Psych chapter 4,5,6
vicarious
(adj.) performed, suffered, or otherwise experienced by one person in place of another
Kaitlyn has three favorite perfumes. One perfume has a floral scent, one has a citrus scent, and one is musky. Which of the following is the most likely explanation for how the receptors in her olfactory epithelium transduce these three smells for interpretation by the brain?
. Each perfume stimulates a unique pattern of several types of receptors, and each pattern is interpreted by the brain.
Place in order the steps involved for flavors on the tongue to create a perception in the brain.
1) Chemical substances in food disolve in saliva 2) Taste receptors are stimulated 3) Signals are sent to the thalamus 4) The frontal lobe perceives taste
Upon waking up in the morning, Darla remembers several distinct dreams she had throughout the night. This is because Darla cycled through the stages of sleep several times. Over the course of a typical night's sleep, a person will cycle through these stages _____ times. stage of sleep
5
convergence
A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object
cortical tissue
A cap that protects the renal medulla
stage 3 sleep
A sleep characterized by slow brain waves, with greater peaks and valleys in the wave pattern than in stage 2 sleep.
persisten vegetative state
A state of minimal to no consciousness in which the patients eyes may be open and the individual will develop sleep-wake cycles without clear sign of consciousness.
Which of the following examples illustrates the gate control theory of pain?
After stubbing his toe, Ronald rubs the toe and finds that it eases the pain a little.
Tom awoke from the strangest dream. He remembers vivid emotions, sights, and even smells, but the content of the dream was very scattered and illogical. Why might this be so?
All of the options are correct
The use of hypnosis for pain reduction is called hypnotic analgesia. Brain studies indicate that after hypnosis, the sensory-processing part of the brain responds to pain stimuli just as strongly, but the emotion-processing part responds less strongly. This supports the dissociation theory of hypnosis.
Analegesia just as less dissocation
Localization Theory
Assigns specific functions to particular places in the cerebral cortex.
The text describes a study in which women drank either water or carrot juice during their pregnancy and while nursing. The first group of women drank carrot juice while pregnant and nursing; the second drank carrot juice while pregnant and water while nursing; the third drank water while pregnant and carrot juice while nursing; and the fourth drank only water during both periods. What do the findings of this study illustrate?
Babies preferred carrot juice if their mothers drank it during pregnancy or after pregnancy, while nursing.
functionally conscious
Being conscious while not being awake
Heightened religious experiences and meditation can both lead to experiences of altered consciousness. Why is this the case?
Both practices allow practitioners to direct attention away from the self.
After a large balloon burst loudly and suddenly at her birthday party, Cindy showed a fear of balloons. In terms of the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, balloons are the ______________ and her fear is the ______________.
CS; CR
Pheromones
Chemical signals released by an animal that communicate information and affect the behavior of other animals of the same species.
consolidation theory
Circuits wired together during the waking period are consolidated, or strengthened, during sleep
What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning trains the learner to do something without thinking about it. Operant conditioning trains the learner to do something in order to receive a reward.
What is the difference between concentrative meditation and mindfulness meditation?
Concentrative meditation involves focusing on one thing; mindfulness meditation involves a fleeting awareness of any thoughts, without focusing on any specific thought.
Which of the following would reflect a situation where an unconscious process influenced a person's actions?
Dante unintentionally refers to his current girlfriend by his ex-wife's name during an argument.
Using fMRI research, what have psychologists been able to discover about the way the brain processes conscious experiences?
Different types of sensory experiences are processed in different regions of the brain.
What is the relationship between dopamine and operant conditioning?
Dopamine release sets the value of a reinforcer.
Identify the statements about concussions as either true or false.
Each new concussion increases the likelihood of lasting brain damage. Repeated concussions can cause personality changes.
Which of the following scenarios support the dissociation theory of hypnosis?
Following hypnosis, Berta was able to undergo dental surgery with milder anesthesia than she would normally have required. Jomo was looking at a black-and-white picture after being hypnotized. When he was asked to imagine it in color, parts of his visual cortex involved in color perception became active.
Identify the statements about consolidation and sleep as either true or false.
For consolidating information, sleep with dreams is better than sleep without dreams. A person's sleep patterns may change in response to a need to consolidate more information.
Split-brain patient G.C. is in line at a coffee shop when he witnesses a woman in his right visual field about to trip over an electrical cord. Which of the following is most likely to happen next?
G.C. is able to warn the woman about the cord, because, luckily for her, the incident takes place in his right visual field.
Depressants, which slow down the central nervous system by activating GABA receptors, include prescription medications used to relieve anxiety. The most commonly used depressant is alcohol. Its use in moderation is both socially acceptable and medically safe, but heavy, prolonged overuse can cause brain damage.
GABA Anxiety Alcohol Brain
Match the brain areas with the associated awareness, based on the global workspace model.
Gene realized a bird was in a tree to his right, parietal lobe shelia walked slower because frontal motor cortex shelia saw a birth she had never seen before occipital lobe gene heard a new bird call temporal lobe sheila and gene planned out which prefrontal cortex
Which of the following is the correct pathway for processing the sensation of picking up a snowball with your bare hand?
Haptic receptors in the skin's outer layer receive the cold input. Then axons carry the information to spinal or cranial nerves, into the thalamus, and finally to the primary somatosensory cortex.
Identify the statements about marijuana as either true or false. TRUE:
Heavy use during adolescence correlates with mental health problems later in life. Often, the "high" obtained by experienced users is not felt by first-time users.
While pregnant with her son Henry, Shana had an almost unquenchable thirst for apple juice, even though this was a beverage she had not previously enjoyed. She drank several glasses of it every day of her pregnancy. What would we expect to see in Henry's taste preferences for apple juice, now that he is a toddler?
Henry will probably have a preference for apple juice.
dissociation theory of hypnosis
Hypnotized people are in an altered state where their awareness is separated from other aspects of consciousness.
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
Right Hempisphere
Interpretation of arts, perceptual tasks, face recognition, emotional expression, spatial abilities.
Identify the benefits of transcendental meditation that have been confirmed by rigorous scientific research.
It is a form of concentrative meditation.
Which of the following is a reason why some who are deaf object to the use of a cochlear implant?
It is seen as being used to wipe out deaf culture.
Jack's parents caught him returning home late from a date and grounded him for a month. Robert was also caught arriving home late from a date, but his parents told him that as long as he gets home on time on subsequent dates, they will give him a higher allowance (though they will remove this increase if they catch him coming home late again). Neither set of parents catches every time their teenager gets home late. Why would we expect Robert to be home on time more often than Jack on future dates?
Jack is receiving intermittent reinforcement, while Robert is receiving continuous reinforcement.
Which of the following could be effects of two to three days of sleep deprivation? (Is not)
Jacob has trouble following complicated directions to assemble furniture. Jamal recovers quickly from his surgery.
Jess is skating in a Roller Derby bout. The referee blows her whistle to signal the end of the jam. In a process called perception,
Jess's brain processes the signals and knows that they mean "stop skating."
Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?
Jose is allergic to flowers and takes an antihistamine pill that stops his runny nose, so he will take the pill in the future when he has allergies.
After having been asleep for about 20 minutes, Priya enters stage 2 of her sleep cycle. As a psychology student, you know that an electroencephalograph (EEG) of her brain would likely show which kind of electrical activity? stage of sleep
K-complexes
Japhet knows that while rods are spread throughout the retina, cones are concentrated around the fovea. Based on this knowledge, what might Japhet infer about visual perception?
Kristina wants to paint the living room bright red, but her roommate, Maya, prefers dark blue. In other words, they disagree about the ______________ of the light reflecting from the two colors.
Because the brain interprets as rewarding any behavior that triggers dopamine activity in the limbic system, substances that activate dopamine receptors are naturally addictive. Of people who use drugs, some 5 to 10 percent become addicted, and there is evidence of a genetic predisposition for addiction, based on risk factors that include impulsivity and reduced concern for personal harm.
Limbic system addictive 5-10 personal harm
Which of the following statements about marijuana is true?
Long-term use is associated with memory problems
Match the drug classes with the associated reactions.
Margarita is experiencing no pain and feels a sense of euphoria. opioid Tomas feels relaxed and less anxious. He has trouble with motor coordination. depressant Romeo feels a burst of energy, decreased fatigue, and decreased need for sleep. stimulant Aviva feels as if time has slowed to a crawl. The furniture in the room seems to be turning into animals. hallucinogen
According to theory that sleep is important because of the role it plays in consolidation of information, which of the following plans is a bad idea?
Meredith's plan to pull an all-nighter studying for her Chinese exam
After a car accident, John fell into a 10-year coma. While in the coma, he was able to track movement with his eyes and, on occasion, seemed to try to communicate. After waking from the coma, John was able to recall events that his visitors had relayed to him over the years while he was comatose. For example, he knew that his niece recently got married. John was most likely in a ______________ state.
Minimally conscious
convergence
Nearby object which the eye muscles turn inward
What is the difference between negative reinforcement and negative punishment?
Negative punishment involves taking away something the learner wants, to discourage him from repeating the behavior. Negative reinforcement entails removing an undesired condition after the learner demonstrates the desired behavior.
Five-year-old Nelson gets a brief shock when he sticks his toy in the electrical outlet in his bedroom. He runs away from the outlet and won't go near it again. Which statement best describes Nelson's learning encounter?
Nelson had an experience that will affect his behavior.
Which of the following is true about pheromones?
Pheromones are received and transduced by the olfactory system.
bottom-up processing
Physical features of the stimulus
On a train ride to visit her grandmother, Louisa is given the opportunity to sit in the engineering car, where she can look out over the train tracks. She notices that the tracks look as if they are getting closer together as they move into the distance, but she also knows that this is really just an example of the ______________ illusion.
Ponzo
Your friend from psychology class says, "I just don't understand. The teacher keeps talking about positive punishment, but I don't see how punishment can be a good thing." Which of the following would be the best way for you to respond? Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
Positive does not mean good, it means that something is presented, and in this case, it is an unpleasant stimulus."
According to Hobson, dreams begin with random neuron firings, which the brain attempts to interpret. Later, Hobson identified the limbic system as responsible for dreams' emotional content, and the deactivation of the prefrontal cortex as responsible for dreams' chaotic character. Critics argue that dreams generally make more sense than Hobson's theory would suggest.
Random neuron firitings limbic system prefrontal cortex more
REM sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
fast fibers
Sensory receptors in skin, muscles, organs, and membranes around both bones and joints; these myelinated fibers quickly convey intense sensory input to the brain, where it is perceived as sharp, immediate pain.
slow fibers
Sensory receptors in skin, muscles, organs, and membranes around both bones and joints; these unmyelinated fibers slowly convey intense sensory input to the brain, where it is perceived as chronic, dull, steady pain.
Doris works in a factory where she is paid $10 for every toy she assembles. Given that she is on a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement, which pattern of behavior can we generally expect from her?
She would likely be more productive than someone paid by the hour.
Cocaine
Short term effect: Increased Sociability Feeling of energy and confidence Long term effect of habitual use: Psychotic behavior Neither: Impairment of memory formation Feeling of relaxation and contentness
K complex
Single but large high-voltage spike of brain activity that characterizes stage 2 NREM sleep.
binocular disparity
Slightly retinal image
In one study, participants were shown pictures of appetizing food while in an fMRI scanner. Some of the participants showed higher levels of activity in the brain's reward regions after seeing the pictures, and they were ones who ended up gaining more weight over the next six months. What do these experimental results indicate?
Some people are more vulnerable than others to processing cues related to food.
Which of the following are characteristics of the concept of flow?
Something is being done for its own sake rather than as a means to an end. A person typically loses track of time.
Merlin is growing older and losing his ability to hear. Luckily, his pet owl not only hears well, but also can use cues to locate where a sound comes from. How is Merlin's owl capable of locating the source of a sound?
Sounds reach the closer ear first, and this small timing difference gives away the source's location.
As Stacie drives on a main road, she approaches a traffic light that turns from red to green. In a process called transduction,
Stacie's sensory receptors translate the light into signals for the brain.
You and your girlfriend are watching your favorite movie when you glance over and notice that she has dozed off. When you nudge her awake, she denies having fallen asleep. Your girlfriend was probably experiencing which type of sleep?
Stage 1 sleep
After using this drug, Joey felt the effects of all three classes of drugs: stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens. He felt uplifted and social, while being relaxed and experiencing vivid taste sensations. Which drug do you think he used?
THC
While you are shopping at a department store, a pushy clerk tries to sell you a perfume supposedly laced with human pheromones. "When people smell this," she says, "they won't be able to resist you!" Which of the following is the most scientifically informed reaction to her claim?
Tell the clerk that human beings cannot smell pheromones because they do not have a detectable odor, and walk out without a new bottle of perfume.
Stuart takes a hearing test with an audiologist. The audiologist plays tones of decreasing volume and asks Stuart to raise his hand when he hears a tone. Which of the following would be an example of a "miss" in signal detection theory?
The audiologist plays a tone, and Stuart does not raise his hand.
Which of the following are happening during stages 3 and 4 of sleep?
The brain is in slow-wave sleep. The brain produces delta waves. The mind remains alert to environmental signs of danger.
Why does a blind spot exist in our visual field?
The correct answer is: No rods or cones exist on the spot where the optic nerve attaches to the retina.
Perception
The detection of physical stimuli, such as odors, lights, and sounds
Identify the statements about subliminal information as either true or false?
The effect of subliminal information can be measured as activity in parts of the brain. Subliminal messages have been used in political advertising to try to influence how people vote.
Erica is driving to work when she hears a loud police siren. She automatically turns off her car radio and looks for the siren so she can pull over if needed. How is this an example of nonassociative learning?
The key is that Erica is responding to the siren after only hearing it one time.
left hemisphere of brain
The left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for control of the right side of the body, and is the more academic and logical side of the brain.
Why might middle ear infections impact hearing?
The middle ear's main job is to amplify sound vibrations. Infected fluid may muddles this process
concentrative meditation
The objective of concentration meditation is to develop a single-minded attention directed at some object: an image, a breath, a candle flame, or a word or phrase. Continually returning one's attention to this object develops one's ability to remain calm, focused, and grounded.
Why is REM sleep sometimes called paradoxical sleep?
The paradox lies in the fact that some parts of the brain are more active during REM sleep than they are during wakefulness.
Which of the following statements is consistent with the global workspace model?
The patient was unaware she was deaf in one ear because she thought she was receiving information from the auditory processing centers in her brain.
The start gun goes off to signal the beginning of the race. How do the runners sense the noise and interpret its meaning?
The sound wave travels through the air to the outer ear. Vibrations in the ossicles of the middle ear stimulate membranes in the inner ear. Receptors in the inner ear then transduce the sound into neural signals sent to the brain via the auditory nerve.
Stage 1 sleep
The state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude brain waves.
Your dad has a bad habit of texting while he drives. You remind him that it is dangerous, but he asks why texting while driving poses such a hazard. Which of the following is the most scientifically informed response to your dad?
There is a limit to how much attention is available in our conscious experience, which is what helps us respond quickly to new information (an important ability to have when driving).
What is the primary function of mirror neurons?
They are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action, or when one performs a similar action.
According to Roy Baumeister, why do people engage in self-destructive escapist pursuits?
They want to decrease self-awareness.
A sudden puff of air in his left eye caused Bill to blink. In terms of classical conditioning, the air puff was a(n) ______________ and the blink was a(n) ______________.
US; UR
Carlos accidentally added an extra tablespoon of sugar to his cake batter. This will probably not change the cake's flavor in a significant way, although the same tablespoon of sugar, would be noticeable if he put it in his cup of tea. What explains this difference?
Weber's law
obstructive sleep apnea
a disorder in which a person, while asleep, stops breathing because his or her throat closes; the condition results in frequent awakenings during the night
analgesia
a lessening of pain without loss of consciousness
place coding
a mechanism for encoding high-frequency auditory stimuli in which the frequency of the sound wave is encoded by the location of the hair cells along the basilar membrane
temporal coding
a mechanism for encoding low-frequency auditory stimuli in which the firing rates of cochlear hair cells match the frequency of the sound wave
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
REM behavior disorder
a rare disorder in which the mechanism that blocks the movement of the voluntary muscles fails, allowing the person to thrash around and even get up and act out nightmares
Which of the following is an example of habituation?
a smoker who does not react to the smell of smoke in his home
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
Joel is getting older and thinks he needs glasses. His eyes feel tired when he tries to read a book or focus on anything up close. He knows that the muscles in each eye are straining in order to
accommodate to the distance of what he is seeing.
Which of the following areas of the brain are activated during REM sleep?
amygdala motor cortex brain stem visual association areas
Which of the following tasks require automatic processing?
an adult reading a book walking to school eating dinner while watching a movie
sociocognitive theory
approach to explaining hypnosis based on people's attitudes, beliefs, expectations, and responsiveness to waking suggestions
The type of learning that occurs when one makes a connection between two distinct pieces of information is called ______________ learning.
associative
There is a structure in the cochlea of the ear that is covered with hair cells. The movement of this structure causes those hair cells to bend, and this in turn sends messages to the brain by way of the auditory nerve. What is that structure called?
basilar membrane
REM stage of sleep
beta waves
A team of psychology students is trying to use operant conditioning to train Rascal, a raccoon in their lab, to strike one bell to receive food and another to receive water. After some initial success, Rascal seems to have given up. Which of the following explains Rascal's lack of success in learning this behavior?
biological constraints
The trichromatic theory of color vision posits that there are three different kinds of cones, each receptive to a different hue of light. Which of the following is not one of those hues?
black-white
occlusion
blockage
Brexton suffered a serious head injury in a snowmobile accident because he was not wearing a helmet. He is now being kept alive by a series of machines in the hospital. He is not breathing on his own, gives no indication of awareness, and is completely unresponsive to any sensory input. Examination finds no evidence of any brain activity. Which term best describes Brexton's condition?
brain death
theta waves
brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep
Dwayne loves going to Las Vegas. Even when he is in the casinos, where there are no windows to give him light cues, he still feels sleepy by midnight, because his body continues to operate according to a ______________ rhythm.
circadian
According to one theory of sleep, humans are adapted to sleeping at night because our early ancestors were more vulnerable in the dark, when they were unable to see hazards and predators, than during the day. What is the name for this theory?
circadian rhythm theory
Pavlovian conditioning is a type of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response. This is also called ______________ conditioning.
classical
Monique is completing a "connect the dots" puzzle that has 200 different dots. After she connects around 120 of the dots, it becomes clear to her that the completed image will be of a car parked next to a house. She does not bother to finish the puzzle because she can now "see" the whole picture. Which Gestalt principle is at work in Monique's case?
closure
Whenever Dylan walks into his room, his roommate loudly blows an air horn, which startles Dylan. Dylan doesn't think this is funny, and after several such episodes, he tenses up and opens the door more slowly and carefully. In this practical joke, Dylan's reflex of tensing up whenever he opens the door is the ________. Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
conditioned response
On the first day at her new school, Britta did not know the meaning of the tone that emitted from the speaker system every 50 minutes. Since learning that the tone indicates the end of a class period, she has started jumping up from her seat reflexively whenever she hears it. Now that the tone elicits a response from Britta, it has become a(n) ______________.
conditioned stimulus
Generally, being able to learn what stimuli predict pleasure or pain is consistent with Pavlov's belief that
conditioning is how we adapt to our environments.
The moment-to-moment subjective experience you have, along with your mental activity, is called
consciousness
global workspace model
consciousness is a product of activity in specific brain regions
Janet is an ambitious college student who plans to apply for graduate school and is very concerned about her academic performance. She always tries to get a good night's sleep because she believes that the neural connections underlying learning are strengthened during sleep. Which theory of sleep does Janet subscribe to?
consolidation theory
When an object gets closer to you, the muscles in your eyes roll your eyes inward. As the same objects moves away from you, your eyes are rolled outward. This muscular activity is a binocular depth cue called ______________.
convergence
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
Thomas is a ten-year-old in treatment for his phobia of dogs. His therapist gives him his favorite candy whenever he manages to stay near a dog without crying. Now Thomas can be in the same room as a dog without feeling afraid. The most accurate term for Thomas's treatment is ______________.
counterconditioning
When he first started using this drug, Chuck felt confident, alert, energetic, and sociable. But now he feels paranoid while on it and has developed some violent and psychotic tendencies. What drug is Chuck using?
crack cocaine
binocular depth cues
cues of depth perception that arise from the fact that people have two eyes
minimally conscious state
deliberate movement and communication are possible
Which of the following are effects of marijuana? Are not
depressed mood stronger "high" experienced by first-time users than frequent users
fixed interval
describes the schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker receives a paycheck every Friday
Bri is a first-year student at a community college. This term, she had classes in the A Wing, C Wing, and D Wing, but not in the B Wing. However, she had to walk through the B Wing all the time to get to her classes. Next term, Bri has a class in the B Wing, and she knows exactly where the room is. This is best explained by her ______________.
development of a cognitive map
Dynesha is painting her bedroom a light orange color. Her mother suggests that she add some white to the bucket of paint to brighten the color a bit. Dynesha adds white, but her mother looks at the paint and says, "I thought I told you to add some white!" Clearly the color change has not exceeded her mother's ______________ threshold.
difference
Katie notices there is a new barista at her favorite coffee shop. She also notices that her vanilla latte tastes just slightly sweeter than usual. The taste difference is right at the ______________ threshold.
difference
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
Latent Content model
dreams // images
Marius was out for his first run of the season yesterday, and as a result, today he is experiencing the kind of pain associated with slow fibers sending messages to his brain. What kind of pain is Marius experiencing?
dull ache
Roger's physician wants him to take part in a sleep study that will monitor the activity of his brain for an entire night while he sleeps. The instrument that will be used for this type of data collection is called a(n) ________. stage of sleep
electroencephalograph (EEG)
tactile stimulation
evoking a response by touching
Katie attached a bell to her dog's food container so it rang every time she lifted the lid. Whenever it was time for his meal, Katie would lift the lid of the container, and he would come running to the sound of the bell. One day, Katie removed the bell from the container and hung it on a closet door. After a month of his running to the closet door whenever it rang the bell, and not receiving any food there, her dog stopped responding to the sound of the bell. The fact that her dog no longer responds to the sound of the bell is an example of ______________.
extinction
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment
Dr. Ramos is a radiologist who looks at dozens of scans each day to diagnose everything from broken bones to tumors. Every once in a while, she sees something on the scan that turns out to be nothing. This situation is called a
false alarm
Terri fell and sprained her wrist. She immediately felt a sharp pain, thanks to nerve fibers that carried pain information to her brain. Which nerve fibers are these?
fast fibers
While getting out of his car, Maulik bangs his head on the car door. The pain of the initial collision is carried to his brain by ______________ fibers, and the lingering aching of his forehead is carried by ______________ fibers.
fast; slow
When our assignment of ______________ to an image is ambiguous, we can switch back and forth between seeing two different images in one picture--what we thought was part of the background can also shift to look like the most important part of the picture.
figure and ground
REM stage
final stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, and beta waves which are seen in individuals when they are awake; despite these wave patterns, however, the sleeper is paralyzed aside from small twitches leading to the description of the stage as 'paradoxical sleep', this is generally when dreams occur
Kenia's birthday is on March 9th, and she loves when she gets to have a birthday party. When September comes, she asks her mother, "Why can't I have a birthday party this month?" Kenia fails to understand that birthdays are typically reinforced on a ________ schedule.
fixed interval
Lorraine just got a new puppy, and she wants to train him to go through the flap in the back door. Every third time the puppy goes through the flap, Lorraine gives him a doggie treat. Lorraine is using a ______________ schedule of reinforcement to train the puppy.
fixed ratio
Esme enjoys gardening so much that on one beautiful afternoon, she became completely absorbed in the activity of planting flowers and setting shrubs. Before she knew it, six hours had passed, and she had to force herself to stop. Esme was experiencing ______________ while doing her gardening.
flow
Eva roller-skates every day, partly for exercise and partly for the euphoric feeling she gets while skating. She becomes completely engrossed in the activity and often loses track of time. What is the word for what Eva experiences when roller-skating?
flow
When a person is engaging in an activity so intently that they are "in the zone," so to speak, and is doing that activity for no other reason than the sheer pleasure of doing it, that person is experiencing a state called
flow
attention
focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events
Chris loves listening to a particular song because the singer starts off at a low pitch but then ends at a higher octave. In other words, Chris enjoys the way the ______________ changes over the course of the song.
frequency
After accidentally cutting your hand while slicing vegetables, you rub the area of the cut vigorously to reduce the sensation of pain you are feeling. According to the ______________ theory of pain, rubbing the area works to block the sharper pain signals from being sent through the spinal cord to the brain.
gate control
Caryn's mother loves the smell of vanilla candles. Caryn dislikes the smell, but when she visits her mother, she stops noticing it after a couple of hours. The fact that Caryn can now ignore the candles' scent is most likely due to a type of nonassociative learning called ______________.
habituation
The first time Darla's dad tries to scare her by yelling, "Boo!" she jumps and then laughs. Five "Boos!" later, Darla no longer jumps or laughs; she just looks her dad and shakes her head. This decrease in response to a repeated stimulus is called ______________.
habituation
semiconcious
half conscious; not fully conscious
Which of the following behaviors may interfere with her ability to sleep the next night? (Is not)
having a warm bath
latent
hidden, present but not realized
Cones
higher levels of light which result in color perception
In a parent-and-infant swimming class, parents blow air on their infant's face and then blow bubbles in the water. Subsequently, the infant blows bubbles in the water. The infant is engaging in ______________.
imitation
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
How does operant conditioning differ from vicarious learning
in vicarious learning, a learner learns a behavior from watching others. In operant conditioning, a learner receives a reward for performing a desired behavior.
Inez says that she smokes two packs of cigarettes every day because she enjoys it so much, not because she's addicted. According to addiction research, what underlies Inez's "enjoyment" of smoking?
increases in dopamine
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
After struggling with a complex math problem, Stacey takes a short break. While making herself a cup of tea, she suddenly comes up with the solution. "Aha!" moments such as this are a form of ______________ learning that occurs in the apparent absence of reinforcement.
insight
Blair has trouble "turning off" his mind at night, which usually results in hours of lying awake in bed. It doesn't help that his wife, Kim, has a sleep condition that sometimes causes her to stop breathing in her sleep and catch her breath in loud gasps. Blair is troubled by ______________, while Kim suffers from ______________.
insomnia; obstructive sleep apnea
Which of the following terms would be most applicable to a valid definition of perception?
interpretation
When asked a question about information processed in his right hemisphere, split-brain patient J.W.'s left brain could not verbalize an accurate reply. However, he still came up with an answer that showed a logical attempt to construct a world that made sense. In this way, the left hemisphere is often called the ______________.
interpreter
When you first wake up in the morning and the lights are turned on, your pupils are closed to a very small diameter. As your eyes adapt to the light, the pupils open to let more light in. Which structure controls the opening (and closing) of the pupil?
iris
Marie frequently eats at the Downtowner Diner. Although she often reads the entire menu, she always orders the chicken quesadilla. When she is hired to work at the Downtowner, she finds that she already knows all of the menu items and how much each one costs. This is likely the result of ______________
latent
The definition of ______________ is a relatively enduring change in behavior that results from experience.
learning
The ______________ hemisphere of the brain interprets behavior that is a result of a posthypnotic suggestion.
left
perceptual threshold
level of stimulus necessary to be aware of particular sensation
Which of the following is not an opioid (i.e., narcotic)?
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
demystify
make clear and comprehensible
This popular drug alters consciousness by blocking the reuptake of dopamine and increasing its release. In the long term, it can cause considerable damage throughout the brain and body. What drug is this?
methamphetamine
paradoxal sleep
mind is active, body is paralyzed
In Freud's technique of free association, therapy clients are asked to speak about whatever comes to mind without editing, censoring, or judging their own thoughts. Similarly, those practicing ______________ meditation are encouraged to let their thoughts flow freely without reacting to them.
mindfulness
difference threshold
minimum of change required for difference between two stimuli
Dr. Lopez believes that he may have discovered how observational learning happens in the brain. His research showed that when one person watches someone else reach into a box to retrieve an object, specific brain cells become active in the watcher's brain. Dr. Lopez has probably come across
mirror neurons
During the winter Olympics, a skier had a terrible fall. The spectators all cringed. It was as if they had fallen themselves and were able to feel the pain of the fallen athlete. According to the biological basis of observational learning, the action of ______________ might underpin the spectators' behavior.
mirror neurons
Leroy throws a party while his parents are out of town. During the party, Monica runs up to Leroy and exclaims, "Your mom just pulled up to the house in her Jeep!" When he looks out the window, he is able to quickly determine that the Jeep is not his parents' because it is not the right color. In signal detection terminology, Monica's response is a ______________, while Leroy's response is a ______________. Select one:
miss; correct rejection
As Fatima gazes out onto the mountain landscape, she is able to tell which objects are near to her and which are far away by using both ______________ cues, like occlusion, relative size, and linear perspective, and ______________ cues, like disparity.
monocular; binocular
Although she and her roommate have the same ringtone, Lakisa can always tell whose phone is ringing based on whose side of the room it's coming from. She can do this not only because of the difference in time the sound takes to reach her left versus her right ear, but also because the sound is ______________ for the ear that is closer to the phone.
more intesne
At a poker game with his friends, Moises wins a big pot and suddenly yells out in excitement. Then, three seconds later, he slumps over in his chair, fast sleep. His friends catch him before he hits the ground, and after another few seconds, he wakes up. From which sleep disorder does Moises probably suffer?
narcolepsy
Your parents want to teach your little brother to stop whining. Your mother proposes taking away his toys whenever he whines. In this example, your mother wants to use ______________ to reduce your brother's whining.
negative punishment
After getting badly sunburned, Stanley heads out for another day at the beach, this time slathering on sunscreen to avoid getting the same painful reaction. In this case, Stanley's use of sunscreen has likely been acquired by way of ______________.
negative reinforcement
When Kayla eventually answers her history professor's question in class, the professor moves back to the front of the room, and shifts her attention to the other students. Kayla is now more likely to answer more of the professor's questions in the future. Kayla has received which type of operant outcome? Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
negative reinforcement
Quan mows the lawn without his father having to ask him to. Afterward, his father says to him, "You don't have to do the dishes after dinner. I'll do it. Thanks for mowing the lawn!" Quan has been __________ for mowing the lawn.
negatively reinforced
minor neurons
neurons that are active when an animal performs a behavior, such as reaching for or manipulating an object, and are also activated when another animal observes that animal performing the same behavior
Carrie recently went through a very painful breakup with Devonne, with whom she had been in an intense relationship. Carrie's heart is broken, and she thinks about Devonne constantly. She seems to associate everything with her ex-girlfriend, including TV shows they watched together, clothes that reminded her of Devonne, and restaurants they ate at together. Before Carrie's relationship with Devonne, the TV shows, clothes, and restaurants were ________, but, after the breakup, they have become ________. Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
neutral stimuli; conditioned stimuli
Sergio is practicing the violin. His roommate, Stefan, is getting annoyed because the sound waves coming from the violin are of extremely high frequency. In other words, the ______________ is too ______________ for Stefan.
noise; high-pitched
slow-wave sleep
non-REM sleep, characterized by synchronized EEG activity during its deeper stages
Which of the following would not be included in a valid definition of consciousness?
objective
Poor baby Ezra was born with a very specific type of brain damage: He has no mirror neurons in his brain. The lack of mirror neurons will most likely affect Ezra's ability to learn through ______________.
observation
Examined closely by psychologist Albert Bandura, this type of learning involves acquiring or modifying one's own actions after watching another engage in a similar behavior. What type of learning is this?
observational learning
Gustavo watched a cooking show on television demonstrating how to make chicken Parmesan. Even though he has never made chicken Parmesan, he explains to a friend how to make it. Gustavo's knowledge of cooking chicken Parmesan is best explained by ______________.
observational learning
One day in class, Nigel notices that the students who sit at the front of the class are called on more often and seem to be favored by the professor. He sits at the front of the class the next day, and gets called on by the professor, as he had hoped. This demonstrates ________.
observational learning
Your younger daughter watches your older daughter mow the lawn. Later, your younger daughter attempts to mow the lawn. According to the principles of ______________, your older daughter has acted as a ______________.
observational learning; model
This type of learning, sometimes called instrumental conditioning, involves choosing which behaviors to repeat in the future based on the consequences of that action. What is another name for this type of learning?
operant conditioning
The Gestalt psychologists identified several principles that explain how visual grouping works. Which of the following was not one of the Gestalt principles?
opponent-process
Your little cousin Athena wants to know why she has crayons with colors called blue green and orange-yellow but not blue-yellow or orange-green. You explain that cells in your eye help create the perception that some colors are opposites. Good thing you learned about the ______________ theory!
opponent-process
Conciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment. Moment to moment
The brain's processing, organization, and interpretation of stimuli received by our sensory organs is called ________.From Sensation to Perception
perception
Jack is camping with a friend in the woods. While stargazing, Jack notices a very faint light in the distance. The light is so faint that he can barely see it, and his friend has not noticed it at all. The light is right at Jack's ______________ threshold.
perceptual
Susan has an alcohol addiction that encompasses not only ______________, in that she needs more and more alcohol to feel buzzed, but also ______________, in that she feels she needs to drink to maintain her social life.
physical dependence; psychological dependence
Which of the following are some of the biological structures and processes regulating sleep?
pineal gland melatonin circadian rhythm hypothalamus
The mechanism for encoding frequency is called ______________.
place coding
The skin contains many different kinds of receptors, each of which is sensitive to a different kind of sensory input. Which of the following is not a sensory input detected by a specific type of receptor in the skin?
pleasure
Kayla forgets that the cold and hot beakers look exactly alike, so she doesn't wear gloves or use tongs when she grabs the hot beaker in chemistry class. This results in her hand getting burned. She is therefore not likely to grab a beaker with bare skin in the future unless she is certain that the beaker is cold. The application of an unpleasant outcome is going to reduce the future repetition of the associated behavior. This is called ________. Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
positive punishment
Ever since Cornelius was hypnotized, he has been flapping his arms whenever he hears anyone say, "Hello." Cornelius's arm-flapping most likely results from ______________.
posthypnotic suggestion
Materialism
preoccupation with physical comforts and things
Dion was hiking in the woods when he spotted a snake. Without thinking about it, he abruptly turned around and returned to the parking area. Biological ______________ can partially explain Dion's behavior.
preparedness
Which of the following factors make someone more likely to become addicted to drugs or alcohol? IS NOT (one of them)
presence of one single "addiction" gene
Stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens are all types of ______________ drugs.
psychoactive
insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
Abel is an artist who works with paints. He is currently using a pigment that produces light of the longest wavelengths a human being can see. What color paint is Abel using?
red
Maurice is taking a class in which he is tested every two weeks. He decides to cram for the first test and receives a poor grade. According to the law of effect, the probability of Maurice cramming before the second test has likely been ______________.
reduced
variable ratio
reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
variable interval
reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
Which of the following are the adaptive functions of sleep?
repairing damage facilitating learning maintaining inactivity during times of danger
Shaping is
rewarding behaviors that increasingly resemble the desired behavior.
Gustation
sense of taste
EunKyung's oven is dirty, and it smokes whenever she uses it. She is worried that it will catch fire, so anytime she smells smoke while baking, she quickly drops whatever she's doing to check the oven. EunKyung is most likely experiencing a form of nonassociative learning called ______________.
sensitization
When Marla first moved to New York City, she could hardly sleep because of all the noise from the street. After a month or two, she stopped noticing these noises, and now she feels she would have a hard time sleeping in a quiet country village. What explains this change?
sensory adaptation
sleep spindles
short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep
sommnambulism
sleepwalking
Professor Atlas has a dull ache in his lower back, probably from hunching over his philosophy books for the past several weeks. Which nerve fibers are carrying the pain information to his brain?
slow fibers
Stage 2 of sleep cycle
small bursts of activities spindles, nonrem sleep
Gary was in a motorcycle accident and damaged his thalamus. Gary will have no difficulty carrying out which of the following actions?
smelling roses in his garden
Fred's sister just got a cat. Fred is allergic to the cat, and whenever it gets near him, Fred sneezes. Fred's sister puts a collar with a bell on the cat, so Fred will know when it is nearby. Soon, whenever Fred hears the bell, even from far away, he starts to sneeze. In this situation, Fred has experienced classical conditioning, where the unconditioned response is the ______________.
sneezing
Brandon was hypnotized at a student-life event as part of a performance. The crowd laughed as the hypnotist instructed him to recite the Pledge of Allegiance in Martian. Afterward, Brandon's friends speculated that he was not faking having been hypnotized, but rather behaving as he expected hypnotized people would. This represents the ______________ theory of hypnosis.
sociocognitive
In which model of hypnosis would people's preformed expectations about how they are expected to behave play a role in their post-hypnotic behaviors?
sociocognitive theory
Your roommate asks what you want for dinner, and you reply sarcastically, "I am in the mood for some amazing umami flavor tonight!" Your roommate is also taking an introductory psychology course, so he knows that this means he should serve a meal that is accompanied by ______________.
soy sauce
A person's recognition that two similar stimuli do not both produce the same conditioned response is called ______________.
stimulus discrimination
Anya was taking some medicine that upset her stomach. Later that day, when she drank orange juice, she became violently ill. Since then, Anya has felt sick to her stomach at even the thought of orange juice. One day, while out eating with friends, Anya notices a glass of grapefruit juice near their table. Anya does not get sick at the sight of the grapefruit juice. The fact that Anya does not get sick from a different kind of fruit juice is a demonstration of ______________.
stimulus discrimination
Courtney was bitten by her brother's pet white rat. Since then, Courtney has developed an irrational and excessive fear of all small white animals. She even feels fearful when she sees a photo of such an animal. Courtney's reaction to small white animals is best explained by ______________.
stimulus generalization
When Ibrahim was six years old, he became terrified when the family's parrot flew at him and bit him on the nose. Since then, he has been afraid of all birds. Ibrahim's bird phobia illustrates the classical conditioning process of ______________.
stimulus generalization
Howard loves everything about movies, including movie history. He knows that many of the tricks used in special effects have their origins in the Gestalt phenomenon called ______________.
stroboscopic motion
consciousness
subject experience of the world
Tawny has been craving a Dr. Pepper soft drink all day. She is not sure why, because she rarely drinks this beverage. Her roommate, Abigail, reminds her that last night several friends they were out with were drinking Dr. Pepper. Which of the following has Tawny experienced?
subliminal perception
posthypnotic amnesia
supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis; induced by the hypnotist's suggestion
When Gretchen eats her favorite brand of pickle, the molecules stimulate taste receptors located in her` ______________ that are grouped within ______________.
taste buds; papillae
When Lydia eats her favorite ice cream, taste receptors in the ________ convert the chemical molecules into signals which are then transmitted to the brain by process of ______________.
taste buds; transduction
Paulo is playing an instrument in his school's marching band. One section requires the low instruments (tubas, trombones, and bass drums) to all play at once, while the higher instruments remain silent. At band practice, Paulo listens intently to the low noises of his bandmates' instruments. Paulo is capable of hearing these low notes because of ______________ coding.
temporal
Pum is lying awake and listening to the sounds of the city. He hears a very low pitched sound in the distance. How does his auditory system code this type of pitch?
temporal coding
Visual signals must first pass through which part of Ayumi's brain before they are directed to the brain areas involved with interpreting those signals and converting them into meaning? From Sensation to Perception
thalamus
Which early relay station in the brain is used by all other sensory systems but bypassed by your olfactory system?
thalamus
Dreams are often not random collections of images, but rather seem to reflect the events that we experience in our waking lives. This fact is a big problem for which theory of dreaming?
the activation-synthesis theory
positive punishment
the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
bottom-up processing
the analysis of the smaller features to build up to a complete perception
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle (hazard)
Fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
What is prediction error as described by the Rescorla-Wagner model?
the difference between an outcome that is anticipated and the outcome that actually occurs
Baby Shane liked the taste of the dog's food. One day, his mother caught him eating it and screamed. Her scream startled Shane and made him cry. This happened several times, and now whenever Shane sees the dog's food, he feels afraid. In this example of classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus is
the dog's food
According to one theory, consciousness arises from the activity of specific areas of the brain. In other words, the currently active parts of your brain contribute to your moment-to-moment experience. What is the name of this theory?
the global workspace model
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time
sensory threshold
the point at which a stimulus is strong enough to make a conscious impact on a person's awareness
Weber's Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
hypnotic analgesia
the reduction of pain through hypnosis in people who are susceptible to hypnosis
sublimal perception
the registration of sensory input without conscious awareness
subliminal perception
the registration of sensory input without conscious awareness
negative punishment
the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
According to the activation-synthesis theory of sleep, dreaming results from:
the sleeping mind's attempt to make sense of random brain activity.
stimulus generalization
the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response
neodissociation theory
the theory that hypnosis induces a dissociated state of consciousness
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
absolute threshold
the weakest amount of a stimulus that a person can detect half the time
trichromatic theory
theory of color vision that proposes three types of cones: red, blue, and green
restorative theory
theory of sleep proposing that sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body and serves to replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage
activation-synthesis theory
theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story
Da'trell has just fallen asleep in his psychology class. The professor notices that he has nodded off and calls out his name. Da'trell quickly wakes up, apologizes, and tries to stay awake for the rest of the class. What kind of electrical activity was likely occurring in Da'trell's brain during his brief nap?
theta waves
Stage 1 sleep
theta waves
eardrum
thin membrane which marks the beginning of the middle ear sound waves
Bruce used to experience a great deal of euphoria from a small amount of heroin. Now, however, due to ______________, he must consume a great deal more to get high.
tolerance
Hunter and Marissa went out on their patio late at night to look at the stars. Hunter had been reading about constellations, and sure enough, he saw that several clusters of stars seemed to be organized into identifiable shapes. Hunter's interest in constellations may have led to ______________.
top-down processing
When Ayumi is watching television, the light waves generated by the television are received by her eyes and are then changed into neural signals that can be sent to the brain. This process of converting a physical stimulus to a neural message is called ________. From Sensation to Perception
transduction
When Carmella wakes up in the morning, the smell of freshly brewed coffee permeates the air. The chemicals in the air are received by her nose, and then transformed into a neural signal that is sent to her brain. This transformation is called
transduction
automatic processing
type of consciousness needed to perform quick, automatic behaviors or habits
controlled processing
type of consciousness needed to perform slow, deliberate and intentional tasks
Which of the following taste sensations results from detecting glutamate?
umami
Whenever Dylan walks into his room, his roommate loudly blows an air horn, which startles Dylan. Dylan doesn't think this is funny, and after several such episodes, he tenses up and opens the door more slowly and carefully. In this practical joke, the blast of the air horn that causes Dylan to jump out of his shoes is the ________. Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
unconditioned stimulus
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
Narcolepsy
uncontrollable sleep attacks (sleeping uncontrollably)
Glenn goes fishing every weekend. On some days, it takes anywhere from 15 minutes to an hour to catch a fish. On other days, Glenn can go hours before he catches a fish. Glenn catches fish on a ______________ schedule of reinforcement.
variable interval
Seventeen-year-old Ryan watches his father fix a broken part on the family car. Then Ryan sees that his mother shows his father lots of affection because he fixed the car. Based on this experience, Ryan will be more likely to fix his girlfriend's car if it breaks. This scenario shows how Ryan has been influenced by
vicarious learning
When Winnie's parents come home from work, they praise and reward Winnie's older sister for having cleaned up the house. Winnie watches as her sister gets praised and rewarded. The next day, Winnie cleans up the house as soon as she gets home from school. This is an example of ________.
vicarious learning
Match the types of stimuli with the sensory receptors in which transduction takes place.
vision : rods and cones touch : ends of receptor neurons in the skin taste : recepor cells on the tounge auditory : hair cells in the cochela smell : olfactory mucous neurons
illusory contours
we sometimes perceive contours and cues to depth even when they do not exist
After going several days without using heroin, her drug of choice, Camilla began suffering terrible stomach cramps, feels nauseous, and has vomited twice. She also feels chills accompanied by profuse sweating and complains of severe physical pain. Camilla is experiencing symptoms of ______________.
withdrawal