Psych Ch 5,6,7 & 8

receiving a paycheck once a week

fixed interval schedule

Fixed schedules are

predictable

Variable schedules are

unpredictable

When is the posterior cingulate activated?

when engaging in active rehearsal to remember specific information and when retrieving that memory

What do the capacity of iconic memory?

everything that can be seen at one time

What do long term memories include?

general facts and knowledge, personal facts, performed akills

getting it out: retrieval

getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used

example of positive reinforcement

getting money for working because the person gets koney (an added, pleasurable consequence) for the behavior of working

example of punishment by removal

grounding a teenager (removing the freedom for the teenager to do what they want to do); placing a child in time out (removing the attention of the others in the room); during someone's for disobeying the law (removing money)

responsible for the formation of new longterm declarative memories

hippocampus

keeping it in: storage

holding on to information for some period of time; the period of time can be different lengths depending on the system of memory being used

How does an incoming sensory message enter consciousness?

if it is important enough that message will move to the next process of memory, called short term memory

What do both positive and negative reinforcement do?

increase the likelihood of the behavior they follow; they both have the effect of strengthening, or reinforcing, the behavior

masking

information that has just entered iconic memory will be pushed out very quickly by new information

What is analytical intelligence measured by?

intelligence and academic tests; "book smarts"

How are memories retrieved in recognition?

involves looking at or hearing information and matching it to what is already in memory

What is the capacity of echoic memory?

limited to what can be heard at any one moment and has a smaller capacity than the other memory, although it lasts longer — about 2 to 4 aeconds

What is forgetting in sensory and short term memory?

memory decay; information that is not brought to attention or continuously rehearsed will decay

levels of processing model

model of memory that assumes information that is more "deeply processed," or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time ex: people asked to use the word ball in a sentence would have to think about what a ball is and how it can be used

information-processing model

model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages

uterus

muscular organ that will contain and protect the developing oganism

An Li turns her report in to her teacher on the day it is due because papers get marked down a letter grade for every day they are late.

negative reinforcement

Pedro's father nags him to wash his car. Pedro hates being nagged, so he washes the car so his father will stop nagging.

negative reinforcement

Memory for skills is called

non declarative or implicit memory because the skills have to be demonstrated and not reported

Both punishment by removal and punishment by application at usually____________________.

only temporary in their effect on behavior; after some time has passed, the behavior will most likely return as the memory of the punishment gets weaker, allowing spontaneous recovery

dorsal rapid nucleus

part of the brain stem that is much older and not able to determine what type of stressors are controllable

Why is partial reinforcement more effective than continuous reinforcement?

partial reinforcement is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses so that someone does not expect to receive a reinforcer after every single response and it leads to this response being less resistant to extinction than someone receiving continuous reinforcement for their response

practical intelligence

people with this know how to be tactful, manipulate situations to their advantage, and use inside information to increase their odds of success

Allen is a server at a restaurant and always tries to smile and be pleasant because that seems to lead to bigger tips.

positive reinforcement

Napoleon learns that talking in a funny voice gets him lots of attention from his classmates, so now he talks that way more often.

positive reinforcement

What area of the brain is damaged for people with Alzheimer's disease?

posterior cingulate

Where are short term memories stored?

prefrontal cortex and temporal lobe

How is elaborate rehearsal more effective than rote learning?

promotes understanding instead of memorization; deeper kind of processing

examples of variable interval schedule of reinforcement

putting fishing pole in the water and waiting a long time and refraining from taking it out because when you do a big fish could swim by but you can't predict what will happen or dialing a busy phone number and not knowing when the call will go theough

constructive processing

referring to the retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, or influenced by newer information

How are goals achieved through shaping?

reinforcing each successive approximation (small steps one after the other that get closer and closer to the goal)

Paralleled Distributed Processing Model

related to connectionism, the use of artificial neural networks to explain the mental abilities of humans

Semantic memories are

relatively permanent

example of discriminative stimulus

seeing a police car behind you is a cue for slowing down; seeing a red stoplight is a cue for stopping because both of these actions are usually followed by a negative reinforcement (people don't get a ticket for speeding or get hit by another vehicle)

How does information enter our short term memory system?

selective attention

placenta

specialized organ that provides nourishment and filters away the developing baby's waste products

What happens to the stem cells in the germinal state?

stay in a somewhat immature state until needed to produce more cells

Most important cells during the germinal period?

stem cells

What is the cerebellum in the hind brain responsible for?

storage of memories of conditional responses, skills, and habits

Eidetic imagery

the ability to access a visual memory over a long period of time

creative intelligence

the ability to process certain aspects of information, which frees up cognitive resources to deal with novelty

semantic memory

the awareness of the meaning of words, concepts, and terms as well as names of objects and math skills

putting it in: encoding

the first process in the memory system that gets sensory information (sight, sound, etc.) into a form that the brain can use ex: when people hear a sound, their ears turn the vibrations in the air into neural messages from the auditory nerve (transductions), which makes it possible for the brain to interpret that sound

sensory memory

the first system in the process of memory, the point at which information enters the nervous system through the sensory system — ears, eyes, and so on.

memory

the learner must also be able to retain the memory of what was done, such as remembering the steps in preparing a dish that was first seen on a cooking show

desire

the learner must have the desire of motivation to perform the action

What does the information processing model assume?

the length of time that a memory will be remembered depends on the stage of memory in which it is stored

episodic memories

the personal knowledge that each person has of his or her daily life and personal history, a kind of autobiographical memory; memories of what has happened to people each day, certain birthdays, anniversaries that were particularly special, childhood events

shaping

the reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to a desired, more complex behavior

misinformation effect

the tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself

hindisight bias

the tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event

What factors contribute to making reinforcement of behavior as effective as possible?

timing and reinforcing only the desired behavior

attention method

to learn anything through observation, the learner must first pay attention to the model; certain characteristics of models can make attention more likely

nondeclarative (implicit) memory

type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses. These memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior. exs: riding a bicycle and tying shoes

What makes variable schedule responses more or less continuous?

unpredictability

How long are short terms memories held?

up to 30 seconds and possibly longer though maintenance rehearsal

pop quizzes where the interval of time after which the individual must respond in order to receive a reinforced (in this case, a good grade on the quiz) changes from one time to the next

variable interval schedule

What does iconic memory help the visual system do?

view surroundings as continuous and stable in spite of these saccadic movements; also allows enough time for the brain stem to decide if the information is important enough to be brought into consciousness

How are memories retrieved in recall?

with few of no external cues, such as filling in the blanks on an application form

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and anxiety; but also participated in decreasing activity in the brain areas responsible for the "fight or flight" response

ratio schedule

A program by which reinforcement depends on the number of correct responses.

interval schedule

A program by which reinforcement depends on the time interval elapsed since the last reinforcement.

What is forgetting in long term memory?

disuse; assuming that memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear

What is taken away in negative reinforcement?

An unpleasant thing

When do the placenta and umbilical cord begin to form?

during the 2 week period after fertilization

What is the amygdala the most probably location for?

emotional associations, such as fear

three processes of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

punishment by application

Occurs when something unpleasant (such as a spanking, scolding, or other unpleasant stimulus) is added to the situation or applied.

example of fixed interval schedule of reinforcement

Professor Connor teaches a rat to press a lever to get food pellets, and requires it to push the lever at least once within a 2-minute time span to get a pellet. It wouldn't matter how many times the rat pushed the bar; the rat would only get a pellet at the end of the 2-minute interval if it had pressed the bar at least once. It is the first correct response that gets reinforced at the end of the interval.

germinal period

The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation.

examples of variable ratio schedule of reinforcement

buying lottery tickets and not knowing how many tickets you will have to buy and being afraid that if you don't buy the next one, that will be the ticket that would have won, so you keep on buying and buying (any kind of gambling is this)

imitation

The learner must be capable of reproducing, or imitating, the actions of the model.

Elaborating rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; the brief memory of something a person has heard

What is taken away in punishment by removal?

a pleasant or desirable thing

How long does it take for new information to replace old information?

a quarter of a second

timing factor

a reinforcer should be given as immediately as possible after the desired behavior. Delaying reinforcement tends not to work well, especially when dealing with animals and small children

example of recognition

a word search puzzle in which words are already written down in the grid and simply need to be circled

ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)

able to determine what is controllable; inhibits the brain stem area and calms the amygdala's response, allowing an animal to effectively respond to a stressor and exhibit control

What happens when someones consolidation process is disrupted?

all of the memories that were in the process of being store -- but are not yet permanent -- are lost.

iconic sensory memory

also called the visual sensory system; only lasts for a fraction of a second

posterior cingulate

an area of the cortex located near the rear of the corpus callosum; another area of the brain involved in the formation of long term memories

discriminative stimulus

any stimulus that provides an organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement - specific cures would lead to specific responses, and discriminating between the cues leads to success

examples of fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement

anyone who does piecework, in which certain numbers of items have to be completed before payment is given; sandwich shops giving out lunch cards that get punched one time for each sandwich purchased and the customer has to get a certain number of punches to receive a free sandwich

How is information encoded into sensory memory?

as neural messages in the nervous system; as long as those neural messages are traveling through the system, it can be said that people have a "memory" for that information that can be accessed if needed

Four methods of observational learning

attention, memory, imitation, desire

example of negative reinforcement

avoiding a penalty by turning in one's income tax return on time because the behavior (submitting tax return before the deadline) results in avoiding an unpleasant stimulus (a penalty)

punishment by removal

behavior is punished by the removal of something pleasurable or desired after the behavior occurs

three interrelated systems of working memory

central executive (controls and coordinates the other two systems), visuospatial "sketch pad", and auditory action or phonological loop

Where are nondeclarative memories stored?

cerebellum

memory for facts is called

declarative or explicit memory because facts are things that are known and can be declared