
memory decay; information that is not brought to attention or continuously rehearsed will decay
levels of processing model
model of memory that assumes information that is more "deeply processed," or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time ex: people asked to use the word ball in a sentence would have to think about what a ball is and how it can be used
information-processing model
model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages
uterus
muscular organ that will contain and protect the developing oganism
An Li turns her report in to her teacher on the day it is due because papers get marked down a letter grade for every day they are late.
negative reinforcement
Pedro's father nags him to wash his car. Pedro hates being nagged, so he washes the car so his father will stop nagging.
negative reinforcement
Memory for skills is called
non declarative or implicit memory because the skills have to be demonstrated and not reported
Both punishment by removal and punishment by application at usually____________________.
only temporary in their effect on behavior; after some time has passed, the behavior will most likely return as the memory of the punishment gets weaker, allowing spontaneous recovery
dorsal rapid nucleus
part of the brain stem that is much older and not able to determine what type of stressors are controllable
Why is partial reinforcement more effective than continuous reinforcement?
partial reinforcement is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses so that someone does not expect to receive a reinforcer after every single response and it leads to this response being less resistant to extinction than someone receiving continuous reinforcement for their response
practical intelligence
people with this know how to be tactful, manipulate situations to their advantage, and use inside information to increase their odds of success
Allen is a server at a restaurant and always tries to smile and be pleasant because that seems to lead to bigger tips.
positive reinforcement
Napoleon learns that talking in a funny voice gets him lots of attention from his classmates, so now he talks that way more often.
positive reinforcement
What area of the brain is damaged for people with Alzheimer's disease?
posterior cingulate
Where are short term memories stored?
prefrontal cortex and temporal lobe
How is elaborate rehearsal more effective than rote learning?
promotes understanding instead of memorization; deeper kind of processing
examples of variable interval schedule of reinforcement
putting fishing pole in the water and waiting a long time and refraining from taking it out because when you do a big fish could swim by but you can't predict what will happen or dialing a busy phone number and not knowing when the call will go theough
constructive processing
referring to the retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, or influenced by newer information
How are goals achieved through shaping?
reinforcing each successive approximation (small steps one after the other that get closer and closer to the goal)
Paralleled Distributed Processing Model
related to connectionism, the use of artificial neural networks to explain the mental abilities of humans
Semantic memories are
relatively permanent
example of discriminative stimulus
seeing a police car behind you is a cue for slowing down; seeing a red stoplight is a cue for stopping because both of these actions are usually followed by a negative reinforcement (people don't get a ticket for speeding or get hit by another vehicle)
How does information enter our short term memory system?
selective attention
placenta
specialized organ that provides nourishment and filters away the developing baby's waste products
What happens to the stem cells in the germinal state?
stay in a somewhat immature state until needed to produce more cells
Most important cells during the germinal period?
stem cells
What is the cerebellum in the hind brain responsible for?
storage of memories of conditional responses, skills, and habits
Eidetic imagery
the ability to access a visual memory over a long period of time
creative intelligence
the ability to process certain aspects of information, which frees up cognitive resources to deal with novelty
semantic memory
the awareness of the meaning of words, concepts, and terms as well as names of objects and math skills
putting it in: encoding
the first process in the memory system that gets sensory information (sight, sound, etc.) into a form that the brain can use ex: when people hear a sound, their ears turn the vibrations in the air into neural messages from the auditory nerve (transductions), which makes it possible for the brain to interpret that sound
sensory memory
the first system in the process of memory, the point at which information enters the nervous system through the sensory system — ears, eyes, and so on.
memory
the learner must also be able to retain the memory of what was done, such as remembering the steps in preparing a dish that was first seen on a cooking show
desire
the learner must have the desire of motivation to perform the action
What does the information processing model assume?
the length of time that a memory will be remembered depends on the stage of memory in which it is stored
episodic memories
the personal knowledge that each person has of his or her daily life and personal history, a kind of autobiographical memory; memories of what has happened to people each day, certain birthdays, anniversaries that were particularly special, childhood events
shaping
the reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to a desired, more complex behavior
misinformation effect
the tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself
hindisight bias
the tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event
What factors contribute to making reinforcement of behavior as effective as possible?
timing and reinforcing only the desired behavior
attention method
to learn anything through observation, the learner must first pay attention to the model; certain characteristics of models can make attention more likely
nondeclarative (implicit) memory
type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses. These memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior. exs: riding a bicycle and tying shoes
What makes variable schedule responses more or less continuous?
unpredictability
How long are short terms memories held?
up to 30 seconds and possibly longer though maintenance rehearsal
pop quizzes where the interval of time after which the individual must respond in order to receive a reinforced (in this case, a good grade on the quiz) changes from one time to the next
variable interval schedule
What does iconic memory help the visual system do?
view surroundings as continuous and stable in spite of these saccadic movements; also allows enough time for the brain stem to decide if the information is important enough to be brought into consciousness
How are memories retrieved in recall?
with few of no external cues, such as filling in the blanks on an application form
Amygdala
A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and anxiety; but also participated in decreasing activity in the brain areas responsible for the "fight or flight" response
ratio schedule
A program by which reinforcement depends on the number of correct responses.
interval schedule
A program by which reinforcement depends on the time interval elapsed since the last reinforcement.
What is forgetting in long term memory?
disuse; assuming that memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear
What is taken away in negative reinforcement?
An unpleasant thing
When do the placenta and umbilical cord begin to form?
during the 2 week period after fertilization
What is the amygdala the most probably location for?
emotional associations, such as fear
three processes of memory
encoding, storage, retrieval
punishment by application
Occurs when something unpleasant (such as a spanking, scolding, or other unpleasant stimulus) is added to the situation or applied.
example of fixed interval schedule of reinforcement
Professor Connor teaches a rat to press a lever to get food pellets, and requires it to push the lever at least once within a 2-minute time span to get a pellet. It wouldn't matter how many times the rat pushed the bar; the rat would only get a pellet at the end of the 2-minute interval if it had pressed the bar at least once. It is the first correct response that gets reinforced at the end of the interval.
germinal period
The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation.
examples of variable ratio schedule of reinforcement
buying lottery tickets and not knowing how many tickets you will have to buy and being afraid that if you don't buy the next one, that will be the ticket that would have won, so you keep on buying and buying (any kind of gambling is this)
imitation
The learner must be capable of reproducing, or imitating, the actions of the model.
Elaborating rehearsal
a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; the brief memory of something a person has heard
What is taken away in punishment by removal?
a pleasant or desirable thing
How long does it take for new information to replace old information?
a quarter of a second
timing factor
a reinforcer should be given as immediately as possible after the desired behavior. Delaying reinforcement tends not to work well, especially when dealing with animals and small children
example of recognition
a word search puzzle in which words are already written down in the grid and simply need to be circled
ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)
able to determine what is controllable; inhibits the brain stem area and calms the amygdala's response, allowing an animal to effectively respond to a stressor and exhibit control
What happens when someones consolidation process is disrupted?
all of the memories that were in the process of being store -- but are not yet permanent -- are lost.
iconic sensory memory
also called the visual sensory system; only lasts for a fraction of a second
posterior cingulate
an area of the cortex located near the rear of the corpus callosum; another area of the brain involved in the formation of long term memories
discriminative stimulus
any stimulus that provides an organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement - specific cures would lead to specific responses, and discriminating between the cues leads to success
examples of fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement
anyone who does piecework, in which certain numbers of items have to be completed before payment is given; sandwich shops giving out lunch cards that get punched one time for each sandwich purchased and the customer has to get a certain number of punches to receive a free sandwich
How is information encoded into sensory memory?
as neural messages in the nervous system; as long as those neural messages are traveling through the system, it can be said that people have a "memory" for that information that can be accessed if needed
Four methods of observational learning
attention, memory, imitation, desire
example of negative reinforcement
avoiding a penalty by turning in one's income tax return on time because the behavior (submitting tax return before the deadline) results in avoiding an unpleasant stimulus (a penalty)
punishment by removal
behavior is punished by the removal of something pleasurable or desired after the behavior occurs
three interrelated systems of working memory
central executive (controls and coordinates the other two systems), visuospatial "sketch pad", and auditory action or phonological loop
Where are nondeclarative memories stored?
cerebellum
memory for facts is called
declarative or explicit memory because facts are things that are known and can be declared