PSYCH EXAM 3

Aggression - 3 factors of aggression (learning/observation, social rejection, and heat) Biological roots of aggression? - 1 genes in aggression - MAOA and serotonin, 2 areas of brain alteration in Seretonin effects - 1 hormone in aggression, T in male vs women, why does T impact aggression - is it the result or cause (EXAMPLE).

--> AGGRESSION: can be expressed through countless behaviors - all involve the intention to harm another. FACTORS include learning/observation, social rejection, and heat. --> BIOLOGICAL ROOTS OF AGGRESSION: MAOA GENE: research has identified the MAOA gene in aggression - it controls the amount of MAO (monoamine oxidase) - an enzyme that regulates the activity of neurotransmitters (serotonin and norepinephrine). MAOA is not a "violence gene" per say, but a particular form of it makes people susceptible to environmental risk factors associated with antisocial behaviors. MAOA AND SERETONIN: The MAOA gene regulates serotonin- which is important in controlling aggressive behavior. Altered serotonin function has been associated with impulsive aggressiveness in adults and hostility/disruptive behavior in children. Alterations in serotonin activity increase the AMYGDALA response to threat and interfere with the PREFRONTAL CORTEX control over aggressive impulses. Disrupted serotonin systems may lead people to respond impulsively. HORMONE: testosterone appears to have a modest correlation with aggression. . MALE VS WOMAN: Males have more testosterone than females, and males carry out the vast majority of aggressive and violent acts. Boys play more roughly than girls at an early age. They become especially aggressive during early adolescence (a time when their levels of testosterone rise). Increases in testosterone in boys align with other changes that promote aggression (physical growth). Particularly aggressive men (violent criminals, and physical athletes) have been found to have high levels of testosterone compared to other males This relationship is small and it is unclear how testosterone is linked to greater aggressiveness. WHY DOES IT AFFECT AGGRESSION LEVELS: it reduces the activity of brain circuits that control impulses. RESULT OR CAUSE: Testosterone changes may be the result-rather than the cause-of aggressive behavior. That is, the situation may change testosterone levels. It might not play a direct role in aggression, but rather may be related to social dominance, the result of having greater power/status. EXAMPLE: A number of studies have shown that testosterone rises just before athletic competition. Testosterone remains high for the winners of competitive matches and drops lower for the losers

Finally, you will want to understand the ways in which personality is assessed. - assessment of personality - 2 approaches personality assessment follows 1) ideographic, EXAMPLE - central traits - secondary traits 2) nomothetic, EXAMPLE - 5 factor approach as nomothetic The difference between projective techniques and self reports 1) projective measures - criticism - EXAMPLE (Rorschach inkblot test) - problems with projective measures (like inkblot test) - thematic apperception test 2) self reports - common problem, faking good/faking bad - countering these biases - behavioral data, EXAMPLE environment How well others are able to judge personality traits of people. - observers show accuracy in trait judgements - why they show accuracy

WAYS PERSONALITY IS ASSESSED: ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY: Assessment procedures include measures of unconscious processes; life history data; behavioral data; self-reports; and descriptions from people's friends, relatives, or both. 2 APPROACHES PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT FOLLOWS: idiographic and nomothetic. 1) IDIOGRAPHIC: are person-centered. They focus on individual lives and how various characteristics are integrated into unique persons. EXAMPLE: Suppose each person in your psychology class identified 10 personality traits that described himself. If your instructor compiled a list of everyone's traits, some of the traits would overlap. Other traits would probably apply to just one person in the class. People like to be unique, so they tend to choose traits that distinguish themselves from other people. CENTRAL TRAITS: These central traits are especially important for how individuals define themselves. In general, central traits are more predictive of behavior than secondary traits are. SECONDARY TRAITS: In contrast, people consider secondary traits less personally descriptive or not applicable. As you can imagine, certain traits are central for some people and secondary for others. You might define yourself in terms of how bold you are, but someone else might not consider boldness a very relevant part of her self-definition. In general, central traits are more predictive of behavior than secondary traits are. Idiographic approaches use a different metric for each person. 2) NOMOTHETIC: focus on characteristics that are common among all people but that vary from person to person. Researchers compare people by measuring traits such as agreeableness or extraversion. EXAMPLE: they might give participants a questionnaire that lists 100 personality traits and have the participants rate themselves on each trait, using a scale of 1 to 10. From the nomothetic perspective, individuals are unique because of their unique combinations of common traits. 5 FACTOR AS NOMOTHETIC APPROACH: The five-factor theory is an example of a nomothetic approach. That is, it looks at how all people vary on five basic personality traits. Nomothetic approaches use the same metric to compare all people. --> DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROJECTIVE MEASURES AND SELF REPORTS: "PROJECTIVE MEASURES: personality is influenced by unconscious conflicts. Projective measures explore the unconscious by having people describe or tell stories about ambiguous stimulus items. The general idea is that people will project their mental contents onto the ambiguous items. Through these projections, according to the theory, people will reveal hidden aspects of personality such as motives, wishes, and unconscious conflicts. CRITICISM: Such procedures have been criticized for being too subjective and insufficiently validated. EXAMPLE (Rorschach inkblot test): a person looks at an apparently meaningless inkblot and describes what it appears to be. How a person describes the inkblot is supposed to reveal unconscious conflicts and other problems. PROBLEMS WITH PROJECTIVE MEASURES: multiple administers/raters often disagree with each other in how to interpret the descriptions (despite being professionals). In addition, the Rorschach does a poor job of diagnosing specific psychological disorders. The goal is to come up with an objective truth/understand how people will interact with the world - Descriptions derived from the test do not reflect this. Having two different interpretations prevents from deriving one objective truth. THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST: a person is shown an ambiguous picture and is asked to tell a story about it. Scoring of the story is based on the motivational schemes that emerge, because the schemes are assumed to reflect the storyteller's personal motives. It has been used for measuring motivational traits-especially those related to achievement, power, and affiliation. If used properly, the TAT reliably predicts how interpersonally dependent people are. 2) SELF REPORTS: Measuring only what the person reports, they make no pretense of uncovering hidden conflicts or secret information. It is about beliefs about now behavior/how others see them - people report on how they act. A questionnaire might target a specific trait (how much excitement a person seeks). More often, questionnaires will include a large inventory of traits. COMMON PROBLEM (faking good/faking bad): a common problem is shared by all self-report assessments, including the MMPI - faking good and faking bad. FAKING GOOD: to make favorable impressions, respondents sometimes distort the truth or lie outright. To avoid detection of psychological disorders, they may be evasive/defensive. People might try to present themselves too positively by agreeing with a large number of items, such as "I always make my bed" and "I never tell lies." A high score on this category would indicate an attempt to present a perfectly positive image FAKING BAD: respondents may untruthfully lean toward negative items. COUNTERING BIASES: To counter such response biases, the MMPI-2 includes validity scales in addition to the clinical scales. LIFE HISTORY DATA: Researchers who use idiographic approaches often examine case studies of individuals through interviews or biographical information. This type of study emphasizes the idea that personality unfolds over the life course as people react to their particular circumstances. BEHAVIORAL DATA: Researchers have also developed a number of objective measures that assess how personality emerges in daily life. EXAMPLE: For example, the electronically activated record (EAR), tracks a person's real-world moment-to-moment interactions. As the wearer goes about her or his daily life, the EAR picks up snippets of conversations and other auditory information. The EAR has been used to show that self-reports on the Big Five traits predict real-world behavior --> ENVIRONMENT: Other aspects of the environment can also be used to predict personality. Consider whether you keep your bedroom tidy or messy, warm or cold. --> HOW WELL OTHERS ARE ABLE TO JUDGE PERSONALITY TRAITS OF PEOPLE: OBSERVERS SHOW ACCURACY IN TRAIT JUDGEMENTS: a person's close acquaintances show a surprising degree of accuracy for trait judgments, at least in some circumstances. In other studies, friends predicted assertiveness and other behaviors better than the person's own ratings did. WHY THEY SHOW ACCURACY: This effect may occur because our friends actually observe how we behave in situations. While we are in those situations, we may be preoccupied with evaluating other people and therefore fail to notice how we behave. Another possibility is that our subjective perceptions may diverge from our objective behaviors. In either case, these studies imply that there is a disconnect between how people view themselves and how they behave. On highly evaluative traits-traits that people care about-people are biased when judging themselves. Thus, people are more accurate in rating themselves for traits that are hard to observe and less prone to bias because they are neutral. A trait easy to observe but also highly meaningful to people, such as creativity, is more likely to be judged accurately by friends than by the person with the trait.

(WHAT AFFECTS HEALTH)

NEW THEME BREAK

Disparities in life expectancy - Disparities in the US vs other countries Disparities in racial/ethnic groups in the US - evidence (White Americans vs African Americans). - 3 Reasons for differences 1) GENETIC VARIATION 2) ACCESS 3) CULTURAL FACTORS - Why is the gap closing? Disparities between countries across the world - 2 Reasons for differences in countires 1) RESOURCES 2) DIFFERENT LIFESTYLES - Effect of adoption of lifestyles - Relation to biopsychosocial model How differences have roots in multiple causes, rather than a single cause - look at reasons (genetic, psychological, and behavioral)

--> DISPARITIES IN LIFE EXPECTANCY: Infections/diseases = leading causes of mortality in some developing nations, but most countries the causes shifted. US: people are likely to die from heart disease, cancer, strokes, lung disease, and accidents than disease. These causes are partially outcomes of lifestyle (poor nutrition, overeating, smoking, alcohol use, and lack of exercise). Partially for this reason, life expectancy in the US dropped. --> DISPARITIES IN RACIAL/ETHNIC GROUPS: Racial/ethnic groups have disparities in health. EVIDENCE: although life expectancies increased in the US, African Americans have a lower life expectancy than white Americans. 3 REASONS FOR RACIAL/ETHNIC DISPARITY: 1) GENETIC VARIATION in susceptibility to some diseases 2) ACCESS (or lack of access) to affordable health care. Racial biases in the U.S. medical system contribute to health disparities. 3) CULTURAL FACTORS (dietary and exercise habits) WHY IS THE GAP CLOSING?: The gap between black/white Americans is closing, because whites are dying at higher rates. Lifestyle factors (alcohol and opioid abuse) lowered life expectancy for white Americans than for other groups. --> DISPARITIES IN COUNTRIES: 2 REASONS FOR DISPARITIES IN COUNTRIES: 1) RESOURCES: Impoverished countries lack to provide adequate treatments for health conditions. 2) DIFFERENT LIFESTYLES: In some countries, people walk/bike for transportation. In the US/Canada physical activity comes only from purposeful exercise. ADOPTION OF LIFESTYLES: The adoption of Westernized lifestyles (eating junk food) in countries like India/China, led to increases in diseases (obesity/ diabetes). RELATION TO BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL: Culture influences behaviors and behaviors alter underlying biology, thus determining health and well being.

What is the effect of teratogens on physical/brain development? - teratogens, extent of damage? - fetal alcohol syndrome - drugs - paternal lifestyle factors

--> EFFECT OF TERATOGENS ON PHYSICAL/BRAIN DEVELOPMENT: TERATOGENS: agents that harm the embryo or fetus. they can impair development in the womb with terrible consequences. Teratogens include drugs, alcohol, bacteria, viruses, and chemicals. The physical effects of exposure to certain teratogens may be obvious at birth, but disorders involving language, reasoning, social behavior, or emotional behavior may not become apparent until the child is older. The extent to which a teratogen causes damage depends on WHEN the embryo or fetus is exposed to it, as well as the for HOW LONG. FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME: The most common teratogen is alcohol. The symptoms of this disorder are low birth weight; face and head abnormalities; deficient brain growth; and evidence of impairment, as indicated by behavioral or cognitive problems or low IQ. FAS is most likely to occur among infants of women who drink heavily during pregnancy. No minimal amount of alcohol has been determined to be safe for pregnant women. DRUGS: Premature birth and other complications have been associated with the use of all these drugs during pregnancy. Infants of women taking opiates, particularly meth, have 5 to 10x greater risk for unexplained sudden death in infancy. Among infants exposed to opiates in the womb, 40-80 percent show symptoms of newborn withdrawal. These symptoms include irritability, high- pitched crying, tremors, vomiting, diarrhea, and rapid breathing. PATERNAL LIFESTYLE FACTORS: There is growing evidence, that paternal lifestyle factors (diet, toxin exposure, and amount of stress) can affect a child's health through epigenetic processes. Life experiences and environmental circumstances can be passed along in sperm as epigenetic information. These effects may then be passed along to subsequent generations.

Having a positive attitude is associated with better health outcomes - define well being and happiness - EVIDENCE positive attitude = health outcomes Having social support seems to be associated with positive health - EVIDENCE social support is associated with positive health - 2 ways social support helps coping/maintaining good health 1) LESS STRESS 2) IMPLICATION PEOPLE CARE - Buffering hypothesis - 3 behaviors for coping, are they good/bad 1) EXPRESSION 2) SUPPRESSION 3) RUMINATION 3) the importance of trust for positive health - EVIDENCE trust is associated with positive health - EVIDENCE trust is linked to oxytocin - Oxytocin, social bonds, tend and befriend response

--> HAVING A POSITIVE ATTITUDE IS ASSOCIATED WITH BETTER HEALTH OUTCOMES: WELL BEING AND HAPPINESS: A truly successful life involves not only HAPPINESS (pleasure, engagement, and a meaningful life) but also, WELL BEING (good relationships and a history of accomplishment). Well being involves aspects of people's lives, such as emotional health, quality of work environment, physical health, health behaviors, and access to food and shelter --> PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS (positive emotions/well being) CAN POSITIVELY INFLUENCE ONES HEALTH: PROOF/EVIDENCE: more than 1,000 patients in a large medical practice filled out questionnaires about their emotional traits. The questionnaires included scales that measured positive emotions (hope and curiosity) and negative emotions (anxiety and anger). Two years after receiving the questionnaires, researchers used the patients' medical files to determine whether there was a relationship between these emotions and three broad types of diseases: high blood pressure, diabetes, and respiratory tract infections. RESULT: Higher levels of hope were associated with reduced risk of these medical diseases, and higher levels of curiosity were associated with reduced risk of hypertension and diabetes. These findings support the suggestion that, in general, positive emotions are related to better health. It is entirely plausible that poor health can cause both unhappiness and increased mortality. It is also possible that happy people live longer because they have stronger immune systems --> HAVING SOCIAL SUPPORT IS ASSOCIATED WITH BETTER HEALTH: People high in well-being tend to have strong social networks and are more socially integrated than those lower in well-being. Social interaction is beneficial for physical/mental health. People with larger social networks are less likely to catch colds and live longer. EVIDENCE: A study using a random sample of adults found that people with smaller social networks were more likely to die during the nine-year period between assessments than were people with more friends. Men with fewer friends were 2.3x more likely to die than comparable men with more friends. Women with fewer friends were 2.8x times more likely to die than comparable women with more friends. Sick people who are socially isolated are likely to die sooner than sick people who are well connected to others. This effect may be related to the association between chronic loneliness and numerous psychological and health problems. RESULTS: A lack of social connections predicts both physical illness and mortality. The increased likelihood of death was 26% for subjective loneliness, 29% for lack of social contacts, and 32% for living alone. Either being or feeling alone is associated with poor health outcomes. 2 WAYS SOCIAL SUPPORT HELPS PEOPLE COPE/MAINTAIN GOOD HEALTH. 1) LESS STRESS: people experience less stress 2) IMPLICATION PEOPLE CARE: there's an implication that people care about the recipient of the support. Knowing that other people care lessens the negative effects of stress. BUFFERING HYPOTHESIS: other people can provide direct emotional support in helping individuals cope with stressful events. It can include expressions of caring, willingness to listen, provide material support, thinking of solution. 3 BEHAVIORS FOR COPING: expression, suppression, rumination. 1) EXPRESSION: it is really to express the things you feel. 2) SUPPRESSION: has a negative effect - think about problem more, not good at it, results in rebound effect. 3) "RUMINATION: makes situation worse --> IMPORTANCE OF TRUST FOR POSITIVE HEALTH: Trust is associated with better health and a longer life. EVIDENCE: In a study of more than 160,000 people, each participant responded to the question "Most people can't be trusted. Do you agree or disagree with this statement?" In each state, as the percentage of respondents who believed most people cannot be trusted increased, so did the percentage who reported that their health was fair to poor. OXYTOCIN: a hormone that appears to increase trust. EVIDENCE: participants played a monetary exchange game. In studies of this kind, participants are given money by the experimenter and choose how much to give to another person. The experimenter then increases the amount of money received by the second person-say, by 4 or 5x. The person who receives the money then chooses whether, or how much, to give back to the 1st person. Thus, to make the most money, the 1st person has to trust that the other person will share some of the larger pool of money. In this study, oxytocin or a placebo was sprayed into the noses of the participants while they were playing. (Receptors for oxytocin exist throughout the brain but especially along the olfactory passages.) RESULTS: Players who had oxytocin sprayed in their noses gave the other players more money. In other words, they behaved as though they trusted the other players more than did players who had placebos sprayed in their noses. Oxytocin is also released when participants are engaged in trust relationships while playing monetary exchange games. OXYTOCIN, SOCIAL BONDS, TEND AND BEFRIEND RESPONSE: oxytocin might increase both trust and well-being by increasing social bonds. It is critical to the tend-and-befriend response (involved in attachments between mothers/children) and is released when people feel empathy/love.

Exercise can aid.. Physical health - cardiovascular health - (cardiovascular/healing) EVIDENCE Memory and Cognition - aerobatic exercise and its effects (Brain Volume) - memory EVIDENCE - cognition/brain volume EVIDENCE Mood

--> PHYSICAL HEALTH: The more people exercise, the better their physical and mental health. Those with better fitness are likely to live longer, less likely to have heart problems, and cancer. CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH: fitness lowers blood pressure and strengthens the heart and lungs. It is as effective as medications for preventing diabetes, heart disease, or recovering from heart attacks. EVIDENCE: Older adults were assigned to aerobic exercise nonaerobic control group. All the participants agreed to have small cuts made on their bodies. The wounds of the aerobic group took about 29.2 days to heal, the non aerobic group took about 38.9 days to heal. The aerobic group also had better heart and lung fitness. --> MEMORY AND COGNITION: Exercise benefits memory and cognition. AEROBATIC EXERCISE: temporarily increases, breathing, and heart rate, while promoting the growth of new neurons. Additional neurons result in a larger brain (the region that experiences the most growth is the hippocampus (used for memory and cognition)). EXPERIMENT (memory): Older adults with memory problems were assigned to an exercise group or to a control group. Participants in the exercise group improved in their overall cognition, including memory. The control group showed no changes. Exercise reduces cognitive decline in older adults with moderate memory problems EVIDENCE (Cognition): Adults between 60 and 79 were assigned to aerobic training or a non-aerobic control group. Participants in aerobic training significantly increased their brain volume, including both white (myelinated) and gray matter. The non-aerobic control group experienced no comparable changes. --> MOOD: Exercise contributes to positive outcomes for the clinical treatment of depression, addiction, and alcoholism (enhance mood).

Social loafing - EVIDENCE, headphones scenario When does it occur

--> SOCIAL LOAFING: the tendency for people to work less hard in a group than when working alone. EVIDENCE: 6 blindfolded people wearing headphones were told to shout loudly.. Some were told they were shouting alone, some were told they were shouting with others. RESULTS: Participants did not shout as loudly when they believed that others were shouting as well. --> WHEN IT OCCURS: It occurs when efforts are shared, so individuals do not feel responsible for the group's output. When people know that their individual efforts can be monitored, they do not engage in social loafing.

Temperaments can be observed early in life (infancy) - temperaments - 3 basic characteristics considered temperaments 1) activity level 2) emotionality 3) sociability They have long-term implications for one's behavior (they do not fully determine it, of course). - early childhood, - temperaments link to moving locations (what do people do when high of 1 of 3 temperaments?)

--> TEMPERAMENTS CAN BE OBSERVED EARLY IN LIFE (infancy): TEMPERAMENTS: General biologically based tendencies to feel/act in certain ways. They are BROADER than personality traits. Temperaments represent the innate biological structures of personality and are more stable. 3 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS CONSIDERED TEMPERAMENTS: Activity level, Emotionality, and Sociability. 1) ACTIVITY LEVEL: the overall amount of energy and of behavior a person exhibits. 2) EMOTIONALITY: describes the intensity of emotional reactions 3) SOCIABILITY: refers to the general tendency to affiliate with others. --> LONG TERM IMPLICATIONS: Early childhood temperaments influence behavior/personality structure throughout a person's development. Early childhood temperaments may be good predictors of later behaviors. TEMPERAMENTS LINK TO MOVING LOCATIONS: The 3 temperaments have been linked to people's propensities to move to new locations. HIGH SOCIABILITY: are more likely to migrate to urban areas and places that were quite distant from their hometowns. HIGH ACTIVITY: are more likely, in general, to migrate to a new location, regardless of that location. HIGH EMOTIONALITY: are more likely to migrate to places that are close to their home towns. These three temperamental styles are the main personality factors influenced by genes.

The Basic idea behind trait approaches to personality. - traits - personality traits on a continuum, EXAMPLE Traits underlie personality and our behavior. - trait approach to personality - does it predict behavior?

--> BASIC IDEA BEHIND TRAIT APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY: TRAITS: patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior that are relatively consistent over time/situations. TRAITS ON A CONTINUUM: Personality traits can be viewed on a continuum - scores show how high/low you are on a particular dimension of trait (measure of trait compared to others). Most people fall toward the middle and relatively few people fall at the extremes/lows. EXAMPLE: For example, in shyness, people range from extremely shy to extremely outgoing. Most people are in the middle. --> TRAITS UNDERLIE PERSONALITY AND BEHAVIOR: TRAIT APPROACH TO PERSONALITY: states that traits = dimension of personality that is common to most people, all people. It focuses on how individuals differ in personality dispositions, such as sociability, cheerfulness, and aggressiveness. DOES IT PREDICT BEHAVIOR?: In individual circumstances.- yes it does predict (for example introversion/extroversion - predicts people they live with, friend networks).

Bystander intervention effect? EVIDENCE What determines when we tend to intervene 4 factors that determines when we tend to NOT intervene 1) DIFFUSION OF RESPONSIBILITY 2) SOCIAL BLUNDERS 3) ANONYMOUS 4) RISK TO THEMSELVES AND BENEFITS

--> BYSTANDER INTERVENTION EFFECT: the failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need when other people are present. EVIDENCE: people were placed in situations that indicated they should seek help. In one ofthe first situations, male college students were in a room, filling out questionnaires. Pungent smoke started puffing in through the heating vents. Some participants were alone. Some were with two other naive participants. Some were with two actors, who noticed the smoke, shrugged, and continued filling out their questionnaires. When participants were on their own, most went for help. When three naive participants were together, however, few initially went for help. With the two calm confederates, only 10 percent of participants went for help in the first 6 minutes. The other 90 percent coughed, rubbed their eyes, and opened the window-but they did not report the smoke. In subsequent studies, people were confronted with mock crimes, apparent heart attack victims in subway cars, and people passed out in public places. The experimenters obtained similar results each time. --> 4 FACTORS WHEN WE DON'T INTERVENE: A person is less likely to offer help if other bystanders are around. 1) DIFFUSION OF RESPONSIBILITY: bystanders expect other bystanders to help - The greater the number of people who see someone in need of help, the less likely it is any of them will. 2) SOCIAL BLUNDERS: people fear making social mistakes in ambiguous situations. People may worry that they would look foolish if they sought help that was not needed. People feel less constrained if the need for help becomes clearer. 3) ANONYMOUS: People are less likely to help when they are anonymous and remain so. It is often wise to point to a specific person and request their help by saying "You, in the red shirt, call an ambulance!" 4) RISK TO THEMSELVES AND BENEFITS: people weigh two factors - How much harm do they risk to themselves by helping? and What benefits might they have if they help? Imagine you are walking and someone falls down, twists an ankle. You probably would be willing to help. Now imagine you are running to a final exam that counts for 90 percent of your grade - you probably wouldn't help.

Characteristics of group decision making - Group polarization, EXAMPLE - Group think

--> CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUP DECISION MAKING: Being in a group influences decision making GROUP POLARIZATION: The process where initial attitudes of groups become more extreme over time. When groups make decisions, they usually choose the course of action that was initially favored by the majority of individuals in the group. Through mutual persuasion, the decision-making individuals come to agreement. EXAMPLE: If most of the group members are somewhat cautious, then the group becomes even more cautious GROUP THINK: A group making a bad decision to preserve the group and maintain its cohesiveness; this is likely when the group is under intense pressure, facing external threats, and is biased. Group members sometimes go along with bad decisions to protect group harmony.

Define conformity and social norms What factors influence people to conform to social norms? - 2 factors that influence conformity to social norms 1) NORMATIVE INFLUENCE - EVIDENCE (Asch line judgements) 2) INFORMATIONAL INFLUENCE - EXAMPLE 2 group forces that produce and enforce norms? 1) GROUP SIZE 2) LACK OF UNANIMITY When do we get rejected? The application of social norms to reducing binge drinking in college - EVIDENCE Cases in which use of norms may have the opposite effect.

--> CONFORMITY: The altering of one's behaviors and opinions to match those of others or to match others' expectations. --> SOCIAL NORMS: indicate appropriate behaviors in social situations and how people will respond to those who violate norms. --> 2 FACTORS INFLUENCING CONFOMRITY TO SOCIAL NORMS: 1) NORMATIVE INFLUENCE: when people go along with the crowd to fit in the group and to avoid looking foolish. It relies on the societal need for rules and works because people feel embarrassed when they violate social norms (people worry about what others think). EVIDENCE (Asch line judgements): Given line, then 3 others, participants have to match corresponding lines (line 2 was the obvious answer). This involved 1 participant and 5 actors (participant is last one to respond). All actors say line 1 or 3 is the right answer (which is incorrect). RESULT: The participant will take a double take. 1/3 of them go along with the group, even if they don't believe their answer/it obviously being wrong. Given a piece of paper, privately, they wrote their true answer - line 2. This demonstrates the power of social/group forces and that people conform to social norms, even when those norms are wrong. 2) INFORMATIONAL INFLUENCE: when people assume that the behavior of the crowd represents the correct way to respond. EXAMPLE: Suppose you are in a train station and you see a mass of people running for the exit. You might join them if you suspect they are exiting for a good reason. In situations, other people's actions provide information about the right thing to do. --> 2 GROUP FORCES THAT PRODUCE/ENFORCE NORMS: 1) GROUP SIZE: When there are only 1 or 2 confederates, a naive participant usually does not conform. When the confederates number 3 or more, the participant is more likely to conform. Conformity seems to level off at a certain point, however. Subsequent research has found that even groups as large as 16 do not lead to greater conformity than groups of 7. 2) LACK OF UNANIMITY: diminishes conformity. If even one confederate gives a different answer, conformity to the group norm decreases a great deal. Any dissent from majority opinion can diminish the influence of social norms. But dissenters are typically not treated well by groups. REJECTION: Those who fail to conform are rejected. The need to belong gives a group powerful influence over its members --> EVIDENCE (Drinking study): Indeed, one large study of 18 college campuses, involving several thousand students, found that students attending schools that used social norms marketing had a lower risk of binge drinking than students at control schools. OPPOSITE EFFECT: Social norms marketing may inadvertently increase drinking. Students who usually have only 1 drink might interpret the posters as suggesting that the norm is to have 2 or 3 drinks. They might adjust their behavior accordingly. One team of researchers demonstrated that simply providing descriptive norms can cause this sort of backfire effect. They found that adding a message that the behavior is undesirable might help prevent social norms marketing from increasing the behavior it is meant to reduce. CONCLUSION: Campuses that want to reduce student drinking need to do more than simply publicize drinking norms. They need to also convince students that there are negative consequences associated with excessive drinking. Strategies that change perceived norms AND provide persuasive reasons to avoid binge drinking are most successful.

Cultural differences in self-serving bias and self concepts - cultural differences (western vs eastern), EXAMPLE interdependent vs. independent self-construal"

--> CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN SELF SERVING BIAS/SELF CONCEPTS: Psychologists have generally viewed the self-serving bias as a universal human trait. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES: Self-serving bias may be more common in Western cultures than in Eastern cultures. An important way in which people differ in self-concept is whether they view themselves as fundamentally separate from or connected to other people. Believing that someone is especially talented presupposes that some people are better than others. Such an attitude is less acceptable in Eastern, collectivistic cultures. There, the group is special, not the individual. Thus, self-enhancement and self-serving bias may be culturally determined, not universal. EXAMPLE: For example, Westerners tend to be independent and autonomous, stressing their individuality. Individualist cultures (e.g., in northern and western Europe, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States) emphasize rights and freedoms, self-expression, and diversity. People in individualist cultures tend to have independent self-construals. Easterners tend to be more interdependent, stressing their sense of being part of a collective. some cultures (e.g., in Japan, Pakistan, China, and some regions of Africa) emphasize the collective self more than the personal self. Collectivist cultures emphasize connections to family, to social groups, and to ethnic groups; conformity to societal norms; and group cohesiveness. !!Perhaps people in the East engage in strategic self-enhancement, but they are just more modest in public. In this case, the research finding suggests that although Easterners value themselves just as much as Westerners, they are hesitant to admit it. --> INTERDEPENDENT SELF CONSTRUAL: extent to which people construe the self as being fundamentally connected to other people INDEPENDENT SELF CONTSTRUAL: the extent to which people view the self as being separate and distinct from others and the social world

Further, it is important to understand that culture impacts personality, and the possible reasons why that might be, as covered in the text. - language (eastern vs western), standardized questionnaires - sampling - big 5 and culture (validity), EXAMPLE (asians and modesty?) - self reports do not match cultural stereotypes, EXPERIMENT (Canadians)

--> CULTURE IMPACTS PERSONALITY: Studying potential personality differences across cultures presents many challenges. LANGUAGE (eastern vs western): Cross-cultural research can be difficult when language is a central component of what is being studied. People from Eastern cultures tend to think in terms of relations with other people, whereas those from Western cultures tend to think in terms of independence. People from Eastern cultures might therefore interpret a question about personality traits as referring to their family or group. STANDARDIZED QUESTIONNAIRES: Making comparisons across cultures also requires the use of standardized questionnaires that are reliably translated so that the questions clearly refer to the same personality trait in all cultures and all respondents interpret the questions in the same way. SAMPLING: Often researchers use convenience samples. Apparent cultural differences may result from examining different types of people in the different cultures. BIG 5 AND CULTURE (validity): The Big Five personality traits are valid across all the countries. This finding supports that the Big Five are universal for humans. But the investigators did find modest differences in those traits across the 56 nations. EXAMPLE: People from East Asia (e.g., Japan, China, Korea) rated themselves comparatively lower than other respondents on extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, and they rated themselves comparatively higher on neuroticism. These ratings might have reflected differences, however, in cultural norms for saying good and bad things about oneself. People from East Asian countries might simply be the most modest. SELF REPORTS DO NOT MATCH CULTURAL STEREOTYPES: do not match cultural stereotypes about the respondents. EXPERIMENT: A team of researchers examined typical beliefs about the personality characteristics of people from 49 cultures. The researchers then compared those ratings with self-reports and observer reports of people from those cultures. There was little correspondence. For instance, Canadians were widely believed to be relatively low in neuroticism and high in agreeableness, yet self-reports by Canadians did not support this pattern. Canadians reported themselves to be just as neurotic and disagreeable as people from other cultures. National reputations may be accurate and that self-reports might be biased by individuals' comparisons of themselves with their national reputations.

Deindividuation - EVIDENCE, crowd behavior scenario - EVIDENCE, Stanford prison experiment scenario 3 situations for when it tends to occur? 1) aroused 2) anonymous 3) when responsibility is diffused. What are some of the potential consequences of deindividuation?

--> DEINDIVIDUATION: A state of reduced individuality, reduced self-awareness, and reduced attention to personal standards; this often occur when people are in a group. When self-awareness disappears, so do restraints - people often do things they would not normally do if they were alone or self-aware. EVIDENCE (crowd behavior): Most of us like to think we would help a person threatening suicide, but people in crowds often fail to. Disturbingly, they also sometimes egg the person on, yelling "Jump!" EVIDENCE (Stanford prison experiment): shows how quickly normal students could be transformed into the social roles they were playing. Male students played the roles of prisoners and guards in a mock prison. RESULTS: Within days, some of the "guards" became brutal and sadistic. They harassed the "prisoners," forcing them to engage in meaningless and tedious tasks/exercises. The prisoners became helpless to resist, experienced health problems, and were stressed. Results demonstrate what some people are willing to do when put in a situation with defined social roles. The boundary between role and real identity broke as it became reality. No one ever said I quit the experiment. Students' behavior was affected by social situations and they experienced deindividuation. Why?: having social role could impact how we behave. People were randomly assigned to their role and then did things characteristic of that particular role (arrested, took away clothing - same for guards). Guards were told they could go back to their life. "expectations looked around themselves and saw how other people are behaving (common behavior) might feel more as a member of a group, rather than as individual ( extreme in group/out group behavior) --> WHEN IT OCCURS: People are likely to become deindividuated when they are.. 1) aroused 2) anonymous 3) when responsibility is diffused. --> CONSEQUENCES OF DEINDIVIDUATION: It can cause rioting by fans, looting following disasters, and other mob behaviors. Things people would not do under normal circumstances, when identity is not clear, and in groups. Not all deindividuated behavior is so serious - Fans doing the wave are likely in deindividuated states.

Difference between implicit and explicit attitudes - explicit - implicit - implicit attitudes and brain regions, EVIDENCE/EXAMPLE - EVIDENCE (reaction time)

--> DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT ATTITUDES: EXPLICIT: are those you know about and can report to other people. If you say you like bowling, you are stating your explicit attitude toward it. IMPLICIT: influence their feelings and behaviors at an unconscious level. People access implicit attitudes from memory quickly, with little conscious effort or control. EVIDENCE: Some evidence suggests that implicit attitudes involve brain regions associated with implicit rather than explicit memory Similarly, you might purchase a product endorsed by a celebrity even though you have no conscious memory of having seen the celebrity use the product. The product might simply look familiar to you. EVIDENCE 2: a reaction time test called the Implicit Association Test measures how quickly a person associates concepts or objects with positive or negative words. For example, according to the developers of the method, having to use the same button to indicate that a name is female or that a word is bad implies an association between female and bad. Responding more quickly when a button is used to indicate female or good, than when the same button is used to indicate female or bad - indicates a person's implicit attitude about females. RESULT: A typical female will tend to respond more quickly when female is paired with good than when female is paired with bad. This difference in reaction time is proposed to indicate the degree of implicit bias. This test is similar to the one we did about race in class. Use of the IAT is controversial. It predicts better in some cases versus other. It has predictive power, but depends on what is being measured.

Experience and socialization contribute to forming our attitudes - mere exposure effect, EXAMPLE - Conditioning and attitudes 1) classical conditioning 2) operant conditioning - socialization, EXAMPLE

--> EXPERIENCE AND SOCIALIZATION CONTRIBUTE TO FORMING ATTITUDES: MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT: the more people are exposed to something, the more they tend to like it. Greater exposure, and therefore greater familiarity with an items, causes people to have more positive attitudes about it. EXAMPLE: when people are presented with normal photographs of themselves and the same images reversed, they tend to prefer the reversed versions. CONDITIONING: Because people's associations between things and their meanings can change, attitudes can be conditioned. 1) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: when people see a celebrity paired with a product, they develop more positive attitudes about the product. After conditioning, a formerly neutral stimulus (i.e a deodorant), triggers the same attitude response as the paired object (George Clooney). 2) OPERANT CONDITIONING: If you are rewarded with good grades each time you study, you will develop a more positive attitude toward studying. SOCIALIZATION: Caregivers, peers, teachers, religious leaders, politicians, and media figures guide people's attitudes about many things. EXAMPLE: teenagers' attitudes about clothing styles and music, about behaviors such as smoking and drinking alcohol, and about the latest celebrities are heavily influenced by their peers' beliefs. Society instills many basic attitudes, including which things are edible. For instance, many Hindus do not eat beef, whereas many Jews do not eat pork.

Five factor theory - big 5 - continuum/lower order, EXAMPLE - big 5 across culture/adults - scores

--> FIVE FACTOR THEORY: personality can be described using five general factors: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. This theory identifies five basic personality traits. BIG 5: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. CONTINUUM/LOWER ORDER: In addition to being on a continuum, each factor is a higher-order trait that is made up of interrelated lower-order traits. EXAMPLE: For instance, conscientiousness is determined by how careful and organized a person is. BIG 5 ACROSS CULTURE/ADULTS: The Big Five emerge across cultures, among adults and children. But Some cross-cultural differences emerge. The same five factors appear whether people rate themselves or are rated by others. SCORES: People's "scores" on the Big Five traits seem to predict a wide variety of different behaviors (possibly satisfaction with their jobs, their marriages, and life generally).

General adaptation syndrome 1) Alarm 2) Resistance 3) Exhaustion Why is it important - Relation to evolution - 2 consequences of psychological stressors

--> GENERAL ADAPTION SYNDROME: A consistent pattern of responses to stress that consists of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion 1) ALARM (below stress resistance baseline, but increases): an initial emergency reaction that prepares the body to fight or flee. It detects a stressor, the body begins to mobilize resources, and then prepares to respond to stressor. 2) RESISTANCE (above stress resistance baseline for significant time): the body prepares for longer, sustained defense from the stressor. Immunity to infection and disease increases. 3) EXHAUSTION (stress resistance drops below baseline): physiological and immune systems fail (Body organs that were already weak before the stress are the first to fail). People experience a heightened level of response and immunity/coping ability depletes. People become more susceptible to consequences of stress. --> WHY MODEL IS IMPORTANT: demonstrates that short-term stress produces adaptive responses to the demands of daily living, but prolonged stress impairs health EVOLUTION: the model demonstrates that we are designed by evolution to resist physical stressors - which helps us run faster/adapt. CONSEQUENCES: In pre-historic times, physical stressors are mainly temporary. However, now we have psychological stressors (which last longer). With this extended period of time: 1) Humans are more likely to remain in exhaustion phase 2) Humans have implications for coping and response

How can cooperation diminish outgroup biases? - EXPERIMENT, its relation to outgrip homogeneity effect/ingroup favoritism - shared superordinate goals

--> HOW CAN COOPERATION DIMISH OUT-GROUP BIASES? EXPERIMENT: 22 boys were divided into two groups that were the same. During the first week, each group lived in a separate camp on a different side of the lake. Neither group knew that the other group existed. The next week the groups competed in an athletic tournament. The winning team would prizes. The losers would receive nothing. The groups named themselves the Rattlers and Eagles. Group pride was extremely strong, and animosity between the groups escalated. The Eagles burned the Rattlers' flag, and the Rattlers retaliated by trashing the Eagles' cabin. Eventually, confrontations and physical fights had to be broken up by the experimenters. All the typical signs of prejudice emerged, including the outgroup homogeneity effect and ingroup favoritism.. Phase 2 of the study then explored whether the hostility could be undone - Sherif first tried what made sense at the time: simply having the groups come in contact with each other. This approach failed. The hostilities were too strong. Sherif reasoned that if competition led to hostility, then cooperation should reduce hostility. RESULT: The experimenters created situations in which members of both groups had to cooperate to achieve necessary goals. For instance, the experimenters rigged a truck to break down. Getting the truck moving required all the boys to pull together. In an ironic twist, the boys had to use the same rope they used earlier in the tug-of-war. When they succeeded, a great cheer arose from the boys. After a series of tasks that required cooperation, the walls between the two sides broke down, and the boys became friends across the groups. Among enemies, cooperation created friends. Only certain types of contact between hostile groups is likely to reduce prejudice and discrimination SHARED SUPERORDINATE GOALS: that require people to cooperate reduce hostility between groups. People who work together to achieve a common goal often break down subgroup distinctions as they become one larger group.

How do stereotypes impact perception and actions based upon perception (e.g., weapon bias)? - EXPERIMENT, weapon bias How can prejudice and discrimination occur, even when people do not explicitly endorse racist attitudes? - 2 processes that produce prejudice/discrimination 1) FAVOR OWN GROUPS OVER OTHERS 2) CATEGORIZATION

--> HOW DO STEREOTYPES IMPACT PERCEPTION AND ACTIONS BASED UPON PERCEPTION?: EXPERIMENT (Weapon bias): basic characteristics - Participants are show pictures comparing white face or black face, followed up with either tool or weapon. Their job is to respond one way with took or weapon. RESULT: people are faster to identify weapon when picture followed is a black person or mistake a tool as a weapon. There isa stronger association between weaponry and black people, than weaponry and white people. There is a stereotype that there is more violence associated with community of colors and allows people to create associations that are stronger between people of color and weapons. This can relate to disproportionate law enforcement treatment in real life. --> HOW CAN PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION OCCUR, EVEN WHEN PEOPLE DO NOT EXPLICITLY ENDORSE RACISM? EVOLUTION HAS LED TO 2 PROCESSES THAT PRODUCE PREJUDICE/DISCRIMINATION: 1) FAVOR OWN GROUPS OVER OTHERS: People tend to favor their own groups over other groups, and tend to stigmatize those who oppose threats of their groups. From the perspectives of competition between groups over scarce resources and of social identity theory, it is understandable that people can feel threatened by anything that favors the outgroup at the expense ofthe ingroup. 2) CATEGORIZATION: People are hardwired to categorize people into groups and to defend the ingroups to which they belong and with which they identify.

How do we cope with stress? - 2 types of Cognitive appraisals - Anticipatory coping 5 types of coping strategies might people employ 1) emotion-focused coping 2) problem-focused coping 3) positive reappraisals 4) downward comparison 5) positive events

--> HOW DO WE COPE WITH STRESS: 2 TYPES OF COGNITIVE APPRAISALS: enable us to think about/manage our feelings more objectively. They affect our perceptions of potential stressors and reactions to them in the future (). 1) PRIMARY APPRAISALS: used to decide whether stimuli are stressful, benign, or irrelevant. 2) SECONDARY APPRAISALS: evaluate response options and choose coping behaviors. ANTICIPATORY COPING: Coping that occurs before the onset of a future stressor. For example, when parents are planning to divorce, they can rehearse how they will tell their children. --> 5 TYPES OF COPING: EMOTION FOCUSED (bad): a person tries to prevent an emotional response to the stressor - the person adopts strategies (often passive) to numb pain. Such strategies include avoidance, minimizing the problem, distancing oneself from the outcomes of the problem, or engaging in behaviors (eating or drinking). These strategies DO NOT solve the problem or prevent it from recurring in the future. They are usually effective only in the short run. PROBLEM FOCUS (mostly good): involves taking active/direct steps to solve the problem. Such strategies include generating alternative solutions, weighing costs and benefits, and choosing between them. They perceive stressors as controllable and are experiencing only moderate levels of stress. Problem-focused coping strategies DO work, however, only if the person can do something about the situation/problem. POSITIVE REAPPRAISAL: a person focuses on possible good things in his or her current situation -they look for the general silver lining. DOWNWARD COMPARISON: comparing oneself to those who are worse off. CREATION OF POSITIVE EVENTS: a strategy of giving positive meaning to ordinary events. You could take joy in everyday activities (such as biking).

How Stress affects health generally - Heart Disease - 2 types of behavior (A/B), what behavior is most significant? Physiological effects of stress on the heart - 3 ways stress/negative emotion can cause heart problems 1) COPING 2) TRAITS EXTERNAL EFFECTS 3) TRAITS DIRECT EFFECTS - Stress test Psychological disorders

--> HOW STRESS AFFECTS HEALTH GENERALLY: HEART DISEASE: Two important determinants of heart disease are health behaviors (bad eating, smoking, and lack of exercise) and a small number of personality traits related to the way people respond to stress. 2 TYPES OF BEHAVIOR: a set of personality traits predicted heart disease vs ones that didn't. TYPE A BEHAVIOR (predictor of heart disease): characterized by competitiveness, achievement orientation, aggressiveness, hostility, restlessness, impatience with others, and inability to relax - A strong predictor of heart disease, just like high blood pressure, high cholesterol, or smoking. Men/women who exhibit these traits were more likely to develop coronary heart disease. Only certain components of type A behavior pattern are related to developing heart disease (mainly HOSTILITY). Negative emotion, like depression, also predict heart disease. TYPE B BEHAVIOR (Not a predictor of heart disease): characterized by noncompetitive, relaxed, easy going, and accommodating behavior. Men/women who exhibit these traits were less likely to develop coronary heart disease. --> PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF STRESS ON HEART: stress/negative emotions can cause heart problems in three ways. 1) COPING: people cope with stress through unhealthy behaviors. 2) TRAITS EXTERNAL EFFECTS: personality traits, (hostility and depression) negatively effect people's social networks and any support they may provide against stress 3) TRAITS DIRECT EFFECTS: negative personality traits/stress produce direct physiological effects on the heart - stress decreases blood flow by making blood vessels less able to dilate STRESS TEST: Even doing a simple stress test, where participants push buttons quickly in response to particular colored lights, reduces the ability of blood vessels to expand. This narrowing raises the pressure against which the heart has to pump. It leads to overstimulation of the sympathetic nervous system through higher blood pressure, constriction of blood vessels, elevated levels of cortisol, increased release of fatty acids into the bloodstream, and greater buildup of plaque on arteries. --> PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS: Long periods/high levels of chronic stress/major transition = factors of development of psychological disorders (specifically depression and anxiety).

How is the self concept organized - self concept Self schemas - prefrontal cortex

--> HOW THE SELF CONCEPT IS ORGANIZED: SELF CONCEPT: Each of us has a notion of something we call the "self." We can say that each person's sense of self involves the person's mental representations of personal experiences. Those representations include both memories and perceptions of what is going on at any particular moment during the person's life. The self also encompasses the person's thought processes, physical body, and conscious awareness of being separate from others and unique. --> SELF SCHEMAS: consists of an integrated set of memories, beliefs, and generalizations about the self - interconnected knowledge about the self. The self-schema helps each of us quickly perceive, organize, interpret, and use information about the self. It also helps each of us filter information so that we are likely to notice things that are self-relevant, such as our own names. Examples of our behavior, and aspects of our personalities, that are important to us become prominent in our self-schemas. Your self-schema may lead you to have enhanced memory for information that you process in reference to yourself. When a person processes trait adjectives self-referentially, the person is likely to recall the words better than comparable words processed only for their general meanings. PREFRONTAL CORTEX: Researchers typically find that when people process information about themselves, there is activity in the middle of the prefrontal cortex.

Interaction between environment and genetics is critical to determining obesity ENVIRONMENT - overeating (stems from 3 factors) - body weight is social contagious GENETICS - obesity runs in families, what this finding PROVES - storage of fat, metabolic syndrome (what role does genetics play, what role does environment play) EVIDENCE

--> INTERACTION BETWEEN ENVIRONMENT AND GENETICS: Genetics determines whether a person CAN become obese, but environment determines whether that person WILL become obese. Genetics determines sensitivity to environmental influences. --> ENVIRONMENT: OVEREATING: stems from three factors: the sheer variety of high-calorie foods, large portions, and individual responses to food cues (overweight people show more activity in reward regions of the brain when they see tasty foods). BODY WEIGHT IS SOCIALLY CONTAGIOUS: close friends of the same sex are similar in body weight (even if living far apart). It is not eating the same meals together, but the implicit agreement on what body weight is normal. Subtle communications affect how we think/act when we eat. --> GENETICS: OBESITY RUNS IN FAMILIES: Approximately half the variability in body weight is genetic. The BMI of adopted children is more strongly related to the BMI of their biological parents than to the BMI of their adoptive parents. The similarity between the body weights of identical twins does not differ for twins raised together versus twins raised apart. This finding PROVES that genetics are more effective on body weight than environment. STORAGE OF FAT: people store fat in the abdomen (rather than throughout the body) and will likely have symptoms of metabolic syndrome (risk factors includes high blood sugars/insulin resistance)

What internal and external factors influence ability to cope with stress - Stress resilience (hardiness) - 3 components of hardiness (commitment, challenge, and control) - Resilience - Resiliences' broaden-and-build theory external (social support), (types of strategies)

--> INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ABILITY TO COPE WITH STRESS: STRESS RESILIENCE (hardiness): capable of adapting to life changes by viewing events constructively. . People low in hardiness typically are alienated, fear/resist change, and view events as being under external control. Numerous studies have found that people high in hardiness report fewer negative responses to stressful events 3 COMPONENTS OF HARDINESS: commitment, challenge, and control. People are committed to daily activities, view threats as challenges or opportunities for growth, and see themselves as being in control of their lives. RESILIENCE: people are better able to cope in the face of adversity. When faced with hardships/difficult circumstances, resilient people bend without breaking, allowing them to bounce back quickly when bad things happen. Those who are highest in resilience are able to use their emotional flexibly to meet the demands of stressful situations. They experience positive emotions even when under stress. RESILIENCES' BROADEN AND BUILD THEORY: positive emotions prompt people to consider novel solutions to their problems. Thus resilient people draw on their positive emotions in dealing with setbacks or negative life experiences

Methods to learn about how infants perceive and understand their world - perception/understanding world as an finfant - preferential looking technique

--> METHODS TO LEARN ABOUT HOW INFANTS PERCEIVE AND UNDERSTAND THEIR WORLD: PERCEPTION/UNDERSTANDING WORLD AS INFANT: Infants respond more to objects with high-contrast patterns than to other stimuli. PREFERENTIAL LOOKING TECHNIQUE: This research method is used fo test visual acuity in infants. The researchers show an infant two things. If he infant looks longer at one of the things, the researchers know the infant can distinguish between the two and finds one more interesting. Later idea is used to study things like object permanence.

Mozart effect How attention to an early study led to over-extrapolation of the findings, leading to the emphasis on classical music exposure for infants.

--> MOZART EFFECT: A claim was made that listening to the music of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart led to higher scores on a test related to intelligence. The media jumped onto the so-called Mozart effect and affected how it is perceived. --> HOW ATTENTION TO AN EARLY STUDY LED TO OVER-EXTRAPOLATION OF FINDINGS: STUDY: psychologists played the first 10 minutes of the Mozart to a group of college students. Compared with students who listened to relaxation instructions or who sat in silence, those who heard Mozart performed slightly better on a task that involved folding and cutting paper. This task was part of a larger overall measure of intelligence. The modest increase lasted for about 10-15 minutes. However, subsequent research largely failed to get the same results, even when using a similar research design. Listening to Mozart is unlikely to increase intelligence among listeners. RESULT: listening to Mozart appears to enhance only certain types of motor skills, not abilities more commonly associated with intelligence (such as increasing working memory or verbal ability).

Nonverbal behavior that contribute to forming impressions - Nonverbal behavior - Thin slices, EXAMPLE What kinds of attributional biases do we have? - Attributions, EXAMPLE - 2 types of attributions 1) PERSONAL ATTRIBUTIONS, EXAMPLE 2) SITUATIONAL ATTRIBUTIONS, EXAMPLE How do they impact our thinking about ourselves and others? - Attributional bias (correspondence bias/fundamental attribution error) - Actor/observer discrepancy, 2 tendencies

--> NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR THAT CONTRIBUTES TO FORMING IMPRESSIONS: NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR: Facial expressions, gestures, mannerisms, and movements are all nonverbal behavior (body language). THIN SLICES: People can make accurate judgments based on only a few seconds of observation of body language. They are powerful cues for impression formation. EXAMPLE: A good example of thin slices is "gaydar," people's seeming ability to judge other people's sexual orientation from afar though looking at nonverbal behavior. --> WHAT KINDS OF ATTRIBUTIONAL BIASES DO WE HAVE?: ATTRIBUTIONS: explanations for events or actions, including other people's behavior. People constantly try to explain other people's motives, traits, and preferences - to draw inferences for order/predictability. EXAMPLE: you might expect that if you study for an exam, you will do well on it. In any situation, various plausible explanations may exist for specific outcomes. For example, doing well on a test could be due to brilliance, luck, intensive studying, the test's being unexpectedly easy, or a combination of factors. 2 TYPES OF ATTRIBUTIONS: 1) PERSONAL ATTRIBUTIONS: internal or dispositional attributions. These explanations refer to things within people, such as abilities, moods, or efforts. EXAMPLE: For instance, if you believe you did well on an exam because you worked hard and are smart, you are making a personal attribution. 2) SITUATIONAL ATTRIBUTIONS: external attributions. These explanations refer to outside events, such as luck, accidents, or the actions of other people. EXAMPLE: if you blame poor test performance on the quality of the exam items, then you are making a situational attribution. --> HOW DO THEY IMPACT OUR THINKING OF OURSELVES/OTHERS?: ATTRIBUTIONAL BIAS (CORRESPONDENCE BIAS OR FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR): the expectancy that people's actions correspond with their beliefs and personalities. When explaining other people's behavior, people tend to overemphasize the importance of personality traits and underestimate the importance of situations. EXAMPLE: someone who follows orders to inflict harm on another is assumed to be an evil person. People generally fail to take into account that other people are influenced by social circumstances, such as the social pressures that lead to obedience to authority. ACTOR/OBSERVER DISCREPANCY: when people make attributions about themselves, they tend to focus on situations rather than on their personal dispositions. TWO TENDENCIES OF ACTOR/OBSERVER DISCREPANCY: There is a difference in interpretations of other peoples behavior. One on situation, one on personal characteristics. Its not either or, but more so this for yourself, or more so that for someone else. 1) When interpreting their own behavior, people tend to focus on situations. EXAMPLE: people tend to attribute their own lateness to external factors, such as traffic or competing demands. 2) When interpreting other people's behavior, they tend to focus on dispositions/personal characteristics (a quality of character, a habit, a preparation, a state of readiness, or a tendency to act in a specified way). EXAMPLE: They tend to attribute other people's lateness to personal characteristics, such as laziness or lack of organization.

Personality has biological roots - Personality - biological roots of personality - genes, dispositions 1) twin studies 2) cultures 3) adoption studies Remember social aspect (peers)

--> PERSONALITY HAS BIOLOGICAL ROOTS: PERSONALITY: consists of people's characteristic thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviors - how a personal generally interacts with the world/others. BIOLOGICAL ROOTS OF PERSONALITY: genes, brain structures, and neurochemistry determine personality. These factors are also all affected by experience. GENES: Every cell in the body contains the genome, DNA, that provides detailed instructions for physical processes. Gene expression-whether a gene is turned off or on-underlies all psychological activity. Genes have their effects only if they are expressed. In terms of personality, genetic makeup may predispose certain traits or characteristics, but whether these genes are expressed depends on the unique circumstances that each person faces in life. The personality traits genes predispose us to are associated with behavioral, cognitive, or emotional tendencies, referred to as DISPOSITIONS (a person's inherent qualities). Any links between specific genes and specific aspects of personality appear to be extraordinarily small. 1) TWIN STUDIES: Researchers examined similarities in personality in pairs of twins. Across a wide variety of traits, identical twins proved much more similar than fraternal twins. This pattern reflects the actions of genes, since identical twins share nearly the same genes, whereas fraternal twins do not. Genetic influence accounts for the variance (40-60 percent) between individuals for all personality traits and specific attitudes that reflect personality traits (attitudes toward the death penalty, abortion, how much they enjoy rollercoaster rides). These patterns for traits persist whether the twins rate themselves or whether friends, family, or trained observers rate them. 2) CULTURES: Genetic basis of the traits has been shown to be the same across cultures. 3) ADOPTION STUDIES: Say that 2 children who are not biologically related are raised in the same household as adopted siblings. Those two children would be no more alike in personality than any two strangers The personalities of adopted children bear no significant relationship to those of the adoptive parents. These findings suggest that parenting style may have relatively little impact on personality. The similarities in personality between biological siblings and between children/their biological parents seem to have some genetic component. --> REMEMBER SOCIAL ASPECT (peers): the lives of siblings diverge as they establish friendships outside the home. The types of peers that children have affect how they think, behave, and feel, and thoughts, behaviors, and feelings can all influence personality development.

Piaget's notions about cognitive development - Piaget's views - Schemes - Each stage of development builds on 2 learning processes 1) ASSIMILATION 2)ACCOMMODATION Piagets 4 stages of development - sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. 1) 1st stage - SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (birth until about age 2) - EXAMPLE - object permanence, EXPERIMENT, EXPERIMENT CONTINUED 2) 2nd stage - PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2 TO 7 YEARS) - EXPERIMENT (conservation liquid) - Egocentrism - EXPERIMENT (false belief task) - EXPERIMENT (mountain) - EXAMPLE (cookie) THEORY IS NOT AS ABSOLUTE - Infants distinguish between unable/unwilling - Egocentrism revisited (4 yr talking to 2 yr old) 3) 3rd stage - CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7 - 12): - classic operation - given 4 lines 4) 4th stage - FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (12- adulthood) - EXPERIMENT (colorless liquid)

--> PIAGET'S NOTIONS ABOUT COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: PIAGET VIEWS: viewed children as qualitatively different from adults, not simply as inexperienced adults. Piaget paid attention to how children make errors and succeed on tasks. Children's mistakes, illogical by adult standards, provide insights into how young minds make sense of the world. SCHEMES: ways of thinking based on personal experience - knowledge representations. Schemes were are organized ways of understanding the world/experience and change based on new information/experiences in the world. Piaget proposed that new schemes are formed during each stage of development. Piaget believed that each stage builds on the previous one through two learning processes: 1) ASSIMILATION: a new experience is placed into an existing scheme. 2)ACCOMMODATION: a new scheme is created or an existing one is dramatically altered to include new information that otherwise would not fit into the scheme. EXAMPLE: a 2-year-old sees a Great Dane and asks, "What's that?" The parent answers that it is a dog. But it does not look anything like the family Chihuahua. The toddler needs to assimilate the Great Dane into the existing dog scheme. The same 2-year-old might see a cow for the first time and shout, "Doggie!" After all, a cow has four legs and fur and is about the same size as a Great Dane. Thus, based on a dog scheme the child has developed, the label "doggie" can be considered logical. But the toddler's parent says, "No, honey, that's a cow. See, it doesn't say 'Arf1' It says 'Moo!' And it is much bigger than a dog." Because the child cannot easily fit this new information into the existing dog scheme using the process of assimilation, the child must now create a new scheme, cow, through the process of accommodation. --> PIAGETS 4 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. 1) 1st stage - SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (birth - 2): infants get information about the world through senses and motor skill/interactions. (their actions = their ability to think). As infants begin to control their motor movements, they develop their first schemes. EXAMPLE: banging something to know it is solid. OBJECT PERMANENCE: refers to the understanding that an object exists even when it cannot be seen. Children in the 1st stage cannot represent things without seeing them/interacting with them EXPERIMENT (finding a hidden object): Until 9 months of age, most infants will not search for objects they have seen being hidden under a blanket. The kid will completely forget about the object and have no sense of where it went. At around 9 months, infants will look for the hidden object by picking up the blanket. EXPERIMENT CONTINUED: BUT... Suppose an 8-month-old child watches an experimenter hide a toy under a blanket and the child then finds the toy. If the experimenter then hides the toy under a different blanket in full view of the child, the child will still look for the toy in the first hiding place. This demonstrates that children still do not have full capabilities of object permanence at this time." 2) 2nd stage - PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2 - 7): Children begin to think about objects not in their immediate view and can think symbolically about objects. But they reason based on intuition/ superficial appearance rather than logic. Representations are in terms of language and everything from their own perceptions of the world. EXPERIMENT (conservation liquid): children at this stage have no understanding of the law of conservation of quantity (even if a substance's appearance changes, its quantity may remain unchanged). If you pour a short, fat glass of water into a tall, thin glass, you know the amount of water has not changed. If you ask children in the pre-operational stage which glass contains more, they will pick the tall, thin glass because the water is at a higher level. The children will make this error even when they have seen someone pour the same amount of water into each glass or when they pour the liquid themselves. They are fooled by the appearance of a higher water line. They cannot think about how the thinner diameter of the taller glass compensates for the higher-appearing water level. This marks the END of the pre-operational stage. EGOCENTRISM: preoperational thinkers view the world through their own experiences. They can understand how others feel/care about others, but their thoughts revolve around their own perspectives. EXPERIMENT (false belief task): linked it to egocentrism. Another test of it. about age of 4 it is not as much of an issue. EXAMPLE (mountain): consists of a display with different perspectives. When asked what someone else can see from different views of the display, the kids say what they can see. Older kids understood the question and nailed the experiment. EXAMPLE (cookie): Children will recognize one cookie as equal to another cookie, but view 2 cookie halves as being "more cookie". --> THEORY IS NOT AS ABSOLUTE: INFANTS DISTINGUISH BETWEEN UNWILLING/UNABLE: Kids as early as a months old will understand if someone is unwilling/unable. They won't show frustration if an adult has a reason to not give a toy (dropping it/getting distracted) vs showing frustration if being teased. This is a way to test a child understands another mind - Not as absolute as Piaget was saying with his other theories. "EGOCENTRISM REVISITED (4 Yr talking to 2 yr old): an example that not all kids of pre-operational stage are egocentric. 4 year olds will moderate the way they speak to 2 year olds (shows they have some perspective that isn't their own). Asking a child to look at a book, a 3 year old will turn it and push it towards you (understanding that opposite perspective). 3) 3rd stage - CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7 - 12): children think about/understand logical operations, and are no longer fooled by appearances. They better understand how other people view the world/feel. A child is able to think logically about actual objects/problems, but they think in terms of concrete things, not abstractly (they do not have the ability to reason abstractly, or hypothetically, about what might be possible). CLASSIC OPERATION: an action that can be undone (turning a light on and off). The ability to understand that an action is reversible lets children understand concepts like the conservation of quantity. GIVEN 4 LINES: A is longer than B, B is longer than C, and A is longer than C. When asked if A or C is longer, in order to kids to do this, they need a concert understanding of the situation to see what is going on. They cannot think abstractly. 4) 4th stage - FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (12- adulthood): individuals can reason in sophisticated, abstract ways. They can formulate/test hypotheses through deductive logic and use critical thinking. It also involves using information to systematically find answers to problems. EXPERIMENT (colorless liquid): gave teenagers and younger kids four flasks of colorless liquid and one flask of colored liquid. He then explained that the colored liquid could be obtained by combining two of the colorless liquids. Adolescents can systematically try different combinations to obtain the correct result. Younger kids randomly combined liquids. Adolescents can form hypotheses and systematically test them. They consider abstract notions and think about many viewpoints at once.

Restrictive dieting - characteristics Why it is likely to be ineffective - Body's natural defense (point set by genetics) and EVIDENCE - HOW to alter body weight, WHY it is maladaptive, EVIDENCE

--> RESTRICTIVE DIETING/CHARACTERISTICS: chronic dieters prone to excessive eating in certain situations. Overeating may be occasional or not so occasional. Many diet through the workweek. On the weekend, faced with increased food temptations and are in less structured environments, they lose control. WHY IT IS INEFFECTIVE: Most who lose weight through dieting eventually regain the weight (Often more than they lost). BODY'S NATURAL DEFENSE: Most diets fail because of the body's natural defense against weight loss. Body weight is regulated around a point set by genetics. EVIDENCE: For 6 months, inmates consumed more than 7,000 calories a day (double their usual in take). If each was eating about 3,500 extra calories a day, each should gain about 170 pounds. In reality, few inmates gained more than 40 pounds, and most lost the weight when they went back to normal eating. Those who did not lose the weight had family histories obesity. ALTERING BODY WEIGHT/WHY IT IS MALADAPTIVE: The body responds to weight loss by slowing down metabolism and using less energy. Therefore, after the body has been deprived of food, it needs LESS food to maintain a given body weight. Repeated alterations between caloric deprivation and overfeeding are MALADAPTIVE and have metabolic effects. EVIDENCE: When an animal is placed on caloric deprivation, the animal's metabolic functioning and weight loss become SLOWER than the previous time. When overfeeding resumes, the animal's weight gain occurs more rapidly.

Role of biological/environmental factors in achieving developmental milestones (motor development). - biological - -> grasping reflex - -> rooting/sucking reflex - -> order of developmental milestones - environmental Dynamic systems theory

--> ROLE OF BIOLOGICAL/ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN ACHIEVING DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES: At birth the brain is sufficiently developed to support basic reflexes, but further brain development is necessary for other development to occur. --> BIOLOGICAL: one thing happens before another, but can happen at different times because of environment. GRASPING REFLEX: This reflex is a survival mechanism that has persisted from our primate ancestors. Young apes grasp their mothers, and this reflex is adaptive because the offspring need to be carried from place to place. ROOTING REFLEX/SUCKING REFLEX: the turning and sucking that infants automatically engage in when a nipple or similar object touches an area near their mouths. If they find an object, they will show the sucking reflex. These reflexes pave the way for learning more-complicated behavior patterns, such as feeding oneself or walking. ORDER OF DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES: most humans make eye contact quickly after they are born, display a first social smile at around 6 weeks, and learn to roll over, to sit up, to crawl, to stand, to walk, and to talk, in that order. --> ENVIRONMENT: Each person's environment influences what happens throughout that individual's development. Infants often achieve developmental milestones at different paces, depending on the cultures in which they are raised. EXAMPLE: Consider that healthy Baganda infants in Uganda were found to walk, on average, between 9 and 11 months of age, which was one month earlier than African American infants and about three months earlier than European American infants. Such differences are due in part to different patterns of infant care across cultures. For example, Western infants spend a lot more time in cribs and playpens than African infants do. African infants are often strapped to their mothers' backs all day, practicing holding their heads up virtually from birth. Every new development is the result of complex and consistent interplays between biology and environment. Developmental psychologists now consider new forms of development... --> DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY: views development as a self-organizing process, in which new forms of behavior emerge through consistent interactions between a biological being and cultural and environmental contexts. Developmental advances in any domain (physiological, cognitive, emotional, or social) occur through both the person's active exploration of an environment and the constant feedback that environment provides. EXAMPLE: an infant placed on a play mat may grow bored with the toys dangling above her on a mobile. She suddenly spies an attractive stuffed unicorn about 10 feet away, far from the play mat where her mother placed her. Her physical body is strong enough to get herself off the mat, but because she cannot crawl, she uses her own active strategizing in combination with feedback from the environment to figure out how to reach the toy. She rocks her body from side to side with her arm outstretched toward the toy. The environmental feedback tells her that after one more heavy roll, she will be on her stomach and possibly closer to the toy. She tries for over 10 minutes, and suddenly she rolls over. She continues to heave herself over and over until she has rolled 10 feet and can now grasp the unicorn. Her mother may walk into the room and think, "Wow, she just suddenly learned to roll around the room!" What her mother does not realize is that every new behavioral skill to emerge is the result of a complex and dynamic system of influences, including the child's motivation and personality, that respond to environmental cues.

Self-esteem and why is it important? - Self esteem (high self esteem, even if you don't like yourself - vise versa) - reflected appraisal - sociometer theory (self esteem, likelihood of belonging) - sociometer itself and within us How does self esteem relate to life outcomes? - no correlation (better life and self esteem) - downsides to high self esteem

--> SELF ESTEEM: the evaluative aspect of the self-concept. It indicates a person's emotional response to contemplating personal characteristics: "Am I worthy or unworthy?" "Am I good or bad?" Although self-esteem is related to self-concept, people can objectively believe positive things about themselves without liking themselves very much. Conversely, people can like themselves very much, and therefore have high self-esteem, even when objective indicators do not support such positive self-views. REFLECTED APPRAISAL: suggests that when people internalize the values and beliefs expressed by important people in their lives, they adopt those attitudes (and related behaviors) as their own. People's self-esteem is based on how they believe others perceive them. From this perspective, when an important figure rejects, ignores, demeans, or devalues a person, the person is likely to experience low self-esteem. SOCIOMETER THEORY: self-esteem is a mechanism for monitoring the likelihood of social exclusion. This theory assumes that humans have a fundamental, adaptive need to belong. For most of human evolution, those who belonged to social groups have been more likely to survive and reproduce than those who were excluded and left to survive on their own. SOCIOMETER ITSELF AND WITHIN US: An internal monitor of social acceptance or rejection. When people behave in ways that increase the likelihood that they will be rejected, they experience a reduction in self-esteem. When a person's sociometer indicates a low probability of rejection, the person will tend to experience high self-esteem. --> SELF ESTEEM AND LIFE OUTCOMES: Although people with high self-esteem report being much happier, self-esteem is weakly related to objective life outcomes. NO CORRELATION: People with high self-esteem who consider themselves smarter, more attractive, and better liked do not necessarily have higher IQs and are not thought of more highly by others. Many people with high self-esteem are successful in their careers, but so are many people with low self-esteem. While a small relationship exists between self-esteem and some outcomes, such as academic success, it is possible that success causes high self-esteem. DOWNSIDES TO HIGH SELF ESTEEM: there may even be some downsides to having very high self-esteem. Violent criminals commonly have very high self-esteem; indeed, some people become violent when they feel that others are not treating them with an appropriate level of respect School bullies also often have high self-esteem. When people with high self-esteem believe their abilities have been challenged, they may act in ways that cause other people to dislike them. Having high self-esteem seems to make people happier, but it does not necessarily lead to successful social relationships or life success.

Sex differences in response to stress - fight or flight response and disparities in studying it, why? - females vs males response to infant distress Tend and Befriend Response - why it makes sense evolutionally Oxytocin - oxytocin levels for women vs men - biological basis for tend/befriend response

--> SEX DIFFERENCES IN RESPONSE TO STRESS: The physiological/behavioral responses that accompany stress help mobilize resources to deal with danger (fight or flight response). The generalizability of the fight-or-flight response is questioned because the vast majority of research has been conducted using males. Women aren't used as often because of complications with their hormonal/menstrual cycles (impact of released hormones on behavior). The result is a sex inequalityin laboratory stress studies. FEMALES vs MEN (infant distress): Women are more attentive to infant distress than stressed men. TEND AND BEFRIEND RESPONSE: often enacted by women, it is protecting and caring for offspring and forming social alliances. EVOLUTIONALLY: females are more responsible for the care of their offspring, and responses that protect their offspring/themselves would be most adaptive. When a threat appears, quieting the offspring and hiding may be more effective in avoiding harm than fleeing while pregnant or with a clinging infant. Females who respond to stress by nurturing/protecting their young and by forming alliances have a selective advantage over those who fight or flee. These behaviors would pass to future generations. --> OXYTOCIN: a hormone important for mothers in bonding to newborns is produced in the hypothalamus and released into the bloodstream through the pituitary gland. WOMEN VS MEN: Oxytocin levels tend to be high for women-but not men-who are stressed. Oxytocin exists naturally in men/women, but seems more important in women's stress response. It provides biological basis for the tend-and-befriend response.

Social facilitation 3 Basic steps for model of social facilitation 1) genetically predisposed to arousal in presence of their own kind 2) Others are associated with most of life's rewards and punishments 3) arousal leads to dominant response When does it help vs. hurt performance - Help - Hurt

--> SOCIAL FACILITATION: the presence of others generally enhances performance. --> 3 BASIC STEPS OF MODEL: 1) all animals are genetically predisposed to become aroused by the presence of others of their own species. 2) Others are associated with most of life's rewards and punishments - social feedback that's positive or negative, social approval, coming from other people 3) Arousal leads animals to emit a dominant response-that is there response most likely to be performed in the situation. In front of food, for example, the dominant response is to eat. --> WHEN DOES SOCIAL FACILITATION HELP VS HURT PERFORMANCE: Social facilitation enhancing or impairing performance depends on if the response will be dominant. You want your best work to be your dominant response, so that you do well even under pressure. HELP: If the required response is easy/well learned (a cyclist riding a bike), so that the dominant response is of good performance. Here, the presence of others will ENHANCE performance HURT: If the required response is novel/not learned (riding a unicycle for the first time), so that the dominant response is of poor performance. Here, the presence of others will HURT performance.

Social (micro of cultural) and cultural (more macro) factors can impact aggression cultural honor people from South - there is a norm, that is built around psychical altercations to protect honor - if someone ran into you, might make them angry/aggressive, rather than people in the North who are more passive.

--> SOCIAL/CULTURAL FACTORS IMPACT AGGRESSION: Violence varies dramatically across cultures and even within cultures at different times. EVIDENCE: Murder rates are far higher in some countries than in others (FIGURE 12.15). And analysis of crime statistics in the US reveals that physical violence is more prevalent in the South than in the North. Society and culture influence people's tendencies to commit violent acts. EVIDENCE 2: a male participant had to walk down a narrow hallway. The participant had to pass a filing cabinet, where a male confederate was blocking the hallway. As the participant tried to edge past the actor, the actor responded angrily and insulted the participant. RESULT: Compared with participants raised in the North, those raised in the South became more upset and were more likely to feel personally challenged. Perhaps because of a need to express social dominance in this situation, Southerners were more physiologically aroused (measured by cortisol and testosterone increases), more cognitively primed for aggression, and more likely to act in an aggressive/dominant manner for the rest of the experiment. In another part of the studies, participants raised in the South shook a new actors hand much more vigorously than the participants raised in the North did

How the self concept change across contexts - the working self-concept - EXAMPLE (at a party how do you think of yourself) - makes themselves distinct - what features do people tend to mention

--> THE SELF CONCEPT CHANGE ACROSS CONTEXTS: WORKING SELF CONCEPT: the immediate experience of the self. This experience is limited to the amount of personal information that can be processed cognitively at any given time. Because the working self-concept includes only part of the vast array of self-knowledge, the sense of self varies from situation to situation. EXAMPLE: Suppose your self-concept includes the traits fun-loving and intelligent. At a party, you might think of yourself as fun-loving rather than intelligent. Your self-descriptions vary. They depend on which memories you retrieve, which situation you are in, which people you are with, and your role in that situation. MAKES THEMSELVES DISTINCT: When people consider who they are or think about different features of their personalities, they often emphasize characteristics that make them distinct from others. FEATURES PEOPLE TEND TO MENTIONS: A respondent is especially likely to mention features such as ethnicity, gender, or age if the person differs in these respects from others around him or her at the moment. Most people have optimal levels of distinctiveness, however, since generally they want to avoid standing out too much from the crowd.

What are the functions of prosocial behavior and altruism? 2 factors that determine when we will behave altruistically? - Inclusive fitness, kin selection, EXAMPLE - Reciprocal helping

--> WHAT ARE THE FACTORS OF PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND ALTRUISM: PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR: doing favors, offering assistance, paying compliments, bring under control egocentric desires/needs, resisting the temptation to insult/hit another person, or simply being cooperative. (Benefits others, doing favors/helping). It promotes positive interpersonal relationships. Living in groups, (sharing and cooperating in groups may be a central human survival strategy). A group that works well together is a strong group, and belonging to a strong group benefits the individual members. ALTRUISM: providing help when it is needed, without any apparent reward for doing so. --> FACTORS THAT DETERMINE WHEN WE BEHAVE ALTRUISTICALLY: 1) INCLUSIVE FITNESS: focuses on the adaptive benefit of transmitting genes, such as through kin selection, rather than focusing on individual survival. According to this, people are altruistic toward those with whom they share genes. This phenomenon is known as KIN SELECTION. Example: In ants/bees species, workers feed and protect the egg-laying queen, but they never reproduce. By protecting the group's eggs, they maximize the number of their common genes that will survive into future generations. 2) RECIPROCAL HELPING: one animal helps another because the other may return the favor in the future. Consider "You scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours." For reciprocal helping to be adaptive, benefits must outweigh costs. Reciprocal helping is more likely to occur among animals that live in social groups, because their species' survival depends on cooperation. From an evolutionary perspective, then, altruism discusses benefits - When an animal acts altruistically, it may increase the chances that its genes will be transmitted and increase the likelihood that other members of the social group will reciprocate when needed. People are more likely to help members of their ingroups than to help members of outgroups.

What is the basis for stereotypes we hold? - Stereotypes - based on truth - 2 reasons why people use stereotypes 1) DEAL WITH LIMITATIONS INHERIT IN MENTAL PROCESSING/STREAMLINE FORMATION OF IMPRESSIONS 2) STEREOTYPES AFFECT FORMATION OF IMPRESSIONS How are stereotypes maintained, even in the face of contradictory evidence 1) SCHEMAS 2) MEMORIES BECOME BIASED TO MATCH STEREOTYPES, illusory correlations 3) SPECIAL CATEGORY, sub typing

--> WHAT IS THE BASIS FOR STEREOTYPES WE HOLD: STEREOTYPES: cognitive schemas/mental shortcuts that help in the organization of information about people on the basis of their membership in certain groups. They allow for easy, fast processing of social information and occurs automatically and, in most cases, outside of awareness. In and of themselves, stereotypes are neutral. They simply reflect efficient cognitive processes. They can contain information that is negative or positive BASED ON TRUTH: Men tend to be more violent than women, and women tend to be more nurturing than men. These statements are true on average. However, not all men are violent, nor are all women nurturing. BASIS/WHY?: people use stereotypes for two basic reasons: 1) DEAL WITH LIMITATIONS INHERIT IN MENTAL PROCESSING/STREAMLINE FORMATION OF IMPRESSIONS: people cannot scrutinize every person they encounter. Rather than consider each person as unique and unpredictable, people categorize others as belonging to particular groups. They hold knowledge about the groups in long-term memory. 2) STEREOTYPES AFFECT FORMATION OF IMPRESSIONS: can be positive or negative. Consider the stereotype that men are more likely than women to be famous . As a result of this stereotype, people are more likely to falsely remember a male name than a female name as that of a famous person --> HOW ARE STEREOTYPES MAINTAINED: 1) SCHEMAS: As schemas, stereotypes guide attention toward information that confirms the stereotypes and away from disconfirming evidence. 2) MEMORIES BECOME BIASED TO MATCH STEREOTYPES: as a result of directed attention and memory biases, people may see ILLUSORY CORRELATIONS: are an example of the psychological reasoning error of seeing relationships that do not exist. In this case, people believe false relationships because they notice only information that confirms their stereotypes. For example, one type of behavior might be perceived in different ways so it is consistent with a stereotype. A lawyer described as aggressive and a construction worker described as aggressive conjure up different images. 3) SPECIAL CATEGORY: When people encounter someone who does not fit a stereotype, they put that person in a special category rather than alter the stereotype. This latter process is known as SUBTYPING - Thus, a racist who believes Latinos are lazy may categorize a superstar such as Salma Hayek or Jennifer Lopez as an exception to the rule rather than as evidence for the invalidity of the stereotype.

What kinds of factors influence who we become friends with and who we become romantically involved with 1) proximity/familiarity, neophobia, mere-exposure effect, birds of a feather 2) matching principle 3) personal characteristics, STUDY 4) physical attractiveness STUDY, benefits

--> WHAT KIDNS OF FACTORS INFLUENCE WHO WE BECOME FRIENDS WITH AND WHO WE BECOME ROMANTICALLY INVOLVED WITH: 1) PROXIMITY: how often people come into contact with each other because they are physically nearby. The more people come into contact, the more likely they are to become friends. FAMILIARITY: Proximity might have its effects because of familiarity - People like familiar things more than unfamiliar ones. NEOPHOBIA: Humans generally fear anything novel. MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT: When people are repeatedly exposed to something, they tend to like the thing more over time. BIRDS OF A FEATHER: People similar in attitudes, values, interests, backgrounds, and personalities tend to like each other. In high school, people tend to be friends with those of the same sex, race or ethnicity, age, and year in school. 2) MATCHING PRINCIPLE: The most successful romantic couples tend to be the most physically similar. People can become friends/romantic partners with people who are much older or younger, and so on, but such friendships and relationships tend to be based on other important similarities, such as values, education, and socioeconomic status. 3) PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS: People tend to especially like those who have admirable personality characteristics and who are physically attractive. This holds true whether people are choosing friends or lovers. STUDY: college students rated 555 trait descriptions by how much they would like others who possessed those traits. RESULTS: People dislike cheaters and others who drain group resources. The least likable characteristics are related to dishonesty, insincerity, and lack of personal warmth. Conversely, people especially like those who are kind, dependable, and trustworthy. Generally, people like those who have personal characteristics valuable to the group. For example, people like those whom they perceive to be competent or reliable much more than those they perceive to be incompetent or unreliable. People who seem overly competent or too perfect make others feel uncomfortable or inadequate, however, and small mistakes can make a person seem more human and therefore more likable. This "pratfall effect" helps to humanize people and make others like them more. 4) PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS: how people rate attractiveness is generally consistent across all cultures STUDY: Brain imaging studies show activity in rain reward regions when both men and women see photographs of opposite-sex faces that have been rated as attractive by other people. There is a general tendency in mate selection for men to seek physical attractiveness and for women to seek status. (From an evolutionary point of view, men are attracted to signs of youth and fertility to maximize passing along their genes, whereas women are motivated to find partners who can provide resources for them and their offspring). At a more general level, most people find symmetrical faces more attractive than asymmetrical ones: This preference may be adaptive, because a lack of symmetry could indicate poor health or a genetic defect. BENEFITS: Attractiveness can bring many important social benefits: Most people are drawn to those they find physically attractive. - they are less likely to be perceived as criminals; given lighter sentences when convicted of crimes; typically rated as happier, more intelligent, more sociable, more capable, more gifted, more successful, and less socially deviant; are paid more for doing the same work; and have greater career opportunities

Why do we conform to authority (obedience)? EXPERIMENT, MILGRAM How do we reduce authority (obedience)? What happens when there is maximum obedience?

--> WHY DO WE CONFORM TO AUTHORITY (obedience ): EXPERIMENT: someone sits a nearby room and sit at a table in front of a large shock generator with switches that will deliver from 15 volts to 450 volts. Each voltage level carries a label, and the labels range from "slight" to "danger-severe shock" to "XXX." Each time the learning makes a mistake, your task as the teacher is to give him a shock. With each error, you increase the voltage. When you reach 75 volts, over the intercom you hear the man yelp in pain. At 150 volts, he screams, bangs on the wall, and demands that the experiment be stopped. At the experimenter's command, you apply additional, stronger shocks. Each time you try to stop the experiment, the experimenter replies, "The experiment requires that you continue," "It is essential that you go on," "There is no other choice; you must go on!" So you do. At 300 volts, the learner refuses to answer any more questions. After 330 volts, the learner is silent. All along you have wanted to leave, and you severely regret participating in the study. You might have killed the man. RESULT: Almost all the participants tried to quit. Nearly 2/3, however, completely obeyed all the experimenter's directives. The majority were willing to administer 450 volts to an older man with a heart condition (in reality a confederate not actually receiving shocks). CONCLUSION: ordinary people can be coerced into obedience by insistent authorities. This effect occurs even when what the people are coerced into doing goes against the way they usually would behave. At the same time, these results do not mean all people are equally obedient. Some aspects of personality seem related to being obedient, such as the extent to which people are concerned about how others view them. --> HOW DO WE REDUCE AUTHORITY (OBEDIENCE): Milgram studied ways to REDUCE obedience. All of which involved increasing feelings of responsibility. SEE/TOUCH: If the teacher could see or touched the learner, obedience decreased. MODEL: Having a model of someone else disobeying the experiment/quitting before hand also reduced obedience INDIRECT ORDERS - TELEPHONE: When the experimenter gave the orders over the telephone and was more removed from the situation, obedience dropped dramatically. --> MAX OBEDIENCE: Obedience is heightened when the shock level increases slowly and sequentially, when the victim starts protesting later in the study, when the orders justify continuing with the study, and when the study is conducted at a high-status school, where the experimenters might be viewed as being more authoritative. WHY: This happens because of the way we view authority, but also people don't feel responsible for their actions. People believe they give up their agency, and that responsibility is on someone else - even though that's not true. Reduce ambiguity of responsibility, by hand touching etc, but did not eliminate it (people have to believe that have some sort of control). Overall, some people get blindsided by the situation and don't realize what they can/cannot do.

Why attachment seems to occur - Attachment - why do we attach? 1) "Bowlby's view on attachment, EXAMPLE - Bowlby's argument 2) Harlow's work on the consequences of not having an attachment early in development - Harlows study - More tests using monkeys 3) the different attachment styles that seem to exist. - EXPERIMENT, one way window with mother - secure attachment, what it looks like in terms of study - insecure attachment, two types of insecure attachment 1) AVOIDANT 2) AMBIVALENT

-->WHY ATTACHMENT SEEMS TO OCCUR: ATTACHMENT: a strong, intimate, emotional connection between people that persists over time and across circumstances. Such emotional bonds are the building blocks of a successful social life later on. One fundamental need infants have is to bond emotionally with those who care for them - results from attachment. WHY?: The attachment process draws on humans' innate tendency to form bonds with others. This tendency to bond is, in fact, an adaptive trait. Forming bonds with others provides protection for individuals, increases their chances of survival, and thus increases their chances of passing along their genes to future generations. Human infants need nurturance and care from adults to survive. 1) BOWLBY'S VIEW ON ATTACHMENT: Infants have innate attachment behaviors that motivate adult attention. EXAMPLE: They prefer to remain close to caregivers, act distressed when caregivers leave and rejoice when they return, and put out their arms to be lifted. Likewise, adults generally seem predisposed to respond to infants, as in 'pick- ing up and rocking a crying child. They also tend to respond to infants in ways that infants can understand, as in making exaggerated facial expressions and speaking in a higher-pitched voice. BOWLBY'S ARGUMENT: that these behaviors motivate infants and caregivers to stay in proximity. Because it heightens feelings of security, attachment is adaptive: It is a dynamic relationship that facilitates survival for the infant and parental investment for the caregivers. 2) HARLOW's WORK ON THE CONSEQUENCES OF NOT HAVING EARLY ATTACHMENT: recognized that the infants needed comfort and security in addition to food. HARLOW'S STUDY: Harlow placed infant rhesus monkeys in a cage with two different "mothers". One surrogate mother was made of bare wire and could give milk through an attached bottle. The second surrogate mother was made of soft terry cloth and could not give milk. RESULT: The monkeys' responses were unmistakable: They clung to the cloth mother most of the day. They went to it for comfort in times of threat. The monkeys approached the wire mother only when they were hungry. MORE TESTS USING MONKEYS: Harlow tested the monkeys' attachment to these mothers in various ways. For example, he introduced a strange object, such as a menacing metal robot with flashing eyes and large teeth, into the cage. The infants always ran to the mother that provided comfort, never to the mother that fed them.Harlow repeatedly found that the infants were calmer, braver, and overall better adjusted when near the cloth mother. Once they clung to her, they would calm down and actually confront the feared object! Hence, the mother-as-food theory of mother/child attachment was debunked. ATTACHMENT STYLES: we might expect attachment responses to increase when children start moving away from caregivers. CLASS STUDY: The researchers observe the test through a one-way mirror in the laboratory. On the other side of the mirror is a playroom. There, the child, the caregiver, and a friendly but unfamiliar adult engage in a series of eight semi-structured episodes. The crux of the procedure is a standard sequence of separations and reunions between the child and each adult. Over the course of the eight episodes, the child experiences increasing distress and a greater need for caregiver proximity. The extent to which the child copes with distress and the strategies he uses to do so indicate the quality of the child's attachment to the caregiver. The researchers record the child's activity level and actions such as crying, playing, and paying attention to the mother and the stranger. Using the strange- situation test, Ainsworth identified infant/caregiver pairs that appeared secure as well as those that appeared insecure, or anxious. SECURE ATTATCHMENT: The attachment style for a majority of infants; the infant is confident enough to play in an unfamiliar environment as long as the caregiver is present and is readily comforted by the caregiver during times of distress. IN TERMS OF STUDY: When the attachment figure leaves the playroom, the child is distressed, whines or cries, and shows signs of looking for the attachment figure. When the attachment figure returns, the child usually reaches his arms up to be picked up and then is happy and quickly comforted by the caregiver. Then the child feels secure enough to return to playing. INSECURE ATTATCHMENT: The attachment style for a minority of infants; the infant may exhibit insecure attachment through various behaviors, such as avoiding contact with the caregiver, or by alternating between approach and avoidance behaviors. Insecure attachments can take many forms, from an infant's completely avoiding contact with the caregiver during the strange- situation test to the infant's actively hitting or exhibiting angry facial expressions toward the caregiver nsecurely attached infants have learned that their care giver is not available to soothe them when distressed or is only inconsistently available. These children may be emotionally neglected or actively rejected by their attachment figures. Caregivers of insecurely attached infants typically have rejecting or inconsistently responsive parenting styles. As in all relationships, though, both parties contribute to the quality or success of the interactions. TWO TYPES OF INSECURE ATTACHMENTS: 1) AVOIDANT: avoidant attachment do not get upset or cry at all when the caregiver leaves, and they may prefer to play with the stranger rather than the parent during their time in the playroom. 2) AMBIVALENT: may cry a great deal when the caregiver leaves the room but then be inconsolable when the caregiver tries to calm them down upon return.

- ANXIETY DRUG TREATMENTS 1) ANTI ANXIETY DRUGS (anxiolytics) - benzodiazepines - sleeping pills 2) ANTIDEPRESSANTS - Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors - tricyclic antidepressants (SSRI) 3) ANTIPSYCHOTICS - dopamine antagonists

1) ANTI ANXIETY DRUGS: used for the short-term treatment of anxiety. BENZODIAZEPINES: One class of anti-anxiety drugs is the benzodiazepines (such as Xanax and Ativan). These drugs increase the activity of GABA, the most pervasive inhibitory neurotransmitter. Although benzodiazepines reduce anxiety and promote relaxation, they also induce drowsiness and are highly addictive. SLEEPING PILLS: Sleeping pills (including Ambien and Lunesta) also produce their effects through GABA receptors, although they are not classic benzodiazepines. They bind mainly with receptors that induce sleep rather than relaxation. 2) ANTIDEPRESSANTS: are primarily used to treat depression. However, they are often used for other disorders, particularly anxiety disorders. MONOAMINE OXIDASE (MAO) INHIBITORS: the first antidepressants to be discovered, is an enzyme that breaks down serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine in the synapse. MAO inhibitors result in more of those neurotransmitters being available in the synapse. TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANTS (SSRI): inhibit the reuptake of mainly serotonin and norepinephrine, resulting in more of each neurotransmitter being available in the synapse. More recently, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRis) have been introduced; the best-known is Prozac. These drugs inhibit the reuptake of serotonin, but they act on other neurotransmitters to a significantly lesser extent. ANTIPSYCHOTICS (neuroleptics): treat schizophrenia and other disorders that involve psychosis. These drugs reduce symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations. DOPAMINE AGONISTS: bind to dopamine receptors, thus blocking the effects of dopamine. Antipsychotics are not always effective, however, and they have significant side effects that can be irreversible. TARDIVE DYSKINESIA: side effect of long-term use, the involuntary twitching of muscles, especially in the neck and face. These drugs are NOT useful for treating the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, such as apathy and social withdrawal.

Causes of depression

GENETIC: Studies of twins, families, and adoptions support the notion that depression has a genetic component. The existence of a genetic component implies that biological factors are involved in depression. Concordance rates-that is, the percentage who share the same disorder-for identical twins are generally around two to three times higher than rates for fraternal twins. The genetic contribution to depression is somewhat weaker than the genetic contribution to schizophrenia or to bipolar disorder Depression is related to monoamines, neurotransmitters that regulate emotion and arousal and motivate behavior. Though, depression is not simply due to a lack of norepinephrine or serotonin. SITUATIONAL FACTORS: Depression is especially likely in the face of multiple negative events and patients with depression have often experienced negative life events during the year before the onset of their depression INTERPERSONAL LOSS: such as the death of a loved one or a divorce. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS: Influences how an individual reacts to stress. Relationships contribute to the development of depression, alter people's experiences when depressed, and ultimately may be damaged by the constant needs of the person with depression. A person who has a close friend or group of friends is less likely to become depressed when faced with stress. This protective factor is not related to the number of friends. It is related to the quality of the friendships. COGNITIVE PROCESSES: people with depression think negatively about themselves ("I am worthless"; "I am a failure"; "I am ugly") about their situations ("Everybody hates me"; "the world is unfair"), and about the future ("Things are hope- less"; "I can't change"). People with depression blame misfortunes on personal defects while seeing positive occurrences as the result of luck. People with depression make errors in logic. For example, they overgeneralize based on single events, magnify the seriousness of bad events, think in extremes (such as believing they should either be perfect or not try), and take responsibility for bad events that actually have little to do with them. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS: people come to see themselves as unable to have any effect on events in their lives. people expect that bad things will happen to them and believe they are powerless to avoid negative events. The attributions, or explanations, they make for negative events refer to personal factors that are stable and global, rather than to situational factors that are temporary and specific. This attributional pattern leads people to feel hopeless about making positive changes in their lives

ANXIETY - PANIC DISORDER BEST TREATMENT - Imipramine (tricyclic antidepressant) - CBT* - Exposure Treatment

PANIC DISORDER: consists of sudden, overwhelming attacks of terror and worry about having additional panic attacks. The attacks seemingly come out of nowhere, or they are cued by external stimuli or internal thought processes. Panic attacks typically last for several minutes, during which the person may begin to sweat and tremble; feels her heart racing; feels short of breath; feels chest pain; and may feel dizzy and light-headed, with numbness and tingling in the hands and feet. People experiencing panic attacks often believe that they are going crazy or that they are dying. People who experience panic attacks during adolescence are especially likely to develop other anxiety disorders- such as generalized anxiety disorder-in adulthood BEST TREATMENTS: IMIPRAMINE (Tricyclic antidepressant): imipramine, a tricyclic antidepressant, prevents panic attacks but does not reduce the anticipatory anxiety that occurs when people fear they might have an attack. CBT*: An important psychotherapeutic method for treating panic disorder is based on cognitive therapy. Cognitive restructuring addresses ways of reacting to the symptoms of a panic attack. CBT appears to be as effective as or more effective than medication EXAMPLE: First, the client identifies her specific fears, such as having a heart attack or fainting. The client then estimates how many panic attacks she has experienced. The therapist helps the client assign percentages to specific fears and then compare these numbers with the actual number of times the fears have been realized. EXPOSURE TREATMENT: Even if people recognize the irrationality of their fears, they often still suffer panic attacks. From a cognitive-behavioral perspective, the attacks continue because of a conditioned response to the trigger (e.g., shortness of breath). The goal of therapy is to break the connection between the trigger symptom and the resulting panic. This break can be made by exposure treatment. Whatever the method, it is done repeatedly to induce habituation and then extinction. NOTES: In the short term, CBT alone and an antidepressant alone were more effective than a placebo for treating panic disorder. CBT and an antidepressant did not differ in results.

Things we fear and things we don't - People fear the wrong things - What we are more likely to die from, EXAMPLE - Availability heuristic

PEOPLE FEAR THE WRONG THINGS: Rare causes of death are often judged to occur more frequently than they actually do, while common causes of death are underestimated. WHAT WE ARE LIKELY TO DIE FROM: People are most likely to die from causes that stem from their own behaviors, which they can learn to modify. EXAMPLE: heart disease and cancer account for 1/2 of all U.S. deaths. Those who suffer from heart disease or cancer are not always to blame for their conditions, but we can change our behaviors in ways to reduce the likelihood of these illnesses (exercise, eat nutritiously, do not smoke). AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC: believing information that comes most easily to mind. People using this heuristic will judge an event as likely to occur if it is easy to imagine/recall (Press reports influence what people recall).

DEPRESSIVE DIROSER - PERSISTENT DEPRESSIVE DISORDER

PERSISTENT DEPRESSIVE DISORDER: is mild to moderate severity depression. Most individuals with this disorder describe their mood as "down in the dumps. People with persistent depressive disorder have many of the same symptoms as people with major depressive disorder, but those symptoms are less intense. People with this disorder must have a depressed mood most of the day, more days than not, for at least 2 years. Because the depressed mood is so long-lasting, some psychologists consider it a personality disorder rather than a mood disorder.

ANXIETY - SPECIFIC PHOBIA BEST TREATMENTS: - behavioral techniques (systematic desensitization) - Successful treatment with CBT

PHOBIA: exaggerated fear of a specific object or situation and out of proportion to the actual danger. Learning theory suggests these fears are acquired either through experiencing a trauma or by observing similar fear in others. Most phobias, however, apparently develop in the absence of any particular precipitating event. BEST TREATMENTS: SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION: a form of exposure therapy. The client first makes a fear hierarchy: a list of situations in which fear is aroused, in ascending order. This method involves EXPOSURE - in which the client is asked to imagine or enact scenarios that become progressively more upsetting. The theory behind this technique is that exposure to the threatening stimulus will extinguish as the client learns new, nonthreatening associations. SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT WITH CBT: Brain imaging data indicate that successful treatment with CBT alters the way the brain processes the fear stimulus. STUDY: In one study, research participants suffering from severe spider phobia received brain scans while looking at pictures of spiders. The participants whose treatment had been successful showed decreased activation in a frontal brain region involved in the regulation of emotion.

How can stereotyping and prejudice be diminished? - Prejudice - Discrimination - 4 ways to diminish 1) WORK ON SUPERORDINATE GOALS 2) TRAINING, EXAMPLE 3) COMBAT 4) REFRAMING AND SELF LABELING, EXAMPLES - 2 other methods 1) OVERRIDING 2) ALTER - self control and altering brain behavior, EXPERIMENT - perspective talking - perspective giving, STUDY, backfire

)--> HOW CAN STEREOTYPING AND PREJUDICE BE DIMINISHED?: PREJUDICE: involves negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype. DISCRIMINATION: inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people as a result of prejudice. DIMISHED: 1) WORK ON SUPERORDINATE GOALS: Having people work on superordinate (superior in rank, class, or status) goals can reduce outgroup bias. Even simply imagining positive social interactions with outgroup members can reduce prejudice and increase prosocial behaviors toward outgroup members 2) TRAINING: explicit efforts to train people about stereotypical associations. EXAMPLE: , participants who practice associating women and counter - stereotypical qualities - for example, strength and dominance - are more likely than a control group to choose to hire women 3) COMBAT: People who face discrimination can also take steps to combat prejudice. 4) REFRAMING AND SELF LABELING: Strategies such as trying to hide or escape from a stigmatizing condition (think of a gay person "staying in the closet") often leave prejudice intact, but two strategies that combat prejudice are REFRAMING and SELF-LABELING REFRAMING: taking a negative stereotype and transforming it from a weakness into a strength. EXAMPLE: women are often stereotyped as being weak negotiators. However, if negotiation is reframed as requiring more stereotypically feminine traits, such as being a good listener and relying on intuition, then female negotiators outperform men. SELF-LABELING: involves embracing the very slurs used against you (e.g., queer). Taking ownership of the slur can provide a sense of power to those who are stigmatized. Self labeling with a slur can reduce its negative associations in the minds of observers. 2 OTHER WAYS: 1) OVERRIDING: People can override the stereotypes they hold and act in nondiscriminatory ways - people who are motivated to be low in prejudice override this automatic activation and act in a nondiscriminatory fashion. Although some automatic stereotypes alter how people perceive and understand the behavior of those they stereotype, simply categorizing people does not necessarily lead to mistreating them. 2) ALTER: people can consciously alter their automatic stereotyping - presenting positive examples of admired black individuals (e.g., Denzel Washington) produced more-favorable responses toward African Americans. Another study, training people to respond counter -stereotypically - in having them press a "no" key when they saw an elderly person paired with a stereotype of the elderly- led to reduced automatic stereotyping in subsequent tasks SELF CONTROL AND BRAIN BEHAVIOR: Inhibiting stereotyped thinking is difficult and requires self-control. The challenge comes, in part, from the need for the frontal lobes to override the emotional responses associated with amygdala activity. The frontal lobes are important for controlling both thoughts and behavior, whereas the amygdala is involved in detecting potential threats STUDY: In this context, the amygdala activity may indicate that the participants' immediate responses to black faces were negative. If the faces were presented longer, however, the frontal lobes became active and the amygdala response decreased. Thus, the frontal lobes appear to have overridden the immediate reaction. PERSPECTIVE TALKING: involves people actively contemplating the psychological experiences of other people. Such contemplation can reduce racial bias and help to smooth potentially awkward interracial interaction/reduce negative/positive stereotypes. The value of perspective taking for reducing prejudice may depend on if a person is of the majority group or the minority group. PERSPECTIVE GIVING: people share their experiences of being targets of discrimination STUDY: for Palestinian and Israeli participants, perspective taking led the Israelis to the largest positive changes in attitude toward the Palestinians. Perspective giving led the Palestinians to the largest positive changes in attitude toward the Israelis. These results illustrate the critical roles, in reducing prejudice, of being heard for minority group members (e.g., the Palestinians) and listening for majority group members (i.e., the Israelis). BACKFIRE: Disempowered groups may resent having to consider the perspectives of empowered groups. perspective taking can backfire whenever an individual feels threatened by the other group.

Aggression

BREAK

How do we maintain our views of ourselves? 1) better-than-average effect 2) positive illusions 1) most people continually experience the better-than-average effect. 2) they unrealistically perceive their personal control over events, EXAMPLE 3) most people are unrealistically optimistic about their personal futures. They believe they will probably be successful, marry happily, and live long lives. 3) social comparison - can create good or negative self feelings, EXAMPLE 4) self serving bias - EXMAPLE - groups prone to discrimination

--> HOW DO WE MAINTAIN VIEWS OF OURSELVES? In thinking about our failures, for example, we compare ourselves with others who did worse, we diminish the importance of the challenge, we think about the things we are really good at, and we bask in the reflected glory of both family and friends. We are extremely well equipped to protect our positive beliefs about ourselves. 1) BETTER THAN AVERAGE EFFECT: Most people describe themselves as above average in nearly every way. Sometimes these positive views of the self seem inflated. People with high self-esteem are especially likely to exhibit this effect, but even those with low self-esteem rate themselves as above average on many dimensions 2) POSITIVE ILLUSIONS: overly favorable and unrealistic beliefs- in at least three domains. Positive illusions can be adaptive when they promote optimism in meeting life's challenges. Alternatively, positive illusions can lead to trouble when people overestimate their skills and underestimate their vulnerabilities. 1) most people continually experience the better-than-average effect. 2) they unrealistically perceive their personal control over events. EXAMPLE: some fans believe they help their favorite sports teams win if they attend games or wear their lucky jerseys. 3) most people are unrealistically optimistic about their personal futures. They believe they will probably be successful, marry happily, and live long lives. SOCIAL COMPARISON: occurs when people evaluate their own actions, abilities, and beliefs by contrasting them with other people's. That is, people compare themselves with others to see where they stand - an important means of understanding people's actions and emotions. They are especially likely to perform such comparisons when they have no objective criteria, such as knowing how much money represents a good income. CAN CREATE GOOD OR NEGATIVE SELF FEELINGS: Viewing ourselves as better than others or as better than we used to be makes us feel good about ourselves. But people who constantly compare themselves with others who do better may confirm their negative self-feelings. EXAMPLE: In general, people with high self-esteem make downward comparisons. People with low self-esteem tend to make upward comparisons. People also use a form of downward comparison when they recall their own pasts: They often view their current selves as better than their former selves 4) SELF SERVING BIAS: People with high self-esteem tend to take credit for success but blame failure on external factors. EXAMPLE: For instance, students who do extremely well on exams often explain their performance by referring to their skills or hard work. Those who do poorly might describe the test as an arbitrary examination of trivial details. People with high self-esteem also assume that criticism is motivated by envy or prejudice. GROUPS PRONE TO DISCRIMINATION: Indeed, members of groups prone to discrimination (e.g., the disabled; those from under- represented groups) tend to have high self-esteem. members of these groups maintain positive self-esteem by taking credit for success and blaming negative feedback on prejudice.

How persuasion influences attitudes - Persuasion 3 Factors that determine how persuasive a message is 1) SOURCE, EXAMPLE 2) CONTENT, mere exposure effect, one sided/two sided arguments 3) RECEIVER, elaboration likelihood model (the difference between the central and peripheral routes to persuasion)

--> HOW PERSUASION INFLUENCES ATTITUDES: PERSUASION: the active and conscious effort to change an attitude through the transmission of a message. It is likely to occur when people pay attention to a message, understand it, and find it convincing. The message must be memorable, so its impact lasts over time. 3 FACTORS THAT DETERMINE HOW PERSUASIVE A MESSAGE IS: include the source (who delivers the message), the content (what the message says), and the receiver (who processes the message). 1) SOURCE: Sources who are attractive and credible are the most persuasive. Credibility/persuasiveness are heightened when the receiver views the source as similar to himself. EXAMPLE: television ads for medicines and medical services often feature very attractive people playing the roles of physicians. Even better is when a drug company uses a spokesperson who is attractive AND an actual doctor. 2) CONTENT: arguments in the message are also important for persuasion. Strong arguments that appeal to emotions are the most persuasive. MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT: repeating the message over and over in the hope that multiple exposures will lead to increased persuasiveness. ONE SIDED ARGUMENTS VS BOTH SIDES: Those who want to persuade also have to decide whether to deliver one-sided arguments or to consider both sides of particular issues. One-sided arguments work best when the audience is on the speaker's side or is gullible. With a more skeptical crowd, speakers who acknowledge both sides but argue that one is superior tend to be more persuasive than those who completely ignore the opposing view. 3) RECEIVER: credibility and persuasiveness may be heightened when receiver perceives the source as similar to himself. ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL: persuasive communication leads to attitude change in two fundamental ways. When people are motivated to process information and are able to process that information, persuasion takes the CENTRAL ROUTE: - people are paying attention to the arguments, considering all the information, and using rational cognitive processes. This route leads to strong attitudes that last over time and that people actively defend. When people are either not motivated to process information or are unable to process it, persuasion takes the PERIPHERAL ROUTE - people minimally process the message. This route leads to more-impulsive action, as when a person decides to purchase a product because a celebrity has endorsed it or because of how an advertisement makes the person feel. Peripheral cues, such as the attractiveness or status of the person making the argument, influence what attitude is adopted. Attitudes developed through the peripheral route are weaker and more likely to change over time.

It is important to understand how stable personality is across situations. - inconsistent (shy as example) - situationism* - power of situationism, 2 examples - how much a trait predicts behavior depends on 3 factors (centrality of trait, aggregation of behaviors over time, type of trait being evaluated). - consistency - traits are more predictive of behavior, not personality EXAMPLE* - person situation interaction* - subtleties of influences, EXAMPLE - constrain*, EXAMPLE - CLASS STUDY Strong situations vs weak ones - strong - weak interactionism social environment For example, we often need to understand the situation a person is in to understand their behavior and how their traits manifest themselves, as well as the interaction between a person's traits and the situations they are in. conscientiousness - class attendance, showing up on time doesn't correlate to clean room.

--> HOW STABLE PERSONALITY IS ACROSS SITUATIONS: INCONSISTENT: Imagine that you are shy. Are you shy in all situations? Probably not. Personality reflects a person's underlying disposition/tendencies, the activation of the person's goals in a particular situation, and the activation of the person's emotional responses in the pursuit of those goals. *SITUATIONISM: Behaviors are determined more by situations than by personality traits. POWER OF SITUATIONISM: 1) A person might understandably be shy during a first date with someone he met online. 2) That same person might be far from shy in a different situation. HOW MUCH A TRAIT PREDICTS BEHAVIOR DEPENDS ON 3 FACTORS: the centrality of the trait, the aggregation of behaviors over time, and the type of trait being evaluated. CONSISTENCY: People tend to be more consistent in their central traits than in their secondary traits, since the former are most relevant to them. TRAITS ARE MORE PREDICTIVE OF BEHAVIOR: If behaviors are averaged across many situations, personality traits are more predictive of behavior. EXAMPLE: Shy people may not be shy all the time, but on average they are shy more than people who are not shy. Shyness might vary depending on the situation. *PERSON-SITUATION INTERACTION: People are highly sensitive to social context, and most people conform to situational norms. Situations where there are strong external influences, dictate behavior apart from personality. SUBTLETIES OF INFLUENCES: Situational influences can be subtle. You may reveal different aspects of your personality during your interactions with different people. Your goals and potential consequences of your actions also change. EXAMPLE: your family may be more tolerant of your bad moods than your friends are. Thus, you may feel freer to express your bad moods around your family. CONSTRAIN: Situations differ in how much they constrain the expression of personality. EXAMPLE: Suppose one person is highly extraverted, aggressive, and boisterous. A second person is shy, thoughtful, and restrained. At a funeral, these two people might display similar or even nearly identical behavior. At a party, the same two people would most likely act quite differently. CLASS STUDY: observed stability of conscientiousness across situations using day to day scenarios (class attendance, study - session attendance, assignment neatness, assignment turned in on time, on time for class, neat room, do they look neat). If personality is stable across situations, conscientiousness should be consistent and do all tasks well. RESULT: within situations, there is some consistency with individual tasks, but there is not really a whole lot of correspondence ACROSS different situations. TRAITS FALL APART IN ABILITY TO PREDICT BEHAVIOR WHEN LOOKING ACROSS SITUATIONS --> STRONG SITUATIONS VS WEAK ONES: STRONG - Strong situations (e.g., elevators, religious services, job interviews) tend to mask differences in personality because of the power of the social environment. WEAK - situations-for example, parks, bars, one's house-tend to reveal differences in personality --> INTERACTIONISM: behavior is determined jointly by situations and underlying disposition/tendencies. --> SOCIAL ENVIRONMENTS: People also affect their social environments. First, people choose their situations. Once people are in situations, their behavior affects those around them. EXAMPLE: Introverts tend to avoid parties or other situations in which they might feel anxious, whereas extraverts seek out social opportunities. Some extraverts may draw people out and encourage them to have fun, whereas others might act aggressively and turn people off. A reciprocal interaction occurs between the person and the social environment so that they simultaneously influence each other.!!

What are the challenges to maintaining romantic relationships - - passionate love - compassionate love - 4 Interpersonal styles 1) being overly critical 2) holding the partner in contempt (i.e., having disdain, lacking respect) 3) being defensive 4) mentally withdrawing from the relationship How couples deal with conflicts 1) UNHAPPY COUPLE - responds with his or her own complaint(s). 2) HAPPY COUPLE - express concern for each other Attributions we make for our partners' behavior - attributional style differs 1) HAPPY - couples make partner-enhancing attributions, accommodation 2) UNHAPPY - couples make distress-maintaining attributions How do successful and unsuccessful couples differ in how they deal with these challenges?

--> MAINTAINING ROMATIC REALTIONSHIPS: PASSIONATE LOVE: a state of intense longing and sexual desire. It is associated with activity in dopamine reward systems. People experience passionate love early in relationships. In most enduring relationships, passionate love evolves into companionate love. COMPASSIONATE LOVE: is a strong commitment to care for and support a partner. This kind of love develops slowly over time because it is based on friendship, trust, respect, and intimacy FOUR interpersonal styles that typically lead couples to discord: these maladaptive strategies are... 1) being overly critical 2) holding the partner in contempt (i.e., having disdain, lacking respect) 3) being defensive 4) mentally withdrawing from the relationship. --> DEALING WITH CONFLICTS: 1) UNHAPPY: when one partner voices a complaint, the other partner responds with his or her own complaint(s). The responder may raise the stakes by recalling all of the other person's failings. People use sarcasm and sometimes insult or demean their partners. Inevitably, any disagreement, no matter how small, escalates into a major fight over the core problems. Often, the core problems center on alack of money, alack of sex, or both. 2) HAPPY: When a couple is more satisfied with their relationship, the partners tend to express concern for each other even while they are disagreeing. They manage to stay relatively calm and try to see each other's point of view. They may also deliver criticism light- heartedly and playfully Optimistic people are more likely to use cooperative problem solving; as a result, optimism is linked to having satisfying and happy romantic relationships --> Happy couples also differ from unhappy couples in ATTRIBUTIONAL STYLE: how one partner explains the other's behavior HAPPY: couples make partner-enhancing attributions. That is, they overlook bad behavior or respond constructively (accommodation). UNHAPPY: couples make distress-maintaining attributions: They view each other in the most negative ways possible. OVERALL: happy couples attribute good outcomes to each other, and they attribute bad outcomes to situations. Unhappy couples attribute good outcomes to situations, and they attribute bad outcomes to each other.

Stress influences immune system function - progression of symptomatology - immune system, function/relationship to stress 3 Lymphocytes (of immune system) 1) B CELLS 2) T CELLS 3) NATURAL KILLER CELLS Stress effects' on vulnerability and recovery - Evidence, subjective and objective results

--> STRESS INFLUENCES IMMUNE SYSTEM FUNCTION: AIDS PROGRESSION OF SYMPTOMATOLOGY: high levels of stress increases symptomatology, wounds heal slower, and people become susceptible to the common cold. IMMUNE SYSTEM: normally destroys invading microorganisms (allergens, bacteria, and viruses), but stress interferes with this process --> 3 LYMPHOCYTES OF IMMUNE SYSTEM: The immune system consists of 3 types of specialized white blood cells known as lymphocytes: 1) B CELLS - produce antibodies and protein molecules that attach to foreign agents and mark them for destruction. 2) T CELLS - attack intruders directly and increase the strength of the immune response. 3) NATURAL KILLER CELLS -kills viruses and attack tumors. VULNERABILITY AND RECOVERY: effects of stress on physical health are partly due to decreased lymphocyte production. This decrease renders the body less capable of warding off foreign substances (vulnerability) and the body heals/recovers slower when stressed (recovery). EVIDENCE: consisted of 2 groups of stress (high vs low). Infected all participants with common cold (not deadly) and quarantined them. Researchers collected subjective symptom ratings (are you sneezing, coughing, have chills) and objective measurements (collect mucus using tissues and weighing them) to determine how bad their cold was, subjectively/objectively. RESULTS GIVEN SYMPTOM SCORE: High stressed people experienced colds worse. The 2 groups experienced different levels of symptoms (consistent throughout entire study). The cold, for people with low levels of stress, reached baseline (day 5), which is sooner than those with high levels of stress (day 7). RESULTS GIVEN OBJECTIVE SYMPTATOLOGY SCORES: Highly stressed people had larger (for most part) mucus weight than those with less stress (objective evidence that the cold experience is worse when stress levels are higher).

Causes of anxiety disorders

1) BIASED THINKING: When presented with ambiguous or neutral situations, anxious individuals tend to perceive them as threatening, whereas non-anxious individuals assume they are non- threatening. Anxious individuals also focus excessive attention on perceived threats. They thus recall threatening events more easily than nonthreatening ones, exaggerating the events' perceived magnitude and frequency. 2) LEARNING: a person could develop a fear of flying by observing another person's fearful reaction to the closing of cabin doors. Such a fear might then generalize to other enclosed spaces, resulting in claustrophobia. 3) BIOLOGICAL FACTOR: Children who have an inhibited temperamental style are usually shy and tend to avoid unfamiliar people and novel objects. These inhibited children are more likely to develop anxiety disorders later in life.

ANXIETY - AGORAPHOBIA

AGORAPHOBIA: Is related to panic disorder. People are afraid of being in situations in which escape is difficult or impossible. Their fear is so strong that being in such situations causes panic attacks. People who suffer from agoraphobia avoid going into open spaces or to places where there might be crowds. In extreme cases, sufferers may feel unable to leave their homes. In addition to fearing the particular situations, they fear having a panic attack in public.

ANXIETY DISORDERS BEST TREATMENTS - CBT* - anxiety reducing drugs - d-cycloserine

ANXIETY DISORDERS: characterized by excessive fear and anxiety in the absence of true danger. CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIORS/FEELINGS: Those with anxiety disorders feel tense and apprehensive. They are often irritable because they cannot see any solution to their anxiety. Constant worry can make falling asleep and staying asleep difficult, and attention span and concentration can be impaired. By continually arousing the autonomic nervous system, chronic anxiety also causes bodily symptoms such as sweating, dry mouth, rapid pulse, shallow breathing, increased blood pressure, and increased muscular tension. Chronic arousal can also result in hypertension, headaches, and other health problems. Because of their high levels of autonomic arousal, people who have anxiety disorders also exhibit restless and pointless motor behaviors. Exaggerated startle response is typical, and behaviors such as toe tapping and excessive fidgeting are common. Problem solving and judgment may suffer as well. Research has shown that chronic stress can produce atrophy in the hippocampus, a brain structure involved in learning and memory. Anxiety disorders include specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and agoraphobia. BEST TREATMENT: CBT*: (CBT) works best to treat most adult anxiety disorders. A key use is the use of exposure to the threatening stimuli. Exposure to the feared object in a safe environment eventually produces extinction. The effects of CBT persist long after treatment ANXIETY REDUCING DRUGS: Antidepressant drugs that block the reuptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine have been effective for treating generalized anxiety disorder. Anxiolytics work in the short term for generalized anxiety disorder, but they do little to alleviate the source of anxiety and are addictive. Therefore, they are not used much today. As with all drugs, the effects may be limited to the period during which the drug is taken. D-CYCLOSERINE: This antibiotic may enhance the effects of exposure therapy on anxiety disorders. D-cycloserine facilitated the extinction of conditioned fear. Unlike other drug treatments, d-cycloserine is used to boost the effects of the behavioral treatment rather than treat anxiety directly.

Biological/environmental underpinnings of psychological disorders

BIOLOGICAL: Genetic factors can affect the production and levels of neurotransmitters and their receptor sites. They can also affect the size of brain structures and their level of connectivity. Brain regions that may function differently in individuals with mental disorders SEXES: Some disorders, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, are equally likely in both sexes. ENVIRONMENTAL: during childhood and adolescence, environmental toxins and malnutrition can put an individual at risk for psychological disorders. Epigenetic processes might also contribute to brain abnormalities. That is, environmental stress might change gene expression to cause lasting brain changes that render individuals susceptible to developing psychological disorders SITUATIONAL FACTORS: Thoughts and emotions shaped by a particular environment can profoundly influence behavior, including disordered behavior. Not only traumatic events but also less extreme circumstances, such as constantly being belittled by a parent, can have long-lasting effects. FAMILY SYSTEMS MODEL: proposes that an individual's behavior must be considered within a social context, particularly within the family. Problems that arise within an individual are manifestations of problems within the family. SOCIOCULTURAL MODEL: views psychopathology as the result of the interaction between individuals and their cultures. EXAMPLE: disorders such as schizophrenia appear to be more common among those in lower socioeconomic classes. From the sociocultural perspective, these differences in occurrence are due to differences in lifestyles, in expectations, and in opportunities among classes. COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL FACTORS: abnormal behavior is learned. Thoughts and beliefs are learned and therefore can be unlearned through treatment. CULTURAL SYNDROMES: disorders may be very similar around the world, but they still reflect cultural differences. A disorder with a strong biological component will tend to be more similar across cultures. A disorder heavily influenced by learning, context, or both is more likely to differ across cultures.

Causes of schizophrenia

BIOLOGICAL: Schizophrenia runs in families and genetics plays a role in the development of it. TWINS: If one twin develops schizophrenia, the likelihood of the other twin's developing it is almost 50 percent if the twins are identical PARENTS: If one parent has schizophrenia, the risk of a child's developing the disease is 13 percent. If, however, both parents have schizophrenia, the risk jumps to 40-50 percent DNA/GENES: People with schizophrenia have rare mutations of their DNA about three to four times more often than healthy individuals do, especially in genes related to brain development and to neurological function. These mutations may result in abnormal brain development, which might lead to schizophrenia. No single gene causes schizophrenia. Instead, it is likely that multiple genes or gene mutations contribute in subtle ways to the expression of the disorder BRAIN DISORDER: the structure of the brain, the ventricles are enlarged in people with schizophrenia. In other words, actual brain tissue is reduced. Moreover, greater reductions in brain tissue are associated with more-negative outcomes. Longitudinal studies show continued reductions over time that might become progressively worse after middle age. This reduction of tissue occurs in many regions of the brain, especially the frontal lobes and medial temporal lobes. In addition, as seen in imaging that shows the functioning of the brain, activity is typically reduced in the frontal and temporal regions. Schizophrenia is more likely a problem of connection between brain regions than the result of diminished or changed functions of any particular brain region NEUROTRANSMITTERS: One possibility is that schizophrenia results from abnormality in neurotransmitters. Dopamine may play an important role EMERGENCE: schizophrenia is most often diagnosed when people are in their 20s or 30s, it is hard to assess whether brain impairments occur earlier in life. Some neurological signs of schizophrenia can be observed long before the disorder is diagnosed. Those who developed the disorder displayed unusual social behaviors, more - severe negative emotions, and motor disturbances. All of these differences often went unnoticed during the children's early years. ENVIRONMENT: environmental stress seems to contribute to its development. Growing up in a dysfunctional family may increase the risk of developing schizophrenia for those who are genetically at risk STUDY: One study looked at adopted children whose biological mothers were diagnosed with schizophrenia. If the adoptive families were psychologically healthy, none of the children became psychotic. If the adoptive families were severely disturbed, 11 percent of the children became psychotic and 41 percent had severe psychological disorders. For those with genetic vulnerability, factors have been identified that might increase the likelihood of developing schizophrenia: 1) heavy cannabis use 2) increased stress of urban environments 3) schizovrius - some researchers have reported finding antibodies in the blood of people with schizophrenia that are not found in those without the disorder.

Cause of bipolar disorder

BIOLOGICAL: A family history of a bipolar disorder is the strongest and most consistent risk factor for bipolar disorders. TWINS: The concordance rate for bipolar disorders in identical twins is more than 70 percent, versus only 20 percent for fraternal, or dizygotic, twins GENETICS: Genetic research suggests, however, that the hereditary nature of bipolar disorders is complex and not linked to just one gene. It appears that in families with bipolar disorders, successive generations have more-severe disorders and younger ages of on set.

The biopsychosocial model 1) Biological characteristics 2) Behavioral factors 3) Social conditions Its claims about how health is impacted by various factors EXAMPLE

BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL: health and illness result from a combination of factors. 1) Biological characteristics (genetic predisposition), 2) Behavioral factors (lifestyle, stress, and beliefs about health) 3) Social conditions (cultural influences, family relationships, and social support) CLAIMS: Thoughts/actions (psychological factor) affect people's choices of the environments they interact with (social conditions). Those environments, in turn, affect the biological underpinnings of thoughts and actions (biological characteristics). All factors are related to each other. EXAMPLE: A man is genetically predisposed to be anxious (biology), he learns comfort foods reduce anxiety (psychological factor), might make him overweight (biology), will not want to go to gym (social), make him more overweight (biological). Each factor can impact one another, thus impacting our health. Epigenetic/way we react to environment/impact of social conditions.

Attitudes and how they guide behavior

BREAK

How do children learn about the world? (Cognitive Development)

BREAK

How people think about others

BREAK

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

BREAK

Personality

BREAK

Positive Attitude and Health

BREAK

Stress & its Effects on Health

BREAK

What changes during adolescence?

BREAK

BIPOLAR DISORDERS BEST TREATMENT - lithium - Anti-convulsive medications - second-generation antipsychotics (quetiapine) - lithium + 2nd get antipsychotics (or atypical antipsychotics)* - though sometimes given, antidepressants may have limited usefulness for BPD

BIPOLAR DISORDER: Involve depression and mania. MANIA: refers to an elevated mood that feels like being 'on top of the world.' This positive mood can vary in degree and is accompanied by major shifts in energy level and physical activity. For some people, mania involves a sense of agitation and restlessness rather than positivity True manic episodes last at least one week and are characterized by abnormally and persistently elevated mood, increased activity, diminished need for sleep, grandiose ideas, racing thoughts, and extreme distractibility. BIPOLAR I DISORDER: based more on the manic episodes than on depression. A disorder characterized by extremely elevated moods during manic episodes and, frequently, depressive episodes as well. During episodes of mania, heightened levels of activity and extreme happiness often result in excessive involvement in pleasurable but foolish activities. People may engage in sexual indiscretions, buying sprees, risky business ventures, and similar "out of character" behaviors that they regret once the mania has subsided. They might also have severe thought disturbances and hallucinations. BIPOLAR II DISORDER: may experience less extreme mood elevations called hypomania. It is a disorder characterized by alternating periods of extremely depressed and mildly elevated moods. These episodes are often characterized by heightened creativity and productivity, and they can be extremely pleasurable and rewarding. Although these less extreme positive moods may be somewhat disruptive to a person's life, they do not cause significant impairment in daily living or require hospitalization. However, the bipolar II diagnosis does require at least one major depressive episode The impairments to daily living for bipolar I disorder are the manic episodes, but the impairments for bipolar II disorder are the major depressive episodes. BEST TREATMENT: LITHIUM: how it stabilizes mood are not well understood, but the drug seems to modulate neurotransmitter levels, balancing excitatory and inhibitory activities. Lithium has unpleasant side effects, however, including thirst, hand tremors, excessive urination, and memory problems. The side effects often diminish after several weeks on the drug. ANTI-CONVULSIVE MEDS: commonly used to reduce seizures, can also stabilize mood and may be effective for intense bipolar episodes. SECOND GENERATION ANTISPYCHOTICS (quetiapine): effective in stabilizing moods and reducing episodes of mania Combining mood stabilizers, such as lithium, with atypical antipsychotics improves treatment outcomes.

UNWANTED THOUGHTS - POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD)

Cognitive problems can also be caused by disorders that result from either experiencing or witnessing sexual violations or life-threatening events. PTSD: involves frequent and recurring unwanted thoughts related to the trauma, including nightmares, intrusive thoughts, and flashbacks. People with PTSD often try to avoid situations or stimuli that remind them of their trauma. Those with PTSD often have chronic tension, anxiety, and health problems, and they may experience memory and attention problems in their daily lives. PTSD involves an unusual problem in memory: the inability to forget. It is associated with an attentional bias, such that people with PTSD are hyper vigilant to stimuli associated with their traumatic events. CAUSE: Exposure to stimuli associated with past trauma leads to activation of the amygdala. It is as if the severe emotional event is "over consolidated," burned into memory. PTSD results in abnormalities in the various brain processes that normally lead to extinction in fear learning

The development of one's identity - erikson's 8 stages of identity development - most fundamental crisis for adolescents 3 major changes cause adolescents to question identity How biological influences play a role in the development of identity - gender role - gender identity - gender differences - brain chemistry, structure, and function influence gender - sexual behavior (gonads testes/ovaries and androgens/estrogens) - intersectionality/causes How social/cultural influences play a role in the development of identity - socialization, EXAMPLE - transgender - ethnic identity - bicultural identity - who helps form bicultural identity Both? - EXAMPLE (brain differences) How the development of a person's sense of "self" is driven by peer and parental influences - peers, EXAMPLE - outside observation on groups (cliques) - inside perspective of groups - bullying - parents - parents direct/indirect influence - what parents impact

DEVELOPMENT OF IDENTITY: As a child develops and learns more about the world, they create a sense of identity. ERIKSON'S 8 STAGES OF IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT: 8 stages ranged from an infant's first year-old age. Erikson viewed each stage as having a major development challenge to be confronted. Each one takes on special importance at a particular stage. The challenges provides skills and attitudes that the individual will need to face the next challenge successfully. Erikson's theory lacks empirical support. There is little evidence that there are 8 stages that psychosocial development is culture-neutral, and that human identity develops in this exact sequence. MOST FUNDAMENTAL CRISIS FOR ADOLESCENTS: how to develop an adult identity. --> 3 MAJOR CHANGES: cause adolescents to question identity. 1) PHYSICAL APPEARANCE: transforms, leading to shifts in self-image 2) COGNITIVE ABILITIES: grow more sophisticated, increasing the tendency for introspection 3) SOCIETAL PRESSURE: to prepare for the future (to make career choices), prompting exploration of real and hypothetical boundaries - teenagers may investigate alternative belief systems and subcultures. --> BIOLOGICAL: GENDER IDENTITY: is one's sense of being male/female. A GENDER ROLE: is a behavior that is typically associated with being male or female. GENDER DIFFERENCES: According to evolutionary theory, gender differences reflect different adaptive problems males/females have faced. Since males and females have faced similar adaptive problems, they are actually similar on most dimensions. BRAIN CHEMISTRY, STRUCTURE, FUNCTION INFLUENCE GENDER. Gender identity begins very early in prenatal development. It results from hormones, changes in brain structure/function, and uterus environmental forces. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (gonads testes/ovaries and androgens/estrogens): The gonads-testes (males) and the ovaries (females) influence sexual behavior/development of secondary sex characteristics. Androgens are more prevalent in males, and estrogens are more prevalent in females. INTERSECTIONALITY/CAUSES: For some, aspects of biological sex are either ambiguous or inconsistent. The main causes are abnormalities in the sex chromosomes/in hormones, both of which can affect how the genitals look. --> CULTURAL: Gender roles are culturally defined norms that differentiate behaviors, and attitudes. SOCIALIZATION: Each person is treated in certain ways based on his biological sex, and each person's behaviors reflect biological components and social expectations. EXAMPLE (American culture): In North American culture most discourage girls from playing too roughly and boys from crying. The separation of them into different play groups is also a powerful socializing force. Most boys and girls strive to fulfill the gender roles expected of them by their cultures. TRANSGENDER: One theory why gender and biological sex differ for transgender people has to do with timing of hormonal events during pregnancy. Early in pregnancy, the presence/absence of testosterone leads to the formation of male/female sex organs. Later in pregnancy, hormones influence the sexual differentiation of the brain. Brains of transgender people are more similar to those who share their gender identity than to those who share their biological sex. ETHNIC IDENTITY: adolescents establish a racial and/or ethnic identity. Because of prejudice, discrimination, and the accompanying barriers to economic opportunities, children from underrepresented groups often face challenges with the development of their ethnic identities. BICULTURAL IDENTITY: When a minority child forms a strong sense of identity related to both his own group and the majority culture. The child strongly identifies with two cultures and seamlessly combines a sense of identity with both groups. A bicultural individual who develops a bicultural identity is likely to be happier, be better adjusted, and have fewer problems in adult social/economic roles than will an individual who identifies strongly with only one culture to the exclusion of recognizing the other aspects of who they are. WHO HELPS FORM BICULTURAL IDENTITY: Caregivers, teachers, and spiritual/community leaders play key roles in teaching kids the values of their cultures to help them formulate healthy ethnic identities. --> BOTH? EXAMPLE (different brains): researchers have identified differences in the brains of men and of women. They have not determined whether they result because of genetics, the way girls and boys are treated during development, or, more likely, of genetics (nature) combined with treatment (nurture). However it forms, your gender identity shapes how you behave. Children as young as 2 can indicate their gender. Once they discover if they are boys or girls, they seek out activities that are culturally appropriate for their sex. --> SENSE OF SELF: Adolescent identity development is shaped by the perceptions of adults, the influences of peers, and the teen's own active exploration of the world. PEERS: In development, attention to peers begins at the end of the first year of life (infants begin to imitate other children, smile, and make vocalizations/social signals to their peers). Attention to peers then continue throughout life. In developing identities, children and adolescents compare their strengths/weaknesses their peers. EXAMPLE: as part of the search for identity, teenagers form friendships with others whose values/world views are similar to their own. Adolescents use peer groups to help them feel a sense of belonging/acceptance. They also draw on peer groups as resources for social support/identity acceptance. Adolescent peer groups tend to be described as stereotypical names: jocks, brains, loners, druggies, nerds, and other not-so-flattering designations. OUTSIDE OBSERVERS VIEW ON GROUPS (cliques): they quickly place teenagers who dress or act a certain way into groupings, called CLIQUES - Members are thought to exhibit the same personality traits and be interested in the same activities. INSIDE PERSPECTIVE OF GROUPS: Kids may not see themselves as part of homogeneous groups of peers. But rather completely unique and individual, separate from anyone else, or connected to a small subset of close friends. BULLYING: bullies might not strongly feel the moral emotions of guilt and shame. Bullies also often show increased moral disengagement, such as indifference or pride, when explaining their behavior and more-positive attitudes about using bullying to respond to difficult social situations. This is especially true of bullies with high self-esteem, who tend to rationalize and justify their mistreatment of others. Whether in person or via the web, being bullied can have devastating effects. PARENTS: parents have substantial influence throughout an individual's life. Peer group and family contexts play complementary roles in development. DIRECT/INDIRECT INFLUENCE: Parents' influence can be direct or indirect. Parents contribute to specific individual behaviors, but they also affect social development indirectly by influencing the choices the child makes about what kind of clique to join Adults played a major role in realigning social groups so they were consistent with family norms. WHAT PARENTS IMPACT: Across cultures parents have incredible influence over the development of their children's values, sense of autonomy, attitudes, values, and religious beliefs. Parents who demonstrate the most warmth tend to raise children who experience more social emotions, such as appropriate guilt, perhaps because the parents encourage an empathic attitude toward others. Parents also help determine the neighborhoods in which their children live, the schools they attend, and the extracurricular activities that provide exercise and stimulation. All of these choices are likely to influence how adolescents develop.

ANXIETY - GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER

GENERAL ANXIETY DISORDER: being constantly anxious and worrying incessantly about even minor matters. They even worry about being worried! the anxiety is not focused and it can occur in response to almost anything, so the sufferer is constantly on the alert for problems. It results in distractibility, fatigue, irritability, and sleep problems, as well as headaches, restlessness, light-headedness, and muscle pain.

What Produces Stress - Life changes (major) - Daily events (not long term, but still present)

LIFE CHAGES (Major): uncertainty (jobs/big decisions), major transitions (college, meeting new people), no connections (absence of social support/interaction), : DAILY EVENTS (not long term, but still present): commuting (stressful to deal with), negative interactions with others (rejection), not having/gaining social support (humans are social beings), other day to day hassles

DEPRESSIVE DISORDER - MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER

MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER: those who receive and diagnosis are highly impaired by the condition, and it tends to persist over time. MUST HAVE THESE SYMPTOMS: experiences a depressed mood or a loss of interest in pleasurable activities every day for at least two weeks. The person must have other symptoms, such as appetite and weight changes, sleep disturbances, loss of energy, difficulty concentrating, feelings of self-reproach or guilt, and frequent thoughts of death, perhaps by suicide. only long-lasting episodes that impair a person's life are diagnosed as depressive disorders.

NEGATIVE SYMPTOMS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA

NEGATIVE SYMPTOMS: A number of behavioral deficits associated with schizophrenia result in patients' becoming isolated and withdrawn. People often avoid eye contact and seem apathetic. They do not express emotion even when discussing emotional subjects. Their speech is slowed, they say less than normal, and they use a monotonous tone of voice. Their speech may be characterized by long pauses before answering, failure to respond to a question, or inability to complete an utterance after initiating it. There is often a similar reduction in overt behavior: Patients' movements may be slowed and their overall amount of movement reduced, with little initiation of behavior and no interest in social participation Although the positive symptoms of schizophrenia (i.e., delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech and behavior) can be dramatically reduced or eliminated with antipsychotic medications, the negative symptoms often persist. Because negative symptoms are more resistant to medications, researchers have speculated that positive and negative symptoms have different biological causes.

INFLUENCE OF GROUP MEMBERSHIP ON BEHAVIOR - HOW BEHAVIOR IS INFLUENCED BY OTHERS/SOCIAL FORCES

NEW THEME BREAK

What factors shape infancy?

NEW THEME BREAK

Psychopathology Maladaptiveness

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: Sickness/disorder of the mind. MALADAPTIVENESS: to be considered a disorder, imparts a persons ability to function in society.

Compliance - 3 Factors that increase Compliance 3 circumstances where we are compliant 1) FOOT IN THE DOOR 2) DOOR IN THE FACE 3) LOW BALLING

People often influence others' behavior simply by asking them to do things. --> COMPLIANCE: someone does the requested thing FACTORS INCREASING COMPLIANCE: Good mood, failure to pay attention, wanting to avoid conflict --> CIRCUMSTANCES WE ARE COMPLIANT: foot in the door, door in the face, and low balling 1) FOOT IN THE DOOR: If people agree to a small request, they become more likely to comply with a large and undesirable request. 2) DOOR IN THE FACE: People are more likely to agree to a small request after they have refused a large request. 3) LOW BALLING: committing to an option, then deciding to do so by spending a bit more money does not seem like a big decision.

Research that demonstrates its limitations. Specifics of the research paradigms they discuss in the text, if (and why) they might be inconsistent with Piaget's theory. ## What children's behavior tells us about the development of thinking. !!understanding social emotions/interacting with others/theory of mind?

Piaget believed that as children progress through each stage, they all use the same kind of logic to solve problems. But his framework leaves little room for differing cognitive strategies or skills among individuals-or among cultures. CULTURE: Vygotsky proposed the important interaction between self and environment. Humans are unique because they use symbols and psychological tools-such as speech, writing, maps, art, and so on-through which they create culture. Culture, in turn, dictates what people need to learn and the sorts of skills they need to develop EXAMPLE: For example, some cultures value science and rational thinking. Other cultures emphasize supernatural and mystical forces. These cultural values shape how people think about and relate to the world around them. Vygotsky distinguished between elementary mental functions (such as innate sensory experiences) and higher mental functions (such as language, perception, abstraction, and memory). As children develop, their elementary capacities are gradually transformed. Culture exerts the primary influence on these capacities LANGUAGE: Central to Vygotsky's theories is the idea that social and cultural context influences language development. In turn, language development influences cognitive development. Children start by directing their speech toward specific communications with others, such as asking for food or for toys. As children develop, they begin directing speech toward themselves, as when they give themselves directions or talk to themselves while playing. Eventually, children internalize their words into inner speech: verbal thoughts that direct both behavior and cognition. Your thoughts are based on the language you have acquired through your society and through your culture, and this ongoing inner speech reflects higher-order cognitive processes. MOVE BACK/FOURTH RESEARCH: Another challenge to Piaget's view is that many children move back and forth between stages if they are working on tasks that require varying skill levels. Children may think in concrete operational ways on some tasks but revert to preoperational logic when faced with a novel task. BRAIN: Theorists believe that different areas in the brain are responsible for different skills and that development does not necessarily follow strict and uniform stages TRENDS: Modern interpretations view Piaget's theory in terms of trends, not rigid stages. Children shift gradually in their thinking over a wider range of ages than previously thought, and they can demonstrate thinking skills of more than one stage at a time. ADULTS RESEARCH: Piaget thought that all adults were formal operational thinkers. BUT.. without specific training or education in this type of thinking, many adults continue to reason in concrete operational ways, instead of using critical and analytical thinking skills. These adults may think abstractly regarding topics with which they are familiar but not on new and unfamiliar tasks. UNDERESTIMATE OF AGE: Piaget underestimated the age at which certain skills develop. EXAMPLE: researchers have found that object permanence develops in the first few months of life, instead of at 8 or 9 months of age, as Piaget thought. STUDY: Consider the apple/carrot test. The researcher shows an apple to an infant who is sitting on his parent's lap. The researcher lowers a screen in front of the apple, then raises the screen to show the apple. Then the researcher performs the same actions, but this time raises the screen to show a carrot-a surprising, impossible event. RESULT: If the infant looks longer at the carrot than he had looked at the apple, the researcher can assume that the infant expected to see the apple. By responding differently to such an impossible event than to possible ones, infants demonstrate some understanding that an object continues to exist when it is out of sight. Thus, in his various testing protocols, Piaget may have confused infants' physical capabilities with their cognitive abilities. PHYSICS: Piaget implied that infants and young children have a relatively poor understanding of physical forces, such as conservation of quantity. Studies though, have indicated that Infants even have a primitive understanding of some of the basic laws of physics. NUMBERS: Piaget believed that young children do not understand numbers and therefore must learn counting and other number-related skills through memorization. PIAGET'S EXPERIMENT: he showed two rows of marbles to children 4-5 years old. Both rows had the same number of marbles, but in one row the marbles were spread out. The children usually said the longer row had more marbles. Piaget concluded that children understand quantity-the concepts more than and less than-in terms of length. He felt that children do not understand quantity in terms of number. CHALLENGING PIAGET'S VIEW: children younger than 3 years of age can understand more than and less than. EXPERIMENT: repeated Piaget's experiment using M&M's candy. They showed the children two rows of four M&M's each and asked if the rows were the same. When the children said yes, the researchers then transformed the rows. For instance, they would add two candies to the second row, but compress that row so it was shorter than the row with fewer candies. Then they would tell the children to pick the row they wanted to eat. More than 80 percent picked the row with more M&M's, even though it was the visually shorter row This research indicated that when children are properly motivated, they understand and can demonstrate their knowledge of more than and less than.

ANXIETY - SOCIAL ANXIETY DISORDER

SOCIAL ANXIETY DISORDER: a fear of being negatively evaluated by others. It includes fears of public speaking, speaking up in class, meeting new people, and eating in front of others. It is one of the earliest forms of anxiety disorder to develop (13 years). The more social fears a person has, the more likely he is to develop other disorders, particularly depression and substance abuse problems.

Stress over life Why to the results?

STRESS OVER LIFE: As age INCREASES, the percentage of people experiencing high stress DECREASES. WHY?: Elders likely develop better coping strategies. They also undergo retirement and the standard timeline of life changes (fewer life changes when older).

THOUGH DISTURBANCES DISORDERS - SCHIZOPHRENIA BEST TREATMENT - Reserpine - Traditional antipsychotic - synthetic version of reserpine (chlorpromazine) - Traditional antipsychotic (haloperidol) - Atypical antipsychotic - Clozapine - Other Second-generation medications (Risperdal and Zyprexa) - Psycho-social treatments (Social skill help and grooming habits) - drugs + other treatments*!! NEED BOTH

SCHIZOPHRENIA: involves a disconnection from reality (psychosis). It is characterized by alterations in thought, in perceptions, or in consciousness. It is characterized by a combination of motor, cognitive, behavioral, and perceptual abnormalities. These abnormalities result in impaired social, personal, or vocational functioning. To be diagnosed with schizophrenia a person has to have shown continuous signs of disturbances for at least six months. And a diagnosis requires a person to show two or more of the major 5 symptoms. At least one of those symptoms has to be among the first three listed in criterion A (i.e., delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech). Researchers tend to group symptoms into two categories: positive and negative POSITIVE: Positive symptoms are excesses. They are not positive in the sense of being good or desirable, but in the sense of adding abnormal behaviors NEGATIVE: are deficits in functioning, such as apathy, lack of emotion, and slowed speech and movement. BEST TREATMENT: RESERPINE: had a sedative effect but also was effective in reducing the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, such as delusions and hallucinations. TRADITIONAL ANTIPSYCHOTIC - SYNTHETIC VERSION OF RESERPINE (chlorpromazine): had fewer side effects and acts as a major tranquilizer. It reduces anxiety, sedates without inducing sleep, and decreases the severity and frequency of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. It sedates people, can cause constipation and weight gain, and causes cardiovascular damage. TRADITIONAL ANTIPSYCHOTIC (haloperidol): was chemically different and had less of a sedating effect than chlorpromazine. Haloperidol does not cause these symptoms, but both drugs have significant motor side effects that resemble symptoms of Parkinson's disease: immobility of facial muscles, trembling of extremities, muscle spasms, uncontrollable salivation, and a shuffling walk Haloperidol and chlorpromazine revolutionized the treatment of schizophrenia and became the most frequently used treatment for this disorder. Their drawbacks though - they have little or no impact on the negative symptoms of schizophrenia and they have significant side effects. ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTIC (Clozapine): it is beneficial in treating the negative as well as the positive symptoms of schizophrenia and no signs of Parkinson's symptoms or of tardive dyskinesia appeared in any of the people taking the drug. Clozapine has fewer side effects than chlorpromazine or haloperidol, but its side effects are serious: seizures, heart arrhythmias, and substantial weight gain. It can cause a fatal reduction in white blood cells. Those taking the drug must have frequent blood tests. Clozapine is now typically reserved for more-severe cases because of its more-serious side effects. OTHER SECOND GEN MEDICATIONS (Risperdal and Zyprexa): they have about one-fifth the risk of producing tardive dyskinesia as first generation drugs. Other second-generation antipsychotics may not be as successful at treating negative symptoms as clozapine PSYCHO-SOCIAL TREATMENTS (Social skill help and grooming habits): Although medication effectively reduces delusions and hallucinations, it does not substantially affect the person's social functioning. Antipsychotic drugs fall short of being a cure. The drugs must be combined with other treatments to help people lead productive lives. Social skills training is an effective way to address some deficits in those with schizophrenia. Also, when self-care skills are deficient, behavioral interventions can focus on areas such as grooming and bathing, management of medications, and financial planning. Training in specific cognitive skills, such as in modifying thinking patterns and in coping with auditory hallucinations, has been LESS effective.

It is also important to understand how stable personality is across the life span. That is, to what extent do traits remain similar over different periods of life. What aspects of personality may be more malleable? - stable over adult lifespan - but there is some change - basic tendencies -characteristic adaptions - individual differences in change - age related change, EVIDENCE - age related change culturally - twins MALLEABLE - situational causes of personality change

STABLE PERSONALITY IS ACROSS LIFE SPAN: STABLE OVER ADULT LIFESPAN: most research finds personality traits to be relatively stable over the adult life span. CLASS PROOF: maintains over time that there is some sense of internality. it is inherit, inherent within. have different people rate then 20s vs 60s is the same... BUT THERE IS SOME CHANGE: traits reflect developmental constructs that change over the life course in response to life events. When behaviors, thoughts, or emotions change, and do so repeatedly over time, people can come to see themselves in a new light. BASIC TENDENCIES: dispositional traits determined largely by biological processes. As such, they are very stable. CHARACTERISTIC ADAPTATIONS: are adjustments to situational demands. Such adaptations tend to be somewhat consistent because they are based on skills, habits, roles, and so on. Changes in behavior produced by characteristic adaptations do not indicate changes in basic tendencies. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN CHANGE: These stable shifts in behavior, thoughts, or feelings lead people to perceive themselves differently. Traits change at typical points during the life course, but individual differences in the patterns of change reflect unique aspects of personality. AGE RELATED CHANGE: Individual personalities remain relatively stable over time. During the life course, however, most people's personalities reliably undergo certain changes. EXAMPLE: Some aspects of personality, such as conscientiousness and emotional stability, change more in young adulthood (20-40 age) than in any other part of the life course, including adolescence this tendency may be due to the large number of life events that occur during young adulthood. But a person who is more shy than average as a child remains so as an adult. AGE RELATED CHANGE CULTURALLY: The pattern of personality changes across age holds in different cultures. These findings suggest that age-related changes in personality occur independently of environmental influences and therefore that personality change itself may be based in human physiology. TWINS: The extent of personality change is more similar in monozygotic twins than in dizygotic twins, and this finding indicates that personality change has a genetic component. --> MALLEABLE: SITUATIONAL CAUSES OF PERSONALITY CHANGE: Life's circumstances generally produce changes in personality, especially during the transition from adolescence to adulthood. Many of the changes observed as people go through adulthood may be due in part to the new duties and obligations that growing older (such as forming long-term relationships, having children, and building a career). Each of these life events typically leads to an altered lifestyle, in which behaviors, thoughts, and emotions change in predictable ways. In general, personality changes occur as a consequence of the expectations and experiences associated with age-related roles, such as becoming a spouse, a parent, or an employee. Even apparently trivial life events may have large effects on personality development.

- ANXIETY ALTERNATIVE BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS: TREATMENT RESISTANT 1) ELECTROCOVULSIVE THERAPY 2) TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULAITON - repeated TMS 3) DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION

TREATMENT RESISTANT: People who don't respond properly to other treatments. To alleviate disorders, treatment providers may attempt alternative biological methods. These treatments are often used as last resorts because they are more likely to have serious side effects than psychotherapy or medication will. 1) ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY: involves placing electrodes on a person's head and administering an electrical current strong enough to produce a seizure. It rated psychological disorders (like schizophrenia/depression) ECT now generally occurs under anesthesia, with powerful muscle relaxants to eliminate motor convulsions and confine the seizure to the brain. 2) TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION: a powerful electrical current produces a magnetic field, when rapidly switched on and off, induces an electrical current in the brain region directly below the wire coil, thereby interrupting neural function in that region. In single-pulse TMS, the disruption of brain activity occurs only during the brief period of stimulation - for example, A pulse given over the speech region may disrupt speaking momentarily. REPEATED TMS: If multiple pulses of TMS occur over an extended time. Here, the disruption can last beyond the period of direct stimulation. 3) DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION: involves surgically implanting electrodes deep within the brain. The location of the electrodes depends on which disorder is being treated. Mild electricity is then used to stimulate the brain at an optimal frequency and intensity. This procedure was first widely used to treat the symptoms of Parkinson's disease (a disorder of the dopamine system and causes problems with movement). DBS has few side effects and a low complication rate, as is typical of any minor surgical procedure.

UNWANTED THOUGHTS DISORDERS, THAT INCREASE ANXIETY.

UNWANTED THOUGHTS DISORDERS: having unwanted thoughts leads to emotional distress and anxiety. The commonality is an obsession with an idea or thought or the compulsion to repeatedly act in a certain way. These compulsive actions temporarily reduce anxiety. Related disorders in this category include people chronically pulling at their hair or picking at their skin, people being obsessed with deficiencies in their physical appearance, and hoarding disorder. CAUSES: people are aware that their obsessions and compulsions are irrational, yet they are unable to stop them. 1) the disorder results from conditioning. anxiety is somehow paired to a specific event, probably through classical conditioning. As a result, the person engages in behavior that reduces anxiety and therefore is reinforced through operant conditioning. This reduction of anxiety is reinforcing and increases the person's chance of engaging in that behavior again. EXAMPLE: Suppose you are forced to shake hands with a man who has a bad cold. You have just seen him wiping his nose with his right hand. Shaking that hand might cause you to be anxious or uncomfortable because you do not want to get sick. As soon as the pleasantries are over, you run to the bathroom and wash your hands. You feel relieved. You have now paired hand washing with a reduction in anxiety, thus increasing the chances of hand washing in the future. GENETICS: the etiology of OCD is in part genetic. Various behavioral genetics methods, such as twin studies, have shown that OCD runs in families. OCD-related genes appear to control the neurotransmitter glutamate. Glutamate is the major excitatory transmitter in the brain, causing increased neural firing. ENVIRONMENT: OCD can be triggered by environmental factors. A streptococcal infection apparently can cause a severe form of OCD in some young children. This syndrome strikes virtually overnight. The affected children suddenly display odd symptoms of OCD.

Cognitive dissonance - EXAMPLE - assumption of cognitive dissonance and reduction of dissonance How it contribute to our attitudes (e.g., via post-decision dissonance and justification of effort)? - EXPERIMENT - Insufficient justification effort - post decision dissonance, EXAMPLE - justifying effort, EXAMPLE

--> COGNITIVE DISSONANCE COGNITIVE DISSONANCE: An uncomfortable mental state resulting from a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and a behavior. EXAMPLE: people experience cognitive dissonance when they smoke even though they know that smoking might kill them. ASSUMPTION/REDUCTION: dissonance causes anxiety and tension. Anxiety and tension cause displeasure. Displeasure motivates people to reduce dissonance. Generally, people reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes or behaviors. They sometimes also rationalize or trivialize the discrepancies. --> HOW IT CONTRIBUTES TO OUR ATTITUDES: INSUFFICIENT JUSTIFICATION EXAMPLE: make a justification in order to deal with feeling of dissonance. after completing a boring task, 2 groups were asked to tell the next participant it was fun (discrepancy they had to deal with). 1 of 2 groups were given a dollar to do it. the other was given 20 dollars to do it. Group given a dollar had to find a way to resolve discrepancy/discomfort. What people do is they look for a reason as to why they might have lied. 20 dollars are given easy job to reason as to why they lied. They did not have to do anything to resolve discrepancy. The dollar group had a lot of discomfort, was not paid a enough to justify/resolve discrepancy, so they come up with a way to reduce discomfort. So they reinterpret their experience to be consistent with what they told someone, so they said said it was truly a fun experiment, expressed it as more enjoyable than the 20 dollar group said. One way to get people to change their attitudes is to change their behaviors first, using as few motivators/incentives as possible - make them experience discomfort with their actions. Idea here is if we get people to do something and don't use a lot of motivation, don't give them attributions, they will shift their attitude (bc they have no explanation) POST-DECISIONAL DISSONANCE: dissonance can arise when a person holds positive attitudes about different options but has to choose one of the options - motivates people to looked at negatives/positives. EXAMPLE: a person might have trouble deciding which of many excellent colleges to attend. The person might narrow the choice to two or three alternatives and then have to choose. Post decisional dissonance then motivates the person to focus on one school's - the chosen school's-positive aspects and the other schools' negative aspects. This effect occurs automatically, with minimal cognitive processing, and apparently without awareness. Indeed, even patients with long-term memory loss may show post decisional effects for past choices, even if the patients do not consciously recall which items they chose JUSTIFYING EFFORT: people justify putting themselves through pain, embarrassment, or discomfort just to join a group as they experience dissonance. Some fraternities and sororities enjoy hazing. Groups require new recruits to undergo embarrassing or difficult rites of passage because these endurance tests make membership in the group seem much more valuable. The tests also make the group more cohesive. EXPERIMENT: Some women had to read a list of obscene words and sexually explicit passages in front of the male experimenter. In the 1950s, this task was very difficult for many women and took considerable effort. A control group read a list of milder words, such as prostitute. Participants in both conditions then listened to a boring and technical presentation about mating rituals in lower animals. RESULTS: Women who had read the embarrassing words reported that the presentation was much more interesting, stimulating, and important than did the women who had read the milder words. When people put themselves through pain, embarrassment, or discomfort to join a group, they experience a great deal of dissonance. After all, they typically would not choose to be in pain, embarrassed, or uncomfortable. Yet they made such a choice. They resolve the dissonance by inflating the importance of the group and their commitment to it. This justification of effort helps explain why people are willing to subject themselves to humiliating experiences such as hazing. It may help explain why people who give up connections to families and friends to join cults or to follow enigmatic leaders are willing to die rather than leave the groups. If they have sacrificed so much to join a group, people believe the group must be extraordinarily important.

Ingroup/outgroup dynamics How do we think about and treat ingroups differently than outgroups? - Outgroup homogeneity effect - Social identity theory - Ingroup favoritism - Group behavior (men/women) - Following group rules - Role of medial pre-frontal cortex, when is it active? - dehumanization -mirror neurons

--> INGROUP/OUTGROUP DYNAMICS: INGROUP: Groups particular people belong OUTGROUP: Groups particular people do not belong HOW DO WE THINK ABOUT/TREAT INGROUPS DIFFERENTLY THAN OUTGROUPS: OUTGROUP HOMOGENEITY EFFECT: people tend to view outgroup members as less varied (Not diverse/different) than in group members. People show a positivity bias for in group members (such as thinking their smiles indicate greater happiness than similar smiles by out group members). SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY: a person's sense of who they are based on their group membership(s). People value the groups with which they identify and experience pride through their group membership. As people define themselves as members of groups, they think of themselves in terms of how other group members typically behave toward both ingroup and outgroup members. Group memberships are an important part of social identities, and they contribute to each group member's over-all sense of self-esteem INGROUP FAVORTISM: people are more likely to provide resources to, do favors for, and forgive mistakes/errors for ingroup than outgroup members. The power of group membership is so strong that people exhibit in group favoritism even if groups are determined randomly. EVIDENCE: a study randomly assigned volunteers to two groups, using meaningless criteria such as flipping a coin. Participants were then given a task in which they divided up money. RESULTS: They gave more money to their ingroup members and tried to prevent the outgroup members from receiving any. GROUP BEHAVIOR (MEN/WOMEN): Women show a greater automatic ingroup bias toward other women than men do toward other men. Though men generally favor their ingroups, they don't when the category is sex (Western cultures). Men and women depend on women for nurturing and they are threatened by male violence. Women can also express their affection for female friends (but men can't as it might threaten their sexual identities). FOLLOWING RULES: Being a good group member requires recognizing and following the group's social rules. When members violate these rules, they risk exclusion from the group. PREFRONTAL CORTEX: The middle region of the prefrontal cortex (medial prefrontal cortex) is important for thinking about other people, whether they are ingroups or outgroups. Activity in this region is also associated with ingroup bias. The medial prefrontal cortex is less active when people consider members of outgroups - at least members of extreme outgroups (homeless persons or drug addicts). DEHUMANIZATION: People tend to pass the homeless as if they were obstacles, and they generally do not feel much sympathy regarding people's troubles. MIRROR NEURONS: activates when people observe others in pain. These "pain regions" are more active when people see an ingroup member being harmed than when they see the same harm inflicted on an outgroup member.

Ways that the assumptions underlying trait approaches to personality can be assessed - assessment 1) Traits on continuum measurement 2) extravert/introvert and personality study Further research examining the general idea that traits underlie personality and our behavior (Introverts/extraverts) - based on biological processes 1) intro vs extra and optimal levels of arousal 2) intro vs extra and the operation of behavioral approach/inhibition systems.

--> WAYS THE ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING TRAIT APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY CAN BE ASSESSED: ASSESSMENT: By providing a common descriptive framework, the Big Five integrate and invigorate the trait approach. 1) Traits on continuum - just a measurement 2) extravert/introvert and personality study: In assessing trait approach, this study looked at how traits predict people's behaviors. Does the traits translate into the real world? In a study looking at extraversion/introversion, it compared the traits to the # of roommates. RESULTS = extraversion predicts behavior, the smaller # of housemates, the # of extraverts involved are lower. The larger # of housemates, the # of extraverts involved are higher. The factors uniquely predict certain outcomes and may reflect people's goals/behavior. --> FURTHER RESEARCH EXAMINING THE IDEA THAT TRAITS UNDERLIE PERSONALITY/BEHAVIOR: INTROVERTS VS EXTRAVERTS: Personality traits are based on biological processes that produce behaviors, thoughts, and emotions. AROUSAL: differences in arousal produce the behavioral differences between extraverts and introverts. Arousal (alertness) is regulated by the reticular activating system. The RAS affects alertness and induces/terminates the different stages of sleep. Each person prefers to operate-and operates best-at some optimal level of arousal. The resting levels of the RAS are higher for introverts than for extraverts. 1) EXTRAVERTS AROUSAL: typically are below their optimal levels. Extraverts are chronically under aroused. Quiet places will bore you. INTROVERTS AROUSAL: are above their optimal levels of arousal. They do not want any additional arousal and prefer quiet solitude with few stimuli. A noisy environment will distract you. Generally, introverts appear to be more sensitive to stimuli at all levels of intensity. 2) BEHAVIORAL APPROACH/INHIBITION SYSTEMS: two motivational functions personality is rooted in. These functions have evolved to help organisms respond efficiently to reinforcement and punishment. BEHAVIORAL APPROACH: consists of the brain structures that lead organisms to approach stimuli in pursuit of rewards. The BAS is linked to extraversion. Extraverts are more influenced by rewards than by punishments and tend to act impulsively in the face of strong rewards, even following punishment. BEHAVIORAL INHIBITION: is sensitive to punishment. The BIS inhibits behavior that might lead to danger or pain. BIS is related more to anxiety than to fear. The BIS is linked to neuroticism. People high in neuroticism become anxious in social situations in which they anticipate possible negative outcomes. Different brain regions involved in emotion and reward underlie BIS/BAS systems.

What changes occur in the brain over the early years of life - 2 Early changes in the brain 1) MATURATION/FUNCTION 2) CONNECTIONS, myelination How does it develop/change to reflect experience - synaptic pruning How are those changes related to environmental factors? - nutrition - poverty

--> WHAT CHANGES OCCUR IN THE BRAIN OVER THE EARLY YEARS OF LIFE?: 2 EARLY CHANGES IN BRAIN: 1) MATURATION/FUNCTION: specific areas within the brain mature and become functional. 2) CONNECTIONS: regions of the brain learn to communicate with one another through synaptic connections. The brain's physical development continues through the growth of neurons/ new connections they make. MYELINATION: One important way that brain circuits mature. Myelination increases the speed with which the fibers are able to transmit signals. The myelinated axons form synapses with other neurons. --> DEVELOP/CHANGE TO EXPERIENCE: Genetic instruction leads the brain to grow, but the organ is also highly "plastic." That is, the brain organizes itself in response to its environmental experiences, preserving connections it needs in order to function in a given context and pruning out others. SYNAPTIC PRUNING: The synaptic connections in the brain that are USED are preserved, whereas those that are NOT USED decay and disappear. It allows every brain to adapt well to any environment in which it may find itself. --> CHANGES RELATED TO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS: When a child's environment does not stimulate her brain, very few synaptic connections will be made. Animals raised in enriched environments show increased generation of new neurons in the hippocampus, which may facilitate learning in complex environments. Genes provide instructions for the maturing brain, but how the brain changes during infancy and early childhood is also very much affected by environment. NUTRITION: effects aspects of brain development, such as myelination, beginning in the womb and extending through childhood. POVERTY: Living conditions that tend to come with poverty (e.g., stress, poor nutrition, exposure to toxins and violence) are bad for the development of human brains.

CHILDHOOD DISORDER - ATTENTION DFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD) BEST TREATMENT: - Central nervous system stimulant (methylphenidate, aka Ritalin) (short term) - Adderall (short term)* - behavioral treatment (long term)* - behavioral treatment and medication

ADHD: Children with (ADHD) are restless, inattentive, and impulsive. They need to have directions repeated and rules explained over and over. Although these children are often friendly and talkative, they can have trouble making and keeping friends because they miss subtle social cues and make unintentional social mistakes. The DSM-5 requires at least six or more symptoms of inattention (e.g., careless mistakes, not listening, losing things, easily distracted) and six or more symptoms of hyperactivity or impulsiveness (e.g., fidgeting, running about when inappropriate, talking excessively, difficulty waiting) that last for at least six months and interfere with functioning or development. WHO IS EFFECTED: Although ADHD traditionally has been most common among white boys, recently girls and minorities have shown increases in the disorder. CAUSE: The causes of this disorder are unknown. ADHD is most likely a heterogeneous disorder -In other words, the behavioral profiles of children with ADHD vary, so the causes of the disorder most likely vary as well. FAMILY: Children with ADHD may be more likely than other children to come from disturbed families. Factors such as poor parenting and social disadvantage may contribute to the onset of symptoms, as is true for all psychological disorders. GENETIC: Concordance is about twice as high in identical twins than in dizygotic twins. BRAIN STUDIES: adults who had been diagnosed with ADHD in childhood had reduced metabolism in brain regions involved in the self-regulation of motor functions and of attentional systems. A general finding is that there is reduced volume in many regions of the brain for those with ADHD, particularly in regions involving attention, cognitive and motor control, emotional regulation, and motivation. The pattern suggests delayed maturation of the brain among those with ADHD. Supporting the delayed maturation hypothesis is evidence that the reduced brain volumes observed in children mostly disappear by adulthood along with many symptoms of the disorder. The brain region most consistently shown to be involved in ADHD is the basal ganglia. Researchers have also demonstrated volume reductions in the basal ganglia. Because this structure is involved in regulating motor behavior and impulse control, dysfunction in the basal ganglia could contribute to the hyperactivity characteristic ofADHD. BEST TREATMENT: - CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM STIMULANT (methylphenidate, aka Ritalin): Ritalin's actions are not fully understood, but may affect multiple neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine. Children taking Ritalin are happier, more adept socially, somewhat more successful academically, and interact more positively with their parents. Side effects include sleep problems, reduced appetite, body twitches, and the temporary suppression of growth. ADDERALL: combines two other stimulants. These drugs appear to selectively stimulate activity in frontal lobe regions that support both cognition and behavioral control. They act as cognitive enhancers by increasing attention and the ability to concentrate. Children experience an increase in positive behaviors and a decrease in negative behaviors. They are able work more effectively on a task without interruption and are less impulsive. SHORT TERM: There is evidence that the short-term benefits of stimulants may not be maintained over the long term. ABUSE: using stimulants to treat children with ADHD may increase the risk that they will develop substance abuse problems as adults. Perhaps most important, some children on medication may see their problems as beyond their control. They may not feel responsible for their behaviors and may not learn the coping strategies they will need if they discontinue their medication or if it ceases to be effective. BEHAVIORAL TREATMENT: aims to reinforce positive behaviors and ignore or punish problem behaviors. Treatment is very intensive and time consuming. Many therapists advocate combining behavioral approaches with medication. The medication is used to gain control over the behaviors, and then behavioral modification techniques can be taught and the medication slowly phased out. Others argue that medication should be used only if behavioral techniques do not reduce inappropriate behaviors. SHORT TERM VS LONG TERM: after 3 years, the advantage of the medication therapy was no longer significant. The children who received behavioral therapy improved over the three years, whereas those who received medication improved quickly but then tended to regress over the three years These findings reinforce the key point here: Medications may be important in the short term, but psychological treatments may produce superior outcomes that last.

CHILDHOOD DISORDER - AUSTISM SPECTRUM DISRODER (ASD) BEST TREATMENT: - Structured behavioral treatment (applied behavioral analysis - ABA)* - SSRI (NO DID NOT WORK) - Antipsychotics - Oxytocin

ASD: a disorder characterized by deficits in social interaction, by impaired communication, and by restricted interests. it varies along a continuum from mild to severe impairment. Two essential features of autism spectrum disorder are impairments in social interactions along with restrictive or repetitive behaviors, interests, or activities. ASPERGER'S SYNDROME: high-functioning autism. A child with Asperger's has normal intelligence but deficits in social interaction. These deficits reflect an underdeveloped theory of mind. THEORY OF MIND: both the understanding that other people have mental states and the ability to predict their behavior accordingly. SYMPTOMS: 1) UNAWARE OF OTHERS: Children on the more extreme end of the autism spectrum are seemingly unaware of others. As babies, they do not smile at their caregivers, do not respond to vocalizations, and may actively reject physical contact with others. Children with autism do not establish eye contact and do not use their gazes to gain or direct the attention of those around them. 2) DEFICIT IN COMMUNICATION: Children with autism show severe impairments in verbal and nonverbal communication. Even if they vocalize, it is often not with any intent to communicate. Children with autism who develop language usually exhibit odd speech patterns, such as echolalia (the mindless repeating of words or phrases that someone else has spoken, which is also observed in those with schizophrenia). The repeater may imitate the first speaker's intonation or may use a high-pitched monotone. Those who develop functional language also often interpret words literally, use language inappropriately, and lack verbal spontaneity. 3) RESTRICTED ACTIVITIES/INTERESTS: Children with autism spectrum disorder appear oblivious to people around them, but they are acutely aware of their surroundings. lthough most children automatically pay attention to the social aspects of a situation, those with autism may focus on seemingly inconsequential details. Any changes in daily routine or in the placement of furniture or of toys are very upsetting for children with autism. OTHER BEHAVIORS: Once they are upset, the children can become extremely agitated or throw tantrums. The play of children with autism tends to be repetitive and obsessive, with a focus on objects' sensory aspects. They may smell and taste objects, or they may spin and flick them for visual stimulation. their own behavior tends to be repetitive, with strange hand movements, body rocking, and hand flapping. Self-injury is common, and some children must be forcibly restrained to keep them from hurting themselves. BEST TREATMENT: BEHAVIORAL TREATMENT (applied behavioral analysis - ABA): is based on principles of operant conditioning - Behaviors that are reinforced should increase in frequency and behaviors that are not reinforced should diminish. This method can be used successfully to treat autism , particularly if treatment is started early in life. Recent studies have shown that other tasks can improve ABA treatment. One study found that teaching children to engage in joint attention during ABA treatment, such as by having the parent or teacher imitate the child's actions and work to maintain eye contact, improved language skills significantly over ABA treatment alone. In another condition, children received instruction in symbolic play. SYMBOLIC PLAY - includes imagining something, such as a doll driving a car, or pretending that one object represents another. Instruction in symbolic play also led to increased language use, greater parent/child play, and greater creativity in play. DRAWBACKS OF ABA: time commitment, the therapy is very intensive and lasts for years. Parents essentially become full-time teachers for their child with ASD. The financial and emotional drains on the family can be substantial. If the family includes other children, they may feel neglected or jealous because of the amount of time and energy expended on the child with autism. There is good evidence that ASD is caused by brain dysfunction. Many attempts have been made to use this knowledge to treat the disorder. When the treatments are assessed in controlled studies, however, there is little or no evidence that most are effective. SSRI: SSRis have been tried as a treatment for ASD for two reasons. 1) SSRis such as Prozac reduce compulsions in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder, and autism involves compulsive and repetitive behavior. 2) children with ASD have abnormal serotonin functioning. A review of pharmacological studies found that SSRis are not helpful for treating the symptoms of ASD and actually may increase agitation ANTIPSYCHOTICS (risperdal): appear to reduce repetitive behaviors associated with self- stimulation. Unfortunately, antipsychotics have side effects, such as weight gain. OXYTOCIN: a deficit in oxytocin may be related to some of the behavioral manifestations of autism. administering a nasal spray containing oxytocin leads people to make more eye contact, feel increased trust in others, and better infer emotions from other people's facial expressions. Oxytocin injections seem particularly useful for reducing repetitive behaviors (e.g., repeating the same phrase), questioning, inappropriate touching, and self-injury. At this point, the neurobiology of ASD is not well understood. Attempts to use psychopharmacology to treat the disorder have led to some improvements in behavior, but much remains to be learned.

Cause of autism spectrum disorder

BIOLOGICAL: In addition to autism being heritable, it also appears that gene mutations may play a role. GENES: An international study that compared 996 children with autism to 1,287 control children found a number of rare gene abnormalities. These rare mutations involve cells having an abnormal number of copies of DNA segments. The mutations may affect the way neural networks are formed during childhood development. There is growing evidence that autism and schizophrenia share the same gene mutations. BRAIN DYSFUNCTION; parental and/or early childhood events may result in brain dysfunction. The brains of children with autism grow unusually large during the first months of life, and then growth slows until age 5. The brains of children with autism also do not develop normally during adolescence - Exposure to antibodies in the womb may affect brain development. !! Evidence that the brains of people with autism have faulty wiring in a large number of areas: Some of those brain areas are associated with social thinking, and others might support attention to social aspects of the environment. !! MIRROR NEURON SYSTEM: those with autism may have impairments in the mirror neuron system. An imaging study that found weaker activation in the mirror neuron system for those with autism than for those without. It is possible that impairments in the mirror neuron system prevent the person with autism from understanding the why of actions, not the what of actions

DISORDERS PROMINENT IN CHILDHOOD SHOULD CHILDHOOD DISORDERS BE TREATED?

CHILDHOOD DISORDERS: Some symptoms of childhood psychological disorders are extreme manifestations of normal behavior or are actually normal behaviors for children at an earlier developmental stage. Two disorders include autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity SHOULD CHILDHOOD DISORDERS BE TREATED: Problems not addressed during childhood or adolescence may persist into adulthood. Theories of human development regard children and adolescents as more malleable than adults and therefore more amenable to treatment. Medication is often used to treat emotional and behavioral problems in children.

- CULTURAL BELIEFS AFFECT TREATMENT -

CULTURE: influences on the way psychological disorders are expressed, on which people with psychological disorders are likely to recover, and on people's willingness to seek help. Psychotherapy is accepted to different extents in different countries. Some countries, such as China and India, have relatively few psychotherapists. the people in some of these countries are resistant to even discussing psychological problems, much less treating them. Because of traditional cultural beliefs, many Chinese distrust emotional expression and avoid seeking help for depression, anger, or grief. Likewise, in India, because of the stigma of psychological disorders, terms such as mental illness, depression, and anxiety are avoided; instead, terms such as tension and strain are used to communicate psychological health problems providers need to be sensitive both to the cultural meanings of disorders and to how psychological treatments are regarded within those cultures.

ADHD ACROSS LIFE SPAN

Children generally are not given diagnoses of ADHD until they enter structured settings in which they must conform to rules, get along with peers, and sit in their seats for long periods. Diagnoses for boys occur at younger ages than for girls, which may reflect a tendency for boys' behavior to be more readily identified as disordered. According to longitudinal studies, children do not outgrow ADHD by the time they enter adulthood. Adults may struggle academically and vocationally. At the same time, many adults with ADHD learn how to adapt to their condition, such as by reducing distractions while they work

POSITIVE SYMPTOMS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA delusions hallucinations disorganized speech disorganized behavior

DELUSIONS: false beliefs based on incorrect inferences about reality. Delusional people persist in their beliefs despite evidence that contradicts those beliefs. The type of delusion can be influenced by cultural factors HALLUCIANTIONS: alse sensory perceptions that are experienced without an external source. They are vivid and clear, and they seem real to the person experiencing them. Frequently auditory, they can also be visual, olfactory, or somatosensory. Auditory hallucinations are often accusatory voices - they may tell the person that he is evil or inept, or they may command the person to do dangerous things. People with schizophrenia need to learn to ignore the voices in their heads, but doing so is extremely difficult and sometimes impossible The cause of hallucinations remains unclear. Neuroimaging studies suggest, that hallucinations are associated with activation in areas of the cortex that process external sensory stimuli. DISORGANIZED SPEECH: Speech is incoherent, failing to follow a normal conversational structure. A person with schizophrenia may respond to questions with tangential or irrelevant information. It is very difficult to follow what those with schizophrenia are talking about because they frequently change topics, which is known as a loosening of associations. These shifts make it difficult or impossible for a listener to follow the speaker's train of thought. WORD SALAD: In more extreme cases, speech is so disorganized that it is totally incomprehensible CLANG ASSOCIATIONS: the stringing together of words that rhyme but have no other apparent link. Those with schizophrenia might also display strange and inappropriate emotions while talking. Such strange speaking patterns make it very difficult for people with schizophrenia to communicate DISORGANIZED BEHAVIOR: act strangely, such as displaying unpredictable agitation or childish silliness. They also have problems performing many activities. People exhibiting this symptom might wear multiple layers of clothing even on hot summer days, walk along muttering to themselves, alternate between anger and laughter, or pace and wring their hands as if extremely worried. They also have poor hygiene, failing to bathe or change clothes regularly. CATATONIC BEHAVIOR: where they show a decrease in responsiveness to the environment. Catatonic features can also include a rigid, mask like facial expression with eyes staring into the distance. ECHOLALIA: people exhibiting catatonic behavior might mindlessly repeat words they hear

DSM-5

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

- FAMILY THERAPY -

FAMILY THERAPY: According to a systems approach, an individual is part of a larger context. Any change in individual behavior will affect the whole system. This effect is often clearest within the family. Each person in a family plays a particular role and interacts with the other members in specific ways. All the family members involved in therapy are together considered the client. EXAMPLE: For instance, an alcoholic who gives up drinking may start to criticize other members of the family when they drink. In turn, the family members might provide less support for the person's continuing abstinence. After all, if the family members do not have drinking problems, they might resent the comments. If they do have drinking problems, they might resist the comments because they do not want to give up drinking Family attitudes are often critical to long-term prognoses. For this reason, some therapists insist that family members be involved in therapy when practical, except when including them is impossible or would be counter productive. Helping families provide appropriate social support leads to better therapy outcomes and reduces relapses for individuals in treatment. EXPRESSED EMOTION: a pattern of negative actions by a client's family members. The pattern includes making critical comments about the person, being hostile toward the person, and being emotionally over involved (e.g., being over- protective, pitying, or having an exaggerated response to the person's disorder).

DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS "BEST" TREATMENTS (There is no "best" way to treat depressive disorders) - Antidepressant (iproniazid) - Antidepressant (tricyclics - imipramine) - Antidepressant (SSRI - prozac) - Bupropion (Wellbutrin) - CBT - CBT + drugs together* ALTERNATIVE TREATMENTS: - phototherapy (for those with seasonal affective disorder) - aerobic exercise - Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) - Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) - Deep brain stimulation

Depressive disorders consist of sad, empty, or irritable moods. COMMON FEATURE AMONG DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS: the presence of sad, empty, or irritable mood / bodily symptoms and cognitive problems that interfere with daily life. "BEST" TREATMENTS: ANTIDEPRESSANT (iproniazid): iproniazid's effect on mood reported preliminary success in using it to treat depression. Iproniazid is an MAO inhibitor. MAO inhibitors can be toxic because of their effects on various physiological systems. The interaction of an MAO inhibitor and tyramine can result in severe, sometimes lethal elevations in blood pressure. In addition, the interaction of an MAO inhibitor with particular prescription and over-the-counter medications can be fatal. As a result of these complications, MAO inhibitors are generally reserved for people who do not respond to other antidepressants. ANTIDEPRESSANT (tricyclics - imipramine): This drug and others like it act on neurotransmitters as well as on the histamine system. Tricyclics are extremely effective antidepressants. Because of their broad-based action, however, they have a number of unpleasant side effects. For example, their use can result in drowsiness, weight gain, sweating, constipation, heart palpitations, dry mouth, or any combination of such problems. Tricyclics might be beneficial for the most serious depressive disorders, especially for hospitalized patients ANTIDEPRESSANT SSRI (Prozac): This SSRI does not affect histamine or acetylcholine. Therefore, it has none of the side effects associated with the tricyclic antidepressants, although it occasionally causes insomnia, headache, weight loss, and sexual dysfunction. Drugs such as SSRis success has been viewed as evidence that depression is caused by an abnormality in serotonin function (not enough proof - might be placebo). BUPROPION (Wellbutrin): affects many neurotransmitter systems, but it has fewer side effects for most people than other drugs. Unlike most antidepressants, bupropion does not cause sexual dysfunction. Unlike SSRis, bupropion is not an effective treatment for panic disorder and OCD. SSRis and bupropion are generally considered first-line medications because they have the fewest serious side effects CBT: is just as effective as antidepressants in treating depressive disorders. Depression is the result of a cognitive triad of negative thoughts about oneself, the situation, and the future. The thought patterns of people with depressive disorders differ from the thought patterns of people with anxiety disorders (people with anxiety disorders worry about the future - People with depressive disorders think about how they have failed in the past, how terrible the future will be). CBT helps the person think more adaptively, to improve mood and behavior. The specific treatment is adapted to the individual, but some general principles apply to this type of therapy (People may be asked to recognize and record their negative thoughts, once the patterns of negative thoughts are identified and monitored, the clinician can help the client recognize other ways of viewing the same situation that are not so dysfunctional). Treatment of depression with psychotherapy leads to changes in brain activation similar to those observed for drug treatments CBT can be effective on its own, but combining it with antidepressant medication can be more effective than either one of these approaches alone. The response rates and remission rates of the combined-treatment approach are extremely good. ALTERNATIVE TREATMENTS: PHOTOTHERAPY (SAD): involves exposure to a high-intensity light source for part of each day. It raises the issue of the extent of seasonal variation in depression AEROBIC EXERCISE: may reduce depression because it releases endorphins, which can cause an overall feeling of well-being. Aerobic exercise may also regularize bodily rhythms, improve self-esteem, and provide social support if people exercise with others. However, people with depression may have difficulty finding energy and motivation. ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY: is very effective for those who are severely depressed and do not respond to conventional treatments. ECT works quickly, may be best for pregnant women (psychotropic medications can cause birth defects), and as proved effective in people for whom other treatments have failed. TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION: over the left frontal regions results in a significant reduction in depression. TMS does not involve anesthesia or have any major side effects (other than headache), it can be administered outside hospital settings. DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION: Electrodes are put on place of prefrontal cortex that is abnormal in depression. Some feel relief as soon as the switch was turned on. DBS differs from other treatments in that researchers can easily alter the electrical current without the person knowing, to demonstrate that the DBS is responsible for improvements in psychological functioning.

- PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY -

EARLY PSYCHOANALYSIS: This method was meant to reduce the client's inhibitions and allow freer access to unconscious thought processes. Treatment involved uncovering unconscious feelings and drives that gave rise to maladaptive thoughts and behaviors. The general goal of psychoanalysis is to increase the client's awareness of his own unconscious psychological processes and how these processes affect daily functioning. By gaining insight of this kind, the client is freed from these unconscious influences. Techniques included free association and dream analysis. Traditional psychoanalytic therapy is expensive and time consuming, sometimes continuing for many years. The evidence is weak, however, for its effectiveness in treating most psychological disorders. PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY: a therapist aims to help a client examine her needs, defenses, and motives as a way of understanding why the client is distressed. Talking tends to be more conversational. FEATURES OF CONTEMPORARY PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY: Exploring the client's avoidance of distressing thoughts, looking for recurring themes and patterns in thoughts and feelings, discussing early traumatic experiences, focusing on inter- personal relations and childhood attachments, emphasizing the relationship with the therapist, and exploring fantasies, dreams, and daydreams CONTROVERY: involves new approaches to psychodynamic therapy - fewer sessions with a focus on currently relationships, then early childhood, or emotional conflicts resulting from defense mechanisms. It is not clear whether the psychodynamic aspects are superior to other brief forms of therapy

EFFECTIVENESS OF TREATMENT PLACEBO EFFECT - Study practices - placebo drug vs psychotherapy MOST EFFECTIVE TREATMENTS

EFFECTIVENESS: The only way to know whether a treatment is valid is to conduct empirical research that compares the treatment with a control condition, such as receiving helpful information or having supportive listeners. PLACEBO EFFECT: A placebo is an inert substance. That is, it does not contain any active ingredients. Scientists often study a drug or treatment technique by comparing it with a control condition that consists of a placebo. Any improvement in mental health, attributed to the inert drug or minimal contact, is the placebo effect. STUDY PRACTICES: In studies of treatments for psychological disorders, the experimental group receives the drug or form of psychotherapy, and the control group receives a comparable placebo treatment. Ideally, everything about the two groups is as similar as possible. If the treatment consists of a large blue pill or weekly meetings with a therapist, the placebo group would take a large blue pill or meet weekly with a therapist. For the placebo group, however, the pill is inert (e.g., a "sugar pill"), or the therapist simply talks with rather than teaches the client specific cognitive or behavioral techniques being examined in the experimental condition. For a placebo to reduce symptoms of psychopathology, the participant must believe it will. The person who receives the placebo must not know that, for example, the pills are chemically inert. Indeed, placebos that also produce minor physical reactions that people associate with drug effects-such as having a dry mouth- produce the strongest placebo effects. RESULTS: Brain imaging shows that when patients have positive expectations about a placebo, the neural processes involved in responding to it are similar to the ones activated in response to a biologically active treatment. Thus, for studies to show that a particular treatment is effective, the results of those studies must illustrate that the treatment's effects are stronger than placebo effects. PLACEBO FOR PSYCHOTHERAPY: The use of placebos for psychotherapy is more complicated than for drug research. Part of the complication is that a therapist likely knows if she is providing the treatment or the control procedure. MOST EFFECTIVE TREATMENTS: certain types of treatments are particularly effective for specific types of psychological disorders. Other treatments do not have empirical support. Moreover, the scientific study of treatment indicates that although some psychological disorders are quite easily treated, others are not.

- GROUP THERAPY -

GROUP THERAPY: group therapy offers advantages over individual therapy. It is often used to augment individual psychotherapy COST BENEFIT: it is significantly less expensive than individual treatment. DIVERSITY BENEFIT: Group therapies vary widely in the types of people enrolled, the duration of treatment, the theoretical perspective of the therapist running the group, and the group size-although some practitioners believe around eight people is the ideal number. FOCUS BENEFIT: Many groups are organized around a particular type of problem (e.g., sexual abuse) or around a particular type of person (e.g., those who are transgender). LONGITUDE BENEFIT: Many groups continue over long periods, with some members leaving and others joining the group at various intervals. VARIOUS FORMAT BENEFIT: Depending on the approach favored by the therapist, the group may be highly structured, or may be a more loosely organized forum for discussion. Behavioral and cognitive- behavioral groups are usually highly structured, with specific goals and techniques designed to modify the thought and behavior patterns of group members. This type of group has been effective for disorders such as bulimia and OCD. In contrast, less structured groups usually focus on increasing insight and providing social support. In fact, the social support that group members can provide each other is one of the most beneficial aspects of this type of therapy. Those who are experiencing similar issues in their lives might more easily empathize with the experiences of other group members.

- MEDICATION TREATMENT -

MEDICATION: Drugs have proved effective for treating some psychological disorders. . Their use is based on the assumption that psychological disorders result from deficits or excesses in specific neurotransmitters or because receptors for those neurotransmitters are not functioning properly. Although this assumption is not always supported by evidence, the use of drugs may provide relief from symptoms of psychological disorders. PSYCHOTROPIC MEDICATIONS: Drugs that affect mental processes. They act by changing brain neurochemistry. EXAMPLE: For example, they inhibit action potentials, or they alter synaptic transmission to increase or decrease the action of particular neurotransmitters Most psychotropic medications fall into three categories: anti-anxiety drugs, antidepressants, and antipsychotics. However, sometimes drugs from one category are used to treat a disorder from another category (such as using an anti-anxiety drug to treat depression). COMORBIDITY: One reason for using drugs for different illnesses. For example, a substantial number of people suffering from depression also meet diagnostic criteria for an anxiety disorder. Another reason is that in most cases there is insufficient evidence about why a particular drug is effective in reducing symptoms of a psychological disorder. Other drugs used to treat psychological disorders do not fall into traditional categories. Many of them are used as mood stabilizers (Lithium, Drugs that prevent seizures, called anticonvulsants, can also stabilize moods in bipolar disorder).

- BEHAVIORAL TREATMENTS COGNITIVE TREATMENTS -

Many of the most successful therapies involve trying to change people's behavior, emotion, or thought directly. These therapies are behavioral, cognitive, or a combination of the two. BEHAVIOR THERAPY: behavior is learned and therefore can be unlearned through the use of classical and operant conditioning. Behavior modification is based on operant conditioning. It is a method of helping people to learn desired behaviors and unlearn unwanted behaviors. DESIRED BEHAVIORS; are rewarded (rewards might include small treats or praise). UNDESIRED BEHAVIORS: are ignored or punished (punishments might include groundings, time-outs, or the administration of unpleasant tastes). Many treatment centers use token economies, in which people earn tokens for good behavior and can trade the tokens for rewards or privileges. For a desired behavior to be rewarded, however, the client first must exhibit the behavior. - A therapist can use social skills training to elicit desired behavior. MODELING: the therapist acts out an appropriate behavior. People learn many behaviors by observing others perform them. In modeling, the client is encouraged to imitate the displayed behavior, rehearse it in therapy, and later apply the learned behavior to real-world situations. The successful use of newly acquired social skills is itself rewarding and encourages the continued use of those skills. EXPOSURE COMPONENT: the person is exposed repeatedly to the anxiety- producing stimulus or situation. The theory behind exposure is based on classical conditioning. By confronting feared stimuli in the absence of negative consequences, the person learns new, nonthreatening associations Exposure therapy is the most effective treatment for any psychological disorder that involves anxiety or fear, including obsessive-compulsive disorder COGNITIVE THERAPY: distorted thoughts can produce maladaptive behaviors and emotions. Treatment strategies that modify these thought patterns should eliminate the maladaptive behaviors and emotions. COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING: g: a clinician seeks to help a person recognize maladaptive thought patterns and replace them with ways of viewing the world that are more in tune with reality. RATIONAL-EMOTIVE THERAPY: the therapist acts as a teacher, explaining the client's errors in thinking and demonstrating more-adaptive ways to think and behave. In these therapies, maladaptive behavior is assumed to result from individual belief systems and ways of thinking rather than from objective conditions. By contrast, INTERPERSONAL THERAPY: focuses on circumstances-namely, relationships the client attempts to avoid. MINDFULNESS-BASED COGNITIVE THERAPY: helps prevent relapse of psychological disorders following treatment. FOR EXAMPLE: people who recover from depression continue to be vulnerable to faulty thinking when they experience negative moods. This therapy has two goals: 1) to help clients become more aware of their negative thoughts and feelings at times when they are vulnerable 2) to help them learn to disengage from ruminative thinking through meditation. COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL THERAPY (CBT): incorporates techniques from cognitive therapy and behavior therapy. It tries to correct the client's faulty cognitions and to train the client to engage in new behaviors. FOR EXAMPLE: Suppose the client has social anxiety disorder-a fear of being viewed negatively by others. The therapist will encourage the client to examine other people's reactions to the client. The aim is to help the client understand how his appraisals of other people's reactions might be inaccurate. At the same time, the therapist will teach the client social skills. It is one of the most effective forms of psychotherapy for many types of psychological disorders, especially anxiety disorders and depressive disorders

UNWANTED THOUGHTS - OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD) BEST TREATMENT (Traditional anti-anxiety drugs are completely ineffective) - SSRI (clomipramine) - CBT* (exposure and response prevention) - CBT + drugs can be used* EXPLORATORY TREATMENT: - deep brain stimulation

OCD: Involves frequent intrusive thoughts and compulsive actions. Obsessions are recurrent, intrusive, and unwanted thoughts or ideas or mental images that increase anxiety. They often include fear of contamination, of accidents, or of one's own aggression. The individual typically attempts to ignore or suppress such thoughts but sometimes engages in particular behaviors to neutralize his or her obsession. The most common compulsive behaviors are cleaning, checking, and counting. EXAMPLE: The compulsive behavior or mental act, such as counting, is aimed at preventing or reducing anxiety or preventing something dreadful from happening. Those with OCD anticipate catastrophe and loss of control. However, as opposed to those who suffer from anxiety disorders-who fear what might happen to them- those with OCD fear what they might do or might have done. BEST TREATMENT: SSRI (clomipramine): , a potent serotonin reuptake inhibitor. It is not a true SSRI, since it blocks reuptake of other neurotransmitters as well, but its strong enhancement of the effects of Seretonin appears to make it effective for OCD. CBT (exposure and response prevention): The person is directly exposed to the stimuli that trigger compulsive behavior but is prevented from engaging in the behavior. This treatment derives from the theory that a particular stimulus triggers anxiety and that performing the compulsive behavior reduces the anxiety. EXAMPLE: In exposure and response-prevention therapy, the person would be required to touch a doorknob and then would be instructed not to wash her hands afterward. The goal is to break the conditioned link between a particular stimulus and a compulsive behavior Some cognitive therapies are also useful for OCD, such as helping the client recognize that most people occasionally experience unwanted thoughts and compulsions. There is evidence that, at a minimum, adding CBT to SSRI treatment may improve outcomes. EXPLORATORY TREATMENT: DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION: may be an effective treatment for those with OCD who have not found relief from CBT or medications. DBS electrodes are placed into the caudate, an area of the brain that is abnormal among people with OCD. DBS leads to a clinically significant reduction of symptoms and increased daily functioning in about two-thirds of those receiving treatment. this method remains exploratory.

- TREATMENT OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY -

Psychologists use two basic categories of techniques to treat psychological disorders: psychological and biological. Either type of treatment may be used alone, or they may be used in combination. PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENT/PSYCHOTHERAPY: involve interactions between practitioner and client. These interactions are aimed at helping the person understand her symptoms and problems and providing solutions for them. Some psychological disorders are characterized by apathy or indifference and individuals may not be interested in being treated. BIOLOGICAL THERAPIES: reflect medical approaches to disease (what is wrong with the body) and to illness (what a person feels as a result). these therapies are based on the notion that psychological disorders result from abnormalities in neural and bodily processes. EXAMPLE: the patient might be experiencing an imbalance in a specific neurotransmitter or a malfunction in a particular brain region. Biological treatments range from drugs to electrical stimulation of brain regions to surgical intervention. PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY: the use of medications that affect brain or body functions. These forms of treatment can be particularly effective for some disorders, at least on a short-term basis. Long-term success may require the person to continue treatment. Sometimes, indefinitely. RELATION OF THEORY TO TREATMENT: Although researchers are continually gaining better understandings ofthe causes of particular disorders, these understandings do not always lead to further insights into how best to treat the disorders EXAMPLE: autism spectrum disorder is clearly caused by biological factors, but this knowledge has not led to any significant advances in therapies for the disorder. In fact, the best available treatment for autism spectrum disorder is based on behavioral, not biological, principles. Regardless of the treatment provider's theoretical perspective, psychotherapy is generally aimed at changing patterns of thought, emotion, or behavior. The ways in which such changes are brought about can differ dramatically.

- CONTEXT OF THERAPY -

SEEKING TREATMENT: Some people seek treatment because symptoms, possibly of a psychological disorder, are interfering with their lives. some people are sent to treatment because they behave in ways that cause others significant distress, such as an addict whose behavior causes conflict for his family. SIMILAR FACTORS AMONG ALL THERAPY: the relationship between the therapist and the client. A good relationship can foster an expectation of receiving help.

Evidence that vaccines do not cause ASD

We need to be especially vigilant for lurking third variables that might explain apparent correlations between unrelated variables. A British physician published a study claiming to find a connection, in 12 children, between receiving vaccinations to prevent measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) and developing autism. Many people panicked. Unfortunately, the Wakefield study was fraudulent. A thorough review of these studies found no evidence of any link between MMR vaccinations and autism As a consequence of the decline in childhood immunizations, there has been an increase in outbreaks of diseases that had become quite rare because of successful vaccine programs. PROOF: Cases of ASD have increased even though thimerosal is no longer used in vaccines and the number of children being immunized has dropped. These facts would indicate that vaccination and ASD are negatively correlated!

- HUMANISTIC THERAPY-

the humanistic approach to personality emphasizes personal experience and the individual's belief systems. HUMANISTIC THERAPY: is to treat the person as a whole, not as a collection of behaviors or a repository of repressed thoughts. CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY: An empathic approach to therapy; encourages people to fulfill their individual potentials for personal growth through greater self- understanding. A key ingredient of client-centered therapy is to create a safe and comforting setting for clients to access their true feelings. Therapists strive to be genuine and empathic, to take the client's perspective, and to accept the client through unconditional positive regard. Instead of directing the client's behavior or passing judgment on the client's actions or thoughts, the therapist helps the client focus on her subjective experience. REFLECTIVE LISTENING: the therapist repeats the client's concerns to help the person clarify her feelings. MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING: uses a client-centered approach over a very short period (such as one or two interviews). This treatment addresses the client's ambivalence about problematic behaviors, as when a drug addict enjoys using drugs but recognizes the problems created by drug use. The treatment helps clients identify discrepancies between their current state and "where they would like to be" in their lives. By doing so, the therapist can spark the client's motivation for change.