Psych Final

interactionist explanation of language

Although infants are born with an innate ability to acquire language, social interactions play a crucial role in language Parents speak slowly, enunciate clearly, use simpler sentences

japanese distinguishing speech sounds study

American adults and japanese infants can distinguish between l and r but japanese aduults cannot Made tape of voice saying lalala or rarara When infant sucked, pacifier activated lalala tape Kept sucking because excited eventually excitement died down Switched tape to rarara adn infants began sucking again

polygenic

Arising from the interaction of multiple genes that combine to create the symptoms observed in those with this disorder

engineers vs lawyers representative heuristic study

Asked to look at descritions of interviews of 70 engineers and 30 lawyers People didn't use fact that more than twice as many engineers as lawyers Thought neutral description were equally likely when more likely to be engineers Ignore info about base rate Existing probability of an event Base judgment on similarities to categories

repressive coping

Avoiding situations or thoughts that are reminders of a stressor and maintaining an artifically positive viewpoint Good at ignoring problems Many victims of rape avoid place where rape occurred and may move houses

pros and cons of beauty

Beautiful people have more sex, more friends, and more fun, earn 10% more money, better social skills because more friends Mothers more affectionate and playful when their children are attractive But can sometimes lead others to feel threatened

what is beauty

Beauty=youth Larger eyes Fuller lips Smooth, tight skin beauty=health Absence of deformities Clear eyes Unblemished skin Symmetric face Average face

primary caregiver

Becomes emotional center of universe Feel secure Leave: feel insecure and try to diminish the distance

2 years language

Begin to form two-words sentences such as more milk Telegraphic speech

3 years language

Begin to generate complete sentences with function words Give me the ball Increase in complxity

how to build a sentence

Begin with deep structure Meaning of sentene Create a surface structure to convey meaning How sentence is worded After deep structure extracted, surface often forgotten

cooperation

Behavior by two or more individuals that leads to mutual benefit Can get more resources than any one could get alone Risk and Trust Trustworthiness is single trait they people most want to be around

reciprocal altruism

Behavior that benefits another with the expectations that those benefits will be returned in the future Not altruistic: just cooperation extended over time

altruism

Behavior that benefits another without benefiting oneself Are we ever truly altruistic? Often have hidden benefits

grossly disorganized behavior

Behavior that is inappropriate for the situation aor ineffective in attaining goals, foten with specific motor disturbances Migh texhibit constant hildlike silliness, improper sexual behavior (masturbating in public), disheveled appearance, loud soting or swearing, strage mobements, riid posturing, odd mannerisms, bizarrre grimacing, or hyperactivity Catatonic behavior

aggression

Behavior with the purpose of harming another Take the resouces and beat up anybody who tries to stop you

stra(n)ge situation

Behavioral test used to determine a child's attachment style Bring child and primary caregiver to lab then stage series of episodes including ones where PC leaves room and then returns

sources of self esteem

Being accepted and valued by significant others or appearance, athletics, or scholastics Important factor is whom people choose for comparison (olympic medal study) If actual self is seen as falling short of the ideal self, people tend to feel sad or dejected What kinds of domains we consider most important in our self-concept One might be who well they do in school wheras another's might be attractiveness Boost when recieve a or complimented on hairstyle

object permenance

Belief that objects exist even when they are not visible In first few months of life, infants act as though objects stop existing the moment they are out of sight (Piaget) Seem to know that objects continue to exist even when out of sight Piaget underestimated them

intellectually disabled

Below 85 Mild: 50-69 moderate : 35-49 Severe: 20-34 Profound: <20 More likely to be male 70% are male Down Syndrome fetal alcohol syndrome

benefits of high self esteem

Benefits of hgih self-esteem are less striking and all-ecnompassing but still significant Live happier and healthier lives Cope bette with stress More likely to persist at difficult tasks Benefits focus on status, belonging, and security

cognitive model of depression

Biases in how info is attended to , roessed and remembered lead to and maintain depression

puberty

Bodily changes associated with sexual maturity Changes involve primary sex characteristics changes in secondary sex characteristics changes in brain

primary sex characteristics

Bodily structures that are directly involved in reproduction Menstruation, enlargement of penis and ejaculation

secondary sex characteristics

Bodily structures that change dramatically with sexual maturity but are not directly involved in reproduction Enlargement of breasts, underarm hair, lowering voice

resistance phase

Body adapts to high state of arousal as it tries to cope with stressor Shuts down unnecessary processes Digestion, growth, sex drive, menstruation, testosterone and sperm production

alarm phase

Body rapidly mobilizes its resources to respond to threat Body calls on its stored fat and muscle Fight or flight equivalent

why do we need committed relationships for babies

Born before we are fully developed Need more care than one parent can provide Babies who need more than one parent also have parents with committed relationships

genes and environment on intelligence

Both influence intelligence Not two separate ingredients that are somehow blended together Interact in complex ways that make distinction murky Genes can exert some of most powerful influences not by changing structure of brain but by changing person's enviornment Library dust

development of sexual orientation

Boys: 6-18 Girls: 11-26

situational management

Changing your life situation as a way of reducing the impact of stress on your mind and body Seeking out social support, relgious or spiritual practice, adding humor to life

temperaments

Characteristic patterns of emotional reactivity

rapid cycling bipolar disorder

Characterized by at least 4 mood episodes every year Particularly difficult to treat More common in women Sometimes precipitated by takin certain kinds of antidepressent drugs

people with depression have developed negative schema

Characterized by biases in: Interprestations of information A tendency to interpret neutral info negatively Attention Trouble disengaging from negative info Memory Better recall of negative info Might view comments negatively/ they're being sarcastic and have better memory Sure i did well on english paper but remember that math test last month?

phobic disorders

Characterized by marked, persistent, and excessive fear and avoidance of psecific objects, activities, or situations Recognizes that the fear is irrational but cannot prevent it from interfering with everyday function Specific phobia Social phobia prepardness theory

most common OCDS

Chekcing Ordering Moral concerns Contamination

attachment style effects

Chidren who were securely attached as infants do better than children who weren't Psychological well-being Academic achievement Quality of their relationshiops Argument that they are correlated only because cause by same environment

tobacco effect on fetus

Children are smaller and more liekly to have attentional and perceptual proplems Even secondhand smoke as same effects Embryo more vulnerable than fetus but CNS remain vulnerable throughout entire prenatal period

immune system

Compelx response system that protects the body from bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances Includes lymphocytes Produce antibodies that fight infection Are WBC Include T cells and B cells

why human lanugage is different

Complex structure Wide range of ideas Infitie number os sentences Use words to refer to intangible things Unicorn Democracy Use langugae to name, categorize,and describe things to ourselves when we think Influences how knowledge is organized in brains

autism spectrum disorder

Condition beginning in early childhood in which a person shows persistent communication deficits as well as restricted and repititive patterns of behaviors, interests, or activities affects boys 4:1 Currently viewed as a heterogeneous set of traits that cluster together in some families Hertiability estimates are as high as 90% Some have unique strengths Remember detaisl or master symbol systems such as math or music Impaired capacity for empathizing combined with a superior ability for systematizing Understanding the rules that organize the structure and function of objects Validated by brain imaging studies

postpartum depression

Depression following childbirth Changing hormone balances

secondary appraisal

Determining whether the stressor is something you can handle or not Whether you have control over the event Body responds differently depdending on whether the stressor is a threat or a challenge

oedipus conflict

Developmental experience in whicha child's conflicting feelings toward opposite-sex parent are usually resolved by identifying with the same-sex parent

telegraphic speech

Devoid of function morphemes and consist monstly of content words Tend to be grammatical Ordered in manner consistent with syntactical ruels of langugae

why psychologists disregard freud

Did not use scientific method Much of what he said about psychology is likely wrong Made claims that you couldn't think of evidence against them Unfalsifiable Weird theories

difference between preooperational and concrete observational stages experiment

Difference between two stages Showed children a row of cups and asked the to place an egg in each Preoperational children Readily agreed that there were just as may eggs as there were cups Removed eggs adn psread them out in a long line that extended beyond row of cups Claimed that there were now more eggs than cups Concrete operational Reported number of eggs do not change Understood that quantity is a property of a set of concrete objects that does not change when an operation such as spreading out alters appearance conservation

evolution and personality

Differences in personality reflect alternative adaptions that species have evolved to deal with

summary of evolution of sex differences

Differences in sex cells → Differences in typical parental investment→ Differences in the sorts of physiological and psychological mechanisms that evolve

children with autism

Difficulty communicating with other people and making friends Because have trouble acquiring a theory of mind Difficulty understanding the inner lives of other people Do not understand peopel have false beliefs Hae trouble understanding belief-based emotions such as embarrassment and shame

alphasia

Difficulty in producing or comprehending langugae Damage to these regions (Brocas and wernickes)

personal constructs

Dimensions people use in making sense of their experiences Personal constructs of a clown: funny or terrifying Different personal constructs (construals) are the key to personality differences Different construals lead people to engage in different behaviors

nonsuicidal self injury

Direct, deliberate destruction of body tissue in the absence of any intent to die Behavior appears to be on the rise over the past few decades 15-20% of adolescents and 3-6% of adults at some point in their lives Even rates between males and females and different races Like suicidal behavior nonexistent in childhood, increases during adolescence and then decreases in adulthood Strong emotional and physiological responses to negative events Some use it to communicate distress or elicit help from others

cognitive enhancers

Drugs that produce improvements in the psychological processes that underlie intelligent behavior Stimulants such as Ritalin an dAdderall can enhance cognitive performance Improve ability to focus attention, manipulate info in working memory, and control responses

human imprinting

Ducks imprinting on first moving object they see Humans cannot waddle or cling but instead smile and cry Crie, gurgles, coos, makes eye contact, or smiles adults move toward infant In first 6 months keep mental tally of who responds most often and most promptly to their signals Target primary caregiver

what determine's caregivers' responsiveness

Due to differences in ability to read their infant's emoional states Highly sensitive: secure

talking cure

During Treatment, symptoms would start disappearing when she would start speaking about them anna

Aging

Early 20s Peak years for health, stamina, vigor, prowess Most of cognitive abilities are at their sharpest Begins to decline 26-30 Muscles replaced y fat, skin become less elastic, hair will thin, bones will weaken, sensory abilities less acute, brain cells die faster, will become infertile, softer erections As brain ages, prefrontal cortex and subcortical connections will deteriorate more quickly than other aresas of brain Decline on cognitive tasks that require effort or strategy Memory will worsen As brain ages, becomes de-differentiated Regions in visual cortex that specialize in face adn scene perception in younger people are much less specialized in older people Compensate for declining abilities of each individual neural structure by having each structure help out

mind as hydraulic

Ego trying hard to suppress id and keep it in unconscious Some thoughts too disturbing so gives bullshit excuse "Oh yeah save the world" "You can't know that it's really because you want to fck your mom" No way to tell/disprove

motor development

Emergence of the ability to execute phsical actions Like reaching, grasping, crawling, walking Born with small set of reflexes cephalocaudal rule proximaldistal rule

cognitive development

Emergence of the ability to think and understand

self regulation

Exercise of voluntary control over the self to ring the self into lines with preferred standards Putting off immediate gratification for longer-term gains Requires inner strength/willpower Only certain amount People who spent their self-control on eating radishes and not cookies were more likely to give up on a hard task

aerobic exercise

Exercise tha inceases HR and oxygen intake for a sustained period Associated with psychological well-being Promotes stress relief and happiness Causes for positive effects unclear Maybe increased productionof neurotransmitters such as serotonin which can have a positive effect on mood Or from increases in production of endorphins Keeps you healthy in the future Reduce risk of chronic illness

oral stage

Experience centers on the pleasures and frustrations associated with the mouth, sucking, and being fed First year and a half of life Deprived of pleasurable feeding or feed too much Focused on issues relate to fullness and emptiness and what they can "take in" from others

passionate love

Experience involving feelings of euphoria, intimacy, and intense sexual attraction Passionate love brings people together Rapid onset, reaches peak quickly, begins to diminsih f=within just a few months

infants attentive to social stimuli

Follow regular face more than circle or mesed up face Mimic facial expressions Within first hour of life Mimic speech sounds Within first 12 weeks

moral development

From birth can make distinction of pain and pleasre well Begin to notice their pleasures and other people's pain Learn how to balance their needs and the needs around them Do this in part by developing distinction between right and wrong

why we are born so helpless/underdeveloped brains

Full head could neve pass through birth canal Arrive with brains that do much of their developign within enironments in which they ultimately must function Why we are so adaptable

social environment can encourage people to do good thigns

Help more when in good mood Cinnabon experiment Stranger asking for change for $1 60% helped in front of cinnabon 20% helped in front of Banana Republic

self-actualizing tendency

Human motive toward realizing our inner potential Pursuit of knowledge, expression of one's creativity, quest for spiritual enlightenment, desire to give to society Maslow hierarchy of needs Only when basic needs are satisfied can one move up to self-actualization

belonging and self esteem

Humans who managed to survive were those able to maintain good relations Belonging to groups is adaptive Self esteem could be sociometer Inner gauge of how much person feels included Seek higer self-esteem becaus have evolved to seek belonginess in families and cultures Means we are accepted

social exchange

Hypothesis that people remain in relationships only as long as they perceie a favorable ratio of costs to benefits 3 exceptions: comparison level equity length of relationshiop

divorce

50% of couples get divorced Social Exchange

social influence

Ability to control another person's behavior 3 different motives to control people: hedonic motive approval motiv accuracy motive

intelligence

Ability to direct one's thinking, adapt to one's circumstances, and learn from one's experiences

creative intelligence

Ability to generate solutions that other people do not

analytic intelligence

Ability to identify and define problems and to find strategies for solving them Only intelligence measured by intelligence tests

depression and immune system

All sickness machinery runs at ful speed Characeteristics of infection, including high levels of cytokines circulating in the blood

freud and where adults get personality from

The ego followed by the suerego emerge as a way for the child to deal with the impulses of the id Dynamic unconscious explains personality differences Developments before 5 influence entire adult personality

beginning school language

Vocab of 10,000 words not unusual

immune response

WBC are activated that eat microbes and release cytokines Proteins that circulate through the body and communicate among the other WBC and communicate the sickness response to the brain Artificial administration of cytokines can create sickness response Activate vagus nerve and tell everyone they're sick

overconfidence

We are overly generous in our predictions of our own performance Taking home lots of homework over break We are overconfident in our estimates of how correct we are in our own judgments, as well as in our own abilities dunning kruger effect Overestimate Our contribution When asking spouses to estimate the percentage of housework they contribue, percentages add up to more than 100%

exemplar theory

We make category judgments by comparing a new instnace with stored memories for other instnaces of the cateogry See four legged animal that might be wolf or coyote but reminds you of cousin's german shepherd Cateogorize as dog because very similar to other dogs you'be encountered before Better job than prototype theory in accounting for certain aspets of categorization Recall what specific dogs look like

Prolonged exposure technique

Treatment that helps victims to confront and think about what happened Relive traumatic event by recording verbal account and listening to the recording daily

type of cateogry-specific deficit

Type of category-specific deficit suffered depends on where brain is damamged Usually result when person has stroke or other trauma to areas in LH of cerebral cortex Damage to front part of left temporal lobe Difficulty identifying humans Damage to lower left temporal lobe Dificul identifying animals Damage to region where temporal lobe meets occipital and aprietal lobes Impairs ability to retrieve names of tools

language development vs cognitive development

Typically unfolds as sequene of steps in which one milestone is acheived before mobing on to the next Could result from general cognitive developmet that might be necessary before they have capacity to put together simple sentence Or Orderly progression might depend on experience with a specific lanugage

defense mechanisms

Unconscious coping mechanisms that reduce anxiety generated by threats from unacceptable impulses Help overcome anxiety and engage effectiely with outside world

broca's aphasia

Understnad langaugage relatively well Increasing comprehension difficulty as grammatical structures get more complex Real struggle is with speech production Speak in short, staccato pharses Usually consist of content morphemes Function morphemes missing and grammatical structure impaired

cognitive dissonance

Unpelasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs Naturally try to alleviate it by restoring consistency to actions, attitudes, and beliefs Agree to install sign Frats use hazing to build loyalty Church requires monetary sacrifices When small inconsistencies are justified by large consistencies, cognitive dissonance is reduced Lying to friend to protect feelings Selective Avoidance

norm of reciprocity

Unwritten rule that people should benefit those who have benefited them Return favors Got christmas cards back from random strangers

causes of burnout

Using your job to give meaning to you life Some emotionally stressful jobs, lead to burnout no matter how they are approached and active efforts to overcome the stress before burnout occurs are important Stress management techniques

Different children are born with different temperaments

Very young children vary in tendency toward fearfulness, irritability, activity, positive affect, other emotional traits Infants who react fearfully to novel stimuli tend to be more subdued, less social ad less positive at 4 years Infants with highly reactive limbic system thrash and cry when shown new toy or person Avoid novel people, objects, and situations Adults who are quiet, cautious, and shy Temperament plays role in determining his or her attachment style

social-cognitive approach

Views personality in terms of how the preson thinks about the situations encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them Current situation and leraning history are key determinants of behavior How personality and situation interact to cause behavior, how personality contributes to the way people construct situations in their own minds, and how peol'es goals and expecancies influence their responses to situations

selective avoidance

We selectively avoid info that we know might conflict with our own cherished beliefs Avoid info about how bad smoking is or quit smoking Political beliefs affect which website/channel you watch If you think you're a morally good person, ignore info that claims otherwise

spotlight effect

We think people notice us more than they do Participants wear embarrassing t-shirt Poll entire class "People don't give a shit about you nearly as much you think" Feel the embarrassment so interpret anybody's glance

algorithm

Well-defined sequence of procedures or rules that guarantees a solution to a problem Step by step directions which tells you how to make a power poitn Trying to remember what you did last time is heuristic

WEIRD cultures

Western Educated Industrialized Rich Democratic

individualistic cultures

Western/US uniqueness

women aggression

Women aggression tends to be more premediated than impulsive and likely to be focused on attaining or protecting a resource than status Much less likely to aggress unprovoked Only slightly less likely to aggress when provoked More likely than men to aggress by causing social harm Rumors, ostracizing others

stress

The physical and psychological response to internal or external stressors

10-12 months language

Ifants begin to utter/sign first words

stereotypes can be overused

Inherent variability of human categories makes steretypes much less useful than they seem General stereotypes may not apply for individuals of groups A girl may run faster than a boy Act of categorizing people can cause us to underestimate the variability within those cateogires and overestimate the variability between them

door in the face technique

Influence strategy that involves getting someone to deny an initial request Ask someone for something more valuable than you really want, they refuse, ask for what you really want Maze runner

humanistic-existential approach

Integrates these two insights with a focus on how personality can become optimal

suicide

Intentional self-inlicted death 10th leading cause of death in US and 2nd leading cause of death among people 15 to 24 years old 80% of suicides occur among men and whites (90%)

primary appraisal

Interpretation of a stimulus as stressful or not

introverts and brain

Introversion prefer quiet activities because cortex is very easily stimulated to a point higher than optimal alertness Salivate more when lemon juice placed on tounges React more negatively to shocks or loud noises Better at tasks that requrie concentration in tranquil contexts

foot in the door technique

Involves making a small request and then following it with a larger request drive safe sign

Rational Coping

Invovles facing the stressor and working to overcome it Opposite of repressive coping Three steps: Acceptance Coming to realize that the stressor exists and cannot be wished away Exposure Attending to the stressor adn thinking about it Understanding Owrking to find the meaning of the stressor in your life Difficult if trauma is intense Prolonged exposure technique

reframing

Invovles finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat Example Anxiety of public speaking Refram by shifting from thinking of an audience evaluating you to thinking of yourself evaluating them Stress inoculation training

situational attraction

Likelihood of meeting a potential partner naturally increase with proximity If going to be with you a lot, would be easier if you like them so go out of your way to notice their good qualities and ignore their bad ones Mere exposure effect

girls who reach puberty earlier

Likely to experience range of negative consequences Distress, depression ,delinquency, disease Don't have as much time as their peers do to develop the skills to cope with adolescence But because look so mature, expected to act like adults Attract attention of older men No difference in boys who reach it too early

helplessness theory

Maintains that individuals who are prone to depression automatically attribute negative experiences to causes that are internal (their own fault), stable (unlikely to change), and global (widespread) Bad grade on math test viewed as sign of low intelligence that will never hange and that will lead to failure in all his or her future endeavors

linguistic relativity hypothesis

Maintains that language shapes the nature of thought Inuits have many different names for "snow" Believed they perceive and think about snow differently Whorf

rational choice theory

Make devisions by determining how likely something is to happen, judging the alue of the outcome, and then multiplying the two If we are rational and free to make own choices

representative heuristic

Making a probability judgment by comparing an object or event to a prototype of the object or event Greater the similarity, the more likely they were judged to be members of that category despite the existence of much more useful base rates stereotypes

ideal body shape

Male bodies most attractive when approximate an inverted triangle Broad shoulders with narrow waist and hips Female bodies most attractive when approximate an hourglass Broad shoulders and hips with a narrow waist Testosterone caused triangles Estrogen causes hourglasses Testosterone high levels tend to be socially dominant Estrogen high tend to be fertile and have more offspring

intrasexual selection

Males compete with each other directly and males compete for the attention of females Males are bigger, louder, more colorful, engage in extravagant displays and rituals, and are more aggressive than females Overtime population will have more of these traits

4-5 years language

Many aspects of langugae acquisition process are complete As go on, added appreciateion of subtler commmunicative uses of language like humor, sarcsm, or irony

comorbidity

Most of those with a mental disorder report comborbidity Co-occurence of two or more disorders in a single individual

causes of self concept

Most often arrive at self-concepts through interacting with others Young children recieve feedback from parents, teachers, friends , siblings about their characteristics which helps them form an idea of who they are Over life become less and less impressed with what others have to say about us Likely to defend our self-concept against anyone whose view of us departs from our own

stereotypes can be innaccurate

Most people just listen to other's too closely Can also be result of direct experience Experiment Group a bigger than group b Each group messed up ⅓ of the time Thought group b messed up more than group a because rare to mess up and rare to be in group b Why majority groups tend to overestimate the number of crimes committed by members of minority groups

men more aggressive than women

Most societies encourage this Aggression strongly correlated with testosterone Violent criminals have more than nonviolent criminals Does not cause aggression but makes people feel powerful and confident in ability to prevail Makes people more sensitive to provocation and less sensitive to signs of retaliation Men with high self-esteem most prone to aggression

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Most widely used modern intelligence test Measures intelligence by asking respondents to answer questions and solve problems Required to see similarities and differences between ideas and objects, to draw inferences from evidence To work out and apply rules To remember andmanipulate material Doesn't require writing words

covariation model

Must consider consistency, consensuality, and distinctiveness of the action Is the behavior frequent, are other people doing the behavior, does he do other things like this behavior

manic phase

Must last at least 1 week Mood can be elevated, expansive, or irritable Grandiosity, deceased need for sleep, talkativeness, racing thoughs, distratibility, reckless behavior, hallucinations, delusions Can be misdiagonsed as schizophrenia

prepardness theory

People are instincitvely predisposed toward certain fears Can be quickly conditioned to be afraid of snakes and spiders but not flowers or toy rabbits Particularly likely to form for objects that evolution hs predisposed us to avoid Greater concordance rates for identical twins than fraternal Heriditary

self-serving bias

People tend to take credit for their successes but downplay responsibility for their failures Maintain reasonably good view of themselves using this Over half of people claim they are etter than average Professors, drivers Less at risk for depression, anxiety, and related health problems

conjunction fallacy

People think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event Linda is bank teller and involved in feminist movement Always more probable that any one set of affais is true than a set of events simultaneously With more and more pieces of info, people think there's a higher probability that all are true But actually diminishes rapidly

People differ in degree to which they attend to and report bodily symptoms

People who report many physical symptoms: Tend to be negative Anxious, depressed, under stress Do they truly have a lot of problems or just complainers? fMRI scans to compare severity of reported sensation of pain with dgree of activation in brain areas usually associated with pain response Can report accurately on the extent to which they experience pain People who underreport symptoms or ignore or deny possibility they are sick Can delay search for treatment

panic disorder

People who suffer panic attacks are frequently overwhelmed by such intense fears and by powerful physical symptoms of anxiety in the complete absence of actual danger Characterized by the sudden occurence of multiple psychological and physiological symptoms that conribute to a feeling of stark terror Symptoms only last a few minutes Shortness of breath, heart papitations, sweating, dizziness, depersonalization (feeling of being detached from one's body), derealization (feeling that teh external world is strange or unreal), and a fear that one is going crazy or about to die More prevalent in women Panic attacks typically occur in period of intense stress Single attack doesn't count as disorder Needs to be a fear of having another attack People who experience panic attacks may be hypersensitive to physiological signs of anxiety High in sensitivity: higher reisk for panic attacks

costs of low self esteem

People with low self esteem more likely to: Perceive rejection in ambiguous feedback Developing eating disorders

belief bias

People's judgments about whether to accept conclusions depend more on how believable the conclusions are than on whether the arguments are logically valid

sexual behavior in teens

Percentage of american teens who have had sex has been steadily declining but still more than ⅓ Teenager's interest in sex typically surpasses their knowledge about it

older adults negative emotions

Perform much worse when asked to remember mean faces but only slightly worse when asked to remember nice faces Much more amygdala activation when see pleasant than unpleasant pictures Don't attend to info that doesn't make them happy Experience fewer negative emotions More accepting of negative emotions when they feel them Choose to spend time with family and close friends rather than large circle of acquaintances

Sensorimotor stage

Period of development that begins at birth and lasts through infancy Using abilities to sense world and their ability to move to acquire info about the world begin to construct schemas object permenance

adolescence

Period of development that begins with the onset of sexual maturity (11-14) and lasts until the beginning of adulthood (18 to 21) Transition is sudden and clearly marked Gain 40 lbs and grow 10 inches Beginning of this growth spurt signals onset of puberty

childhood

Period that begins at 18 to 24 months and lasts until about 11 to 14 years Enter in preoperational stage Exit at concrete operational stage

embryonic stage

Period that lasts from 2nd week to 8th week Embryo continues to divide and its cells begin to differentiate 1 inch long, beating heart, arms and legs XY: begin to produces testosterone Masculinizes their reproductive organs

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Persistent pattern of severe problems with inattention and/or hyperactivity or impulsiveness that cause significant impairment in functioning Sustained attention, organization, memory , folowoing instructions Persistent difficulties with remaining still, watiing fro a turn, interrupting others Must be present before age of 12 in order to meet criteria for this disorder Often struggle in school Many instances in which disorder persists into adulthood Adutls with disorder are more likely to be male, divorced, and unemplyed, and di not receive any treatment for their ADHD

somatic symptom disorders

Person with at least one bodily symptom displays significant health-related anxiety, expresses disproportionate concerns bout their symptoms, and devotes excessive time and energy to their symptoms or health concerns

outcome expectancies

Person's assumptions about the likely consequences of a future behavior Translate goals into behavior through these Learned through direct experience and through observing other people's action and consequeces Outcome expectancies combine with person's goals to produce the person's characteristic style of behavior

self concept

Person's explicit knowledge of his or her own behaviors, traits, and other personal characteristics Organized body of knowledge that develops from social experiences and has a profound effect on a person's behavior throughout life

locus of control

Person's tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environent internal and external

stereotyping

Process by which people draw inferences about others based on their knowledge of the categories to which others belong Doesn't have to have negative connotation (Give kids candy instead of cigarettes)

means end analysis

Process of searching for the means or steps to redue the differences between the current situation and desired goal Usually took the following steps: Analyze goal state Analyze current stae List differences between states Reduce list of differences by: Direct means Generating a subgoal Finding a similar problem that has a known solution

heuristic persuasion

Processs by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to habit or emotion

neuroanatomy and schizophrenia

Progressive tissue loss beginning in parietal lobe and eventually encompassing much of the brain Dramatic loss of gray matter Enlargement of ventricles Hollow areas filled with cerebrospinal fluid, lying deep within core of brain Loss of brain tissue mass that could arise from an anomaly in prenatal development Only found in a minority of cases Some individuals who don't have schizophrenia show evidence of enlarged ventricles Could be caused by long-term use of some types of antipsychotic me

Rorschach Inkblot TEst

Projective technique in which respondents inner thoughts and feelings are believed to be revealed by analysis of their responses to a set of unstructred inkblots If see somethign different than most people, experience different thoughts

thematic aperception test

Projective technique in which respondents' underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world are believed to be revealed through analysis of the stories they make up about ambiguous pictures of people; Show picture and ask questions about it Respondent thought to identify with main characters and to project his or her view of others and the world onto the other details in the drawing Tend to elicit a consistent set of themes success/failure, competition/jealously, coflict, feelings about relationships, aggression, sexuality

pleasure principle

Psychic force that motivates the tendency to seek immediate gratification of an impulse if it feels good keep doing it

prototype theory

Psychological categories are best described as organized around a prototype The best of most typical member of a category Posses most or all of the most characteristic features of the category Bird would be like a sparrow In anarctica would be like a penguin People make category udgments by comparing new instances to the category's prototpye

antisocial personality disorder and brain

Psychopaths who are shown negative emotional words such as hate or corpse exhibit less actiity in the amygdala and hippocampus Involves in process of fear ocnditoning Less sensitive fear

preoperational stage

Stage of cognitive development that begins at about 2 years and ends at about 6 years, Children develop a preliminary understanding of the physical world centration reversibility egocentricism Do not fully grasp the fact that they have minds and that these minds contain mental representations of the owrld

concrete operational stage

Stage of cognitive development ~6 to ~11 years Children learn how actions or operations can transform the concrete objects of the physical world understnad the world is not always what it seems

adulthood

Stage of development that begins 18-21 years and ends at death Marriage and parenthood are two of the most significant aspects of adult life

infancy

Stage of development that begins at birth and lasts between 18 and 24 months

theory based approach

Starting with a braod survey of human abilities and then looking to see which of these abilities intelligence tets measures Three types of intelligence practical analytic creative

ego

The component of personality developed through contact with the external world, that enables us to deal with life's practical demands mediator between id and superego Operates according to reality principle Develops out of the id in infancy Understands reality and logic keeps id in check

How do we know whether to make a dispositional or situational attribution?

covariation model correspondence bias

Difficult to define abilities between general and specific

data based approach theory based approach

having children

do not increase parent's happiness, may even decrease it Parents have lower marital satisfaction than nonparents More children they have, less satisfaction they have Plummets when in diapers and again in adolescence Only return s to premarital elvels when kids leave home Negative impact of parenthood is stronger for women than men Restrictions of freedom Role conflicts

physical reactinons to stress

fight or flight response General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

DSM critiques

finding s from scientific research on biopsychosocial factors that appear to cause pschopathology do not mapneatly onto individual DSM diagnoses

intelligence increases over generations

flynn effect Impored nutrition, schooling, parenting? Least intelligent people being left out of mating game? Most believe industrial and technological revolutions have changed the nature of daily living such that people now spedn more and more time solving abstract problems that intelligence tests include Daily life is more like an IQ test

testing situations may be biased

frican American stuents perform more poorly on tests if asked to report their race Feel anxious about confirming stereotypes When asian women reminded of gender, do poorly But when reminded of ethnicity, do better

heretibility coefficient

h^2 Statistic that describes the proportion of the difference between people's scores that can be explained by differences in their genes

5 foundations of moral judgment

harm/care fairness/reciprocity Ingroup loyalty authority/respect purity/sanctity Liberals think harm and fairness are way more important than ingroup loyalty, authority, and purity

Two major types of problems

ill defined problem well defined problem

name-letter effect

implicit egotism 30% of people's favorite letter is the one that begins their first name More likely to evaluate themselves positively

behaviorist explanation of language

individual words and sentences are rewarded and so repeated Learn to talk in same way we learn any other skill Reinforcement, shaping, extinction, other basic principles of OC Vocalizations that are not reinforced, diminish Prah vs dada Cannot count for many fundamental characteristics of language development Parents don't spend much time teaching children to speak grammatically Parents repond more to truth content than grammar Nobody like me Now repeat after me: nobody likes me Children generate more grammatial sentences than ever hear Don't just imitae, learn rules Errors children make tend to be overgeneralizations of grammatical rules Difficult to overgeneralize if language developement consisted only of reinforced individual sentences

3 skills make humans very good at learning

joint attention imitation social referencing

Dynamics among id, superego, and ego

largely governed by anxiety An unpleasant feeling that arises when unwanted thoughts or feelings occur When id seeks gratification that ego thinks will lead to real=world dangers or superego sees as leading to punishment When ego receives an alert signal in form of anxiety, launches into defensive mechanisms

body management

meditation relaxation biofeedback aerobic exercise

improving intelligence

money and eduaction

Children's Moral Thinking develops in three important ways:

shift from realism to relativism Very young children regard moral rules as real, inviolable truths Do not think that a bad action can ever be good Tends to shift from perscriptions to principles Young children think of moral rules as guidelines for specific actions in specific situations As they get older, see that rules are just expressions of more general principles Specific rules can be abandoned or modified if they fail to uphold general principle Tends to shft from outcomes to intentions Yong children: unintentional action that causes great harm seems more wrong than intentional action that causes slight harm

psychological reactions to stress

stress interpretation Burnout

group differences in intelligence

not caused by genes Biases in testing situation do not explain all between-group differences

signs

objectively observed indicators of a disorder

3 clusters of personality disorders

odd/eccentric Paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal dramatic/erratic antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic anxious/inhibited Avoidant, dependent, OCD

optimism

omptimism/pessimism are moderately heritable Optimism most strongly predicted a positive outcome for cardiovascular health Doesn't improve physical healh directly Aids in maintenance of psychological health More likely to avoid negative emotions, stic to medical regimens, and keep up relationships with others Less likely to experience distress and fatigue after treatments Keep up with social contacts and activities

symptoms

subjectively reported behaviors, thoughts, and emotions

ultrasocial

only 4 species Form societies in which large numbers of individuals divide labor and cooperate for mutual benefit Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps), termites, naked mole rates, us

primary abilities

perceptual , verbal, and numerical ability No such thing as g but few stable and independent mental abilities Neither general like g nor specific like s S: person who had strong verbal abilities tended both to speak and read well

angst

produced by Difficulties we face in finding meaning in life and in accepting responsibility of making free choices Some people pursue superficial answers that help them deal with the angst and dread they experience Defences they construct form the basis of their personalities Some organize lives around obtaining objects, some immerse themselves, in drugs or videogames in order to numb mind to reality

how do we tell if an instrument is good

reliability validity

mind management

repressive coping Rational Coping reframing

reflexes in infants

rooting reflex sucking reflex

heritibility of intelligience

~.5 50% of the difference between people's intelligence test scores is due to genetic differences between them But not half due to genes half due to experiences WRONG Intelligence of person is joint product of genes and experiences Tells us why peoplein a group differ from one another Value can change depending on group of people

ambivalent attachment style

~15% Infant becomes distressed When return: infant will rebuff her, refusing any attempt at calming while arching his or her back and squirming to get away Mothers of ambivalent infants tend to respond inconsistently, only sometimes attending to their infants when they show distress Uncertain about whether their PC will resond

avoidant attachment style

~20% When CG leaves, infant is distressed When returns, will not acknowledge her Mothers of avoidant infants are typically indifferent to their childs need for reassurance and may even reject their attempts at physical closeness Act as though they are certain that their PC will not respond

disorganized attachment style

~5% Show no consistent pattern Confused Often abused children

secure attachment style

~60% When CG leaves, may or may not be distressed When returns, non distressed infants will acknowledge with glance or greeting and distressed infants will go to her and are calmed by her presence Mothers of securely attached infants tend to be especially sensitive to signs of their child's emotional state Sure their PC will respond when feel insecure

norms

Customary standards for behavior that are widely shared by members of a culture Elevator norms

regression

Retreating to a mode of behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development defense mech

avoid system

Be careful there are lots of threats in environment Associated with negative emotionality

theoretical reasoning

"Discursive reasoning" Reasoning directed toward arriving at a belief Used when we try to determine which beliefs follow logically from other beliefs Series of inferences concluding in a belief

proximodistal rule

"Inside to outside rule" Tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the center to the periphery Control trunks before elbows and knees before hands and feet

freudian slilps

"Parapraxes" Leakage of unconscious

behavioral inhibition system (BIS)

"Stop system" Inhibits behavior in response to stimuli signaling punishment Anxious person has highly reactive BIS and will focus on negative outcomes and be on lookout for stop signs

cephalocaudal rule

"Top to bottom rule" Tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the head to the feet

major depressive disorder

"Unipolar depression" / depression Severely depressed mood and/or inability to experience pleasure that lasts 2 or more weeks and is accompanied by feelings of worthlessness, lethargy, and sleep and appetite disturbance On average lasts 12 weeks 18% meet requirements of depression at some point in their life rate much higher in women

emotional display rules

In some cultures it is rude to display certain emotions japanesse and american surgery experiment

attributiosn

Inferences about the causes of people's behaviors Situational attributions dispositional attributions

organization of self concept

1. Narratives about episodes in our lives Brief or very lengthy Organizes highlights and low blows of your life into a story in whcih you are the leading character and binds them together into your self-concept 2. Terms of traits Judge yourself on any number of traits Each person finds certain unique traits important or conceptualizing the self Self-schemas

germinal stage

2 week period that begins at conception One-celled zygote divides into two cells 4, 8... Zygote migrates back down fallopian tube and implants itself in the wall of the uterus Half do not complete journey Defective ofr implant themselves in inhospitable part of uterus More unlikely for male to complete If implants itself becomes embryo

better than average effect

94% of college professors believe themselves to do above average work People demonstrate this effect in nearly every domain and career that has been studied People even report that they are better than average at how good they are at assessing themselves without bias Depends on who they compare themselves to Create stereotypical people Depressive realism Low view of themselves because of depression

collectivist cultures

: East Asian Conform to group

Research Domain Criteria Project (RDoC)

A new initiative that aims to guide the classification and understanding of mental disorders by revealing the basic processes that give rise to them Not intended to replace DSM but to inform future revisions to it in the coming yeras Focuses on more mbasic biological, cognitive, and behavioral constucts taht are believed to be the building blocks of mental disorders Want to better understand what abnormalities cause different diosrders and to classify disorders based on those underlying causes, rather than on observed symptoms Instead of figuring out what causes cocaineaddiction, focus on what causes abnormalities in responsiveness to a reward

mental disorder

A persistent disturbance or dysfunction in behavior, thoughts, or emotions that causes significant distress or impairment Problems with perception, memory, leraning, emotion, motivation, thinking, and social processes

diathesis stress model

A person may be predisposed for a psychological disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress Fine before but 9/11 sent them over the edge Most disorders have both internal (biological and psychological) and external (environmental) causes gave rise to this theory

antisocial personality disorder

A pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood Typically have a history of conduct disorder before 15 3.6% have it and more common in men than women by factor of 3 Sociopath and psychopath describe people withAPD who are especially coldhearted, anipulative, and ruthless

sick role

A socially recognized set of rights and oblighations linked with illness Absolved of responsibility for many everyday obligations and exemption from normal activities Skipping school, watch TV, can be lazy and rude and picky Person cannot appear to enjoy illness or reveal signs of wanting to e sick

burnout

A state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion cerated by long-term involvement in an emotionally demanding situation and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation Particular problem in helping professions Teachers, nrses, clergy, doctors, dentists, psychologists, social workers, police officers... Deep cynicism and detachment from job, sense of ineffectiveness and lack of accomplishment Unhappiness can spread to others Tend to ecome disgruntled emplyees who revel in their coworkers' failures adn ignore their coworkers' successes

practical intelligence

Ability to apply and implement these solutions in everyday settings

emotional intelligence

Ability to reason about emotions and to use emotions to enhance resasoning Know what kinds of emotions a particular event will trigger Can identify, describe and manage their emotinos, Know how to use emotions to improve decisions Can idenify other peoples emotions Emotionally intelligent people show less neural activity when solving emotional problems Better social skills and more friends, better relationshiops, happier, more satisfied with lives

crystallized intelligence

Ability to retain and use knowledge that was acquired through experience Generally assed by tests of vocab, facts Autism and alzheimers impair cystallized intelligence

fluid intelligence

Ability to see abstract relationships and draw logical inferences Usually assessed by tests thta pose novel, abstract problems that must be solved under time pressure Raven's progressive matrices test Damage to prefrontal cortex damages

social referencing

Ability to use another person's reactions as information about how we should think about the world Infant who wants to play with new toy looks at mom for cues if dangerous or not

mental model

Abnormal psychological expriences are conceptualized as illnesses that, like physical illnesses, have biological and environmental causes, defined symptoms, and possible cures

neurobiological factors and phobic disorders

Abnormalities in serotonin and dopmaine More common in indivudals who have phobias May show abnormally high levels of activity in the amygdala

intellectually gifted

Above 115 More likely to be male Less prone to mental illness Kids IQ may not transfer to adulthood Natural limit to how much intelligence imporves? Schools fail to help gited chilren? Rarely gifted in all departments Have gifts in single domain

approval motive

Acceptance is better than rejection Normative Influence:

bystander intervention

Act of helping strangers in an emergency situation Less likely to help innocent person in distres when there are many other bystander present Assume others are more responsible than thye are

behavioral activation system (BAS)

Activates approach behavior in response to the anticipation of reward Extravert has highly reactive BAS and will actively engage the enviornment, and be on the go

dynamic unconscious

Active system encompassing a lifetime of hidden memories, the person's deepest instincts and desires, and the person's inner struggle to control those forces Animalistic impulses assumed to remain in unconscious because such powerful forces would be too much for conscious to bear Strength of interactions among the three systems determines an individual's basic personality structure

dimensions of temperament

Activity Level General arousal Impulsivity Time taken to express emotion Positive emotionality Smiling, laughing sociability Negative emotionality Irritability, fearfulness, soothability

religiosity

Affliliation with or engagement in the practices of a particular religion

fetal stage

After 9 weeks, becomes a fetus Period that lasts from 9th week until birth Has a skeleton and muscles that make it capable of movement Later of insulating fat beneath skin Digestive and respiratory systems mature Brain cells begin to generate axons and dendrites Undergo myelination Formation of a fatty sheath around the axons of a neuron

psychological consequences of early onset of puberty

Age at which people are prepared/allowed to take on adult responsibilities has increased Period between childhood and adulthood has become protracted Teens are adults who have been denied a place in adult society Feel compelled to do things to protest these restrictions adn demonstrate their adulthood Hormones raging not to blame Most adolescents dabble in misbehavior but don't actually major in it Hijinks of adolescence are minor and temporary

teratogens

Agent that impair development Inclue environmental poisons such as lead in water, paint dust in air, or mercury in fish, alcohol, tobacco fetal alcohol syndrome

social support

Aid gained through interacting with others Failing to interact is bad for health Good ongoing relationships with friends and family and participation in social activities and relgiious groups can be just as healthy as exervise and avoiding smoking Lonely people have weaker immune system (college) Women seek support under stress but men are less likely to do so Fight or flight response to stress may be largely a male reaction female response to stress is to tend and befriend

psychodynamic approach

An approach that regard personality as formed by needs, strivings, and desires largely operating outside of awareness--motives that can produce emotional disorders

category-specific deficit

An inaviity to recognize objects that behlong to a particular category, althought the ability to recognize objects outside the category in undisturbed

psychosomatic illness

An interaction between mind and body that can produce illness

social phobia

An irrational fear of being publicly humiliated or embarassed Public speaking, eating in public, urinating in a public bathroom, etc. Try to avoid siutations where unfamiliar people might evaluate them Typically emerges between early adolescence and early adulthood

frustration-aggressive hypothesis

Animals aggress when their desires are frustrated Argue that cause of aggressive behavior is negative affect (feeling bad) and that a frustrated desire is jst one of many things that might induce negative affect Anything that makes them feel bad should increase aggression (and it does) Rats given shocks attack anything in cage

Most stressful when there is nothing to do/no way to deal with challenge Experiment

Asked to solve puzzles and proofreed in quiet room or room filled with loud noise Bursts of such noise hurt people's performance on the tasks after the noise was over Dramatic decline in performance prevented among participants who were told during noise period that they could stop noise by pushing a button Didn't push it but access to utton shielded them to noise effects

syllogistic reasoning

Assesses whether a conclusion follows from two statements hat are assumed to be true Cigarette example

molding

Assisting her acquisition of signs by manipulating her hands chimp

prospect theory

Assumes people are more willing to take risks to avoid losses than to achieve gains People should seek to increase expected utility Choose outcome ilkely to bring you most money But not reality First, people simplify available info When buying appartment, ignore a lot of useful info bc differ in so many ways Closeness of restaurants, carpet color Focusing on differences more efficient Second, people choose prospect that they believe offers best value Value is personal Choose higher rent bc can walk to 8 restauarants

distinguishing speech sounds

At birth, infants can distingiush among all contrasting sounds that occur in all languages Ability lost within first 6 months Can only distinguish among contrasting souds in the langugae they hear being spoken around them

flynn effect

Average IQ score is 30 points higher tahn it was about a century ago Each generation scoring higher than the one before

4-6 months speech development

Babble speech sounds Involves combinations of vowels and consonants that sound like real syllables but are meaningless D and t appear before m and n Even deaf infants babble sounds never heard with same order as hearing infants Part of natural developing process Babbling serves a s signal that infant is in state fo focused attention and read to learn Deaf infants don't babble as much Delayed babbling In order for vocal babbling to continue, infants must be able to hear themselves Deaf infants babble with hands if parents use ASL

social psych vs personality psych

Based on individual differences Sometimes situations can trump individual differences Power of situation is strong enough that anybody would behave a certain way Features of the environment can make good people more likely to do bad things

confirmatory factor analysis

Brought debate to close Both primary and two factory theories right in own way Showed that correlations between scores on different mental ability tests are best described by a three-level hierarchy General factor at top Specific actors t bottom Group factors (like primary mental abilities) in middle People have general ability called intelligence which is made up of small set of middle-level abilities, which are made up of a large set of specific abilities specific to particular tasks

psychological factors of attraction

But when begin to interact, inner qualities play important role in sustaining interest Personalities, POV, attitudes, beliefs, values ambitions, abilities Intelligence, humor, sensitivity, ambition high on everybody's list People attracted to those who are similar

environment and upbringing on phobic disorders

Can be calssically conditioned Dog bite--irrational fear of dogs But not everybody Not complete explanation

humor and stress

Can diffuse upleaseant situations and bad feelings Can reduce sensitivity to pain and distress Can reduce time needed to calm down after a stressful event Effects do not accumulate to improve health and leongevity

Unconscious Bias is Real

Can have best intentions but still have unconscious bias Use measures of implicit bias to compare to other more explicit decisions Police officers Trained to shoot people with guns not wallets Reactions to shoot black people with guns quicker than whites Only way to get around racism is to acknowledge it Not just black and white

wernicke's aphasia

Can produce grammatical speecj, but it tends to be meaningless Have considerable difficulty comprehending language Ability to detect nonlanguage sounds in unimpaired

self-recognition

Can recognize ourselves in mirrors by 18 months of age Share skill with chimps and other apes raised in presence of mirrors Signals out capacity for reflexive thinking, directing attention to own thoughts, feelings , adn actions f

18 months

Can say about 50 words and understand several times more than that Learn nouns before verbs Everyday, conrete objects Vocabs undergo explosive growth

why do we obey powerful people

Capable of rewarding and punishing us milgram's experiments: Calm demeanor and persistant instruction suggested that he knew what was right and so participant did as ordered Due to normative pressure When second assistant agreed with person who wanted to go on, nobody followed instructions

telomeres

Caps at the ends of each chromosome that protect the ends of chromosomes and prevent them from sticking to each other Aglet of the chromosome Each time cell divides, telomeres become smaller If too short: cell can no longer divide Development of tumors and diseases

risk and decision making

Cards People with prefrontal lobe damage unable to differentiate between important and unimportant activities Drew from risky and safe deck equally with no difference in galvanic skin responses Healthy people showed anticipatory emotional reactions when even considered to take risky card Unable to think beyond immediate consequences Could not shift choices in response to rising rate of losses Alcoholics adn cocaine addicts Act the same way Perform as poorly on gambling task as people with prefrontal damage Aspects of risk decision making depend critically on prefrontal cortex

status and self esteem

Carry themselves in way similar to high status animals of other species Gorillas Worthy of respect possibly

fetal alcohol syndrome

Caused by a mother's alcohol use during pregnancy Intellectually disabled have same rate of mental illness to that found in general population

down syndrome

Caused by presence of third copy of chromosome 21 More than 96% happy with their lives, like who they are

how does aging occur

Cells constantly dividing, chromosomes repeatedly copied if telomeres too short can no longer divide telomerase rebuilds telomeres

sexual selection theory

Certain differences between males and females throughout animal kingdom

three characteristics of language development

Children learn langugaes quickly 1 year old has vocab of 10 words Expands to over 10,000 words Children make few errors while learning to speak Errors t=hey do make usually result from applying but overgeneraliing grammatial rules Children's passive mastery of language develops faster than active mastery Understand language better than they speak

fast mapping

Children map a words onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure Enables them to learn at this rapid pace

false belief task egocentrism

Children see puppet named Maxi deposit some chocolate in cupboard and leave Second puppet moves it to different cupboard ASked where MAxi will look for chocolate 5 year olds said first one but 3 year olds said second one Everybody knows what they know

What you believe changes what you taste

Children think carrots and milk taste better when told it's from mcdonalds Adults think wine tastes good if poured from expensive bottle Fmri scans Actually experience it in a different way

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Chronic excessive worry accompanied by three or more of the following symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscle tension, and sleep disturbance Generalized because worries not foucsed on any particular threat Women experience it more than men Some evidence says identical twins have modesly higher concordance rates Neurotransmitter imbalances psychological explanations

post traumatic stress disorder

Chronic physiological arousal, recurrent unwanted thoughts or images of the trauma, and avoidance of all things that call the traumatic event to mind People disagree in degree of sensitivity to trauma Not everybody who has been through something gets it

anxiety disorders

Class of mental disorder in which anxiety is the predominant feature When anxiety arises that is out of proportion to real threats and challenges Significant comorbity between anxiety and depression Panic disorders, phobic disorders, and generalized anxiety disorder

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

Classification system that describes the features used to diagnose each recognized mental disorer and indicates how the disorder can be distinguished from other, similar problems Each disorder named as a distinct illness

diagnosis

Clinicians seek to determine the nature of a person's mental disorder by assessing signs and symptoms that suggest an underlying illness Determination as to whether a disorder or disease is present Just because a disorder is present (diagnosed), doesn't mean that we konw underlying disease process in body that gives rise to the signs and symptoms of the disordes Knowing person's diagnosis is usefl because any given category of mental illness is likely to have a distinctive cause

biological factors of schizophrenia

Closer a person's genetic relatedness to a person with schizophrenia, greater likelihood of developing it Enviornmental factors (prenatal and pperinatal enviornments) also affect concordance rates Toxins in mother's blood could contribute to high concordance rate dopamine hypothesis

group

Collection of people who have something in common that distinguishes them from others People in them tend to be nice toward each other Prejudiced toward members and discriminate in their favor Evolutionary adaptation

language acquisistion device (LAD)

Collection of processes that facilitae language laerning

bipolar disorder

Condition characterized by cycles of abnormal, persistent high mood (mania) and low mood (depression) In ⅔ of causes, manic eipsodes imediately precede or follow depressive episodes Depressive phase often indistinguishable from major depression Lifetime risk is 2.5% and doesn not differ between men and women Typically recurrent 10% of people with bipolar diosrder have rapid cycling bipolar disorder Higher creativity and intellectual ability

conduct disorder

Condition in which a child or adolescent engages in a ersistent pattern of deviant behavior involving aggression to people or animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, or serious rule violations Tends to comorbid with outher disorders characterized by problems with decision making and impulsiveness such as ADHD, substance use disorders, and antisocial personality disorder

relaxation response

Condition of reduced muscle tension, cortical activity, HR, breathing rate, BP

synaptic pruning

Connections that are not frequently used are eliminated

internal locus of control

Control own destiny Less anxious, achieve more, cope better with stress

sickness response

Coordinated, adaptive set of reactions to illness organized by the brain Feeling miserable is part of it Makes you stay home, where you'l spread germs to fewer people Makes you withdraw from activity and lie still, conserving energy for fighting illness Appetite loss Energy spent on digestion is conserved Results become prolonged and exaggerated with aging

IQ and siblings

Correlation between IQ scores of siblings is greater when they are cloe in age First born more intelligent but if first born dies in infancy second born ends up being as intelligent as average first born child Smarter becasue experienced different family enviornment

education and intelligence

Correlation between formal education and intelligence is quite large Smart people tend to stay in school Shcool makes people smarter People with late birthdays tend to have lower intelligence test scores than people with early birthdays

religious experiences and stress

Correlation between relgiousity/spirituality and positive health outcomes Lower rates of heart disease, decreases in chronic pain, improved psychological health Why? Stronger and more extensive social network More likely to follow dieray restrictions, restrain from the use of drugs or alcoho, be more optimistic

comparison level

Cost-benefit ratio that people believe they deserve or could attain in another relationship Cost-benefit ratio is acceptable when we feel that it is the est we can or should do Stranded on island or normal life

stability of temperament study

Dangle novel toy in front of them Measure time to calm down Negative emotionality At ages 10-12, given full battery of tests while asked to give a "surprise speech" Quite a bit of stability 20% of high reactives were behaviorally similar ⅓ of low reactives were calm and cool Although many drifted toward middle, only 5% flipped

cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia

Defcits in cognitive abilities, specifically in executeive functioning, attention and working memory Most difficult symptoms to notice Much less bizarre and public than others

negative symptoms of schizophrenia

Deficits or disruptions to normal emotions and behaviros Include emotional and social withdrawal; apathy; poverty of speech; Refer to things missing in people with schizophrenia Ay rob people of emotion, undermined interest in people or events, or capacity to focus attention may be impaired

why do we behave badly in groups?

Deindividuation Diffusion of responsibility

collectivist and individualistic differences on judgment

Disgruntled students with similar crimes in China and America American newspapers were more likely to make dispositional attributions "He was a bad seed" "He wasn't good at controlling his emotions" Chinese newspapers were more likely to make situational attributions Pressures on individual Family upbringing Contextual features

Deaf children whose parents do not know sign language

Display difficulty in understanding false beliefs even at 5 or 6 years Learning sign language helps develop theory of mind

psychosexual stages

Distinct erly life stages through which personality is formed as children experience sexual pleasures from specific body areas and caregivers redirect or interfere with those pleasrues At each stage, different erotogenic zone dominates child's subjective experience Conflicts at any stage will influence personality in adulthood

possible causes of conduct disorder

Diverse group Makes it difficult to pin down causes of Wide range of genetic, biological, and encironemntal factors interact to produce this disorder Risk factors include maternal smoking during pregnancy,exposure to abuse and family violence, affiliation with deviant peer groups, and presence of deficits in executive functionin Decision making, impulsiveness

reversibility

Do not consider the fact that the operation that made the line of eggs longer could be reversed Line could become shorter

biligualism effects

Do not differ significantly in the course and rate of many aspects of their language development Better at executive control capcciteis such as aility to prioritzie info and flexibly focus attention Bilingual benefits from exerting executive control in dail lives when attempt to suppress language they don't wnt to use Benefits: Bilingual indiv tend to have later onset of alzheimer's than monolingual During lives they have built up a greater amount of back-up cognitive ability (cognitive reserve) Produces lasting changes in brain Gray matter in part of left parietal lobe involve in language is denser in bilingual Disadvantages: Tend to have smaller vocab in each language Process language more slowly Can sometimes take longer to formulate sentences

sexual education

Does not increase likelihood that teens will have sex Leads teens to delay having sex for the first time, increases likelihood that they will use birth control and lowers risk of pregnancy or STD Sex ed often absent in american schools

costs of groups

Don't fully capitalize on expertise of members Give too little weight to opinions of eperts and too much weight to members who happen to be high in status

fight or flight response

Emotional an dphysiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action Body prepares to react Brain activation in response to threat occurs in hypothalamus Stimulating the nearby pituitary gland Releases ACTH hormone ACTH travels through bloodstrea and stimulates adrenal glands atop kidneys Adrenal glands stimulated to release hormones including catecholamines Epinephrine and norepinephrine Hormones increase HR, BP, respiration rate and decreases parasympathieic activation Make more oxygen available to muscles to energize attack or initiate escape Adrenal glands also release cortisol Increases the concentration of glucose in blood Makes fuel available to muscles

humanistic psychologists

Emphasized a positive view of human nature that highlights people's inherent goodness and their potential for personal growth

self schemas

Emphasizing that they draw info about the self into a coherent scheme

prenatal stage

Ends with birth and begins 9 months earlier Sperm rush to egg, moment it penetrates coating, egg relaeses cemical that seals coating and keeps other sperm away Sperm sheds tail and fertilizes 12 hours later, egg merges with nuclei of sperm and prenatal development begins

personality disorders

Enduring patterns of thinking, feelings, or relating to others or controlling impulses that dviate from cultural expectations and cause distress or impaired functioning Begin in adolescence or early adulthood and are relatively stable over time Not diagnosed in adolescence/childhood Early personality problems often do not persist into adulthood Is having a problematic personality really a disorder? ~15% of adults in US have one Maybe they are extremem values ontrait dimensions such as the big five

belief

Enduring piece of knowledge about an object or event Tell us how to do something

attitude

Enduring positive or negative evaluation of an object or event Tell us what we should do

suicide attempt

Engages in potentially harmful behavior with some intention of dying Women experience suicidal thoughts and suicide attempts at higher rates than men Rates of suicidal thoughts and attempts increase dramatically during adolescence and young adulthood 90% of people who die by suicide have at least one mental disorder, the experience of significant negative life events, and preseence of severe medical problems

language and time study

English : use spatial terms with time Look forward, move meeting back Chinese: describe time using terms that refer to a ertical spatial dimension Earlier is up, later is down Study English faster at making judgment if shown a horizontal disply; madnarin vertical Either language or thought ability can be impaired while the capacity for the other is spared

telomerase

Enzyme that rebuilds telomeres at the tips of chromosomes In the end, cannot keep up with telomere prdocution

consistency

Evaluate accuracy of new beliefs by assessing their consistency with old beliefs Leaves us vulnerable to social influence foot in the door technique

two-factor theory of intelligence

Every task requires a combo of a general ability (g) and skills taht are specific to task (s) Combined two results of previous study

emergence of grammatical rules

Evidence of the ease with which children acquire grammatical rules comes from errors that children make while forming sentences 2 or 3: i ran, you ate Try to memorize particular sounds 4 or 5: i runned, you eated Tend to overgeneralize rules Language acquisition not simply matter of imitating adult speech Acquire grammar rules by listening o speech and using rules to create verbal forms they've never heard Do without explici awareness of grammar rules they've learned

causes of ADHD

Exact cause unknown Strong biological influence 76% heritability Brain imaging studies suggest that people with ADHD have smaller brain volumes as well as structural and behavioral inhibition

study to determine if language development or congnitive develop influences language abilities

Examineing acquisition of english by internationally adopted children who didn't know english prior to adoption If orderly sequence of milestones is by-product of general cognitive deveopment then different pattersn should be observed If sequence because of experience, should have same pattern Preschoolers from 2.5 to 5.5 years after adopted from china for 3-18 months Recorded language samples in homes and copleted questionnaires Same orderly progression Iniitially dominated by nouns and produced few function morphemes But adopted chidlren added new wrods to vocab more quckly than infnats Influence of general ognitive developmet Main message Reflect specific characteristics of languuage learning rather than cogniitive limitations

phallic stage

Experience is dominated by the pleasure, conflict, and frustration associated with the phallic-genital region as well as coping with powerful incetuous feelings of live, hate, jealousy, and conflict Experience oedipus conflict Fixation can lead to excessive masculinity in males and the need for attention or domination in females

anal stage

Experience is dominated by the pleasures and frustrations associated with the anus, retention, and expulsion of feces and urine, and toilet training Between 2 and 3 years Conflict: Rigid personality and remain preoccupie with issues of control "Anal retentive" people Neurotic, have something up their ass "Anal expulsive" Lax, let things go

companionate lvoe

Experiene involving affection, trust, and concern for a partner's well-being Companionate love is what keeps people together Never stops growing Takes some times to get started

Biopsychosocial perspective

Explains mental disorders as the result of interactions among biological, psychological, and social factors Biological Focus is on genetic and epigenetic influences, biochemical imbalances, and abnormalities in brain structure and function Psychological Focuses on maladaptive learning and coping, cognitive biases, dysfunctional attitudes, and interpersonal problems Social Poor socialization, stressful life experiences, and cultural and social inequities Complexity of causation suggests that different individuals can experience a similar psychological disorder for different reasons Multiple causes mean that there might not be a single cure

self esteem

Extent to which an individual likes, values, and accepts the self :[

extraverts and brain

Extraverts pursue stimulation because their reticular formation is not easily stimultaed To feel fully alert, extraverts seek out social interaction, parties Perform well at tasks done in noisy context

egocentrism

Failure to understand that the world appears differently to different people Hallmark of preoperational stage Don't realize that other people don't know what they know Young children understand other people's desires bets when own desires are fulfilled and not competing for attention Children take longer time to understan that other people may have emotional reactions unlike their own (little red riding hood)

malingering

Faking medical or psychological symptoms to acheive somthing they want Only possible with a restricted number of illnesses

patient practiioner interactions

Faking medical or psychological symptoms to acheive somthing they want Only possible with a restricted number of illnesses

hallucinations

False perceptual experiences that have a compelling sense of being real despite the absence of external stimulation Hearing, seeing, smelling, or abing a tactile sensation of things that re not there Hallucinations accompanied by activation in Broca's area Voices heard seldom sound like self Command, scold, suggest bizarre actions, or offer snide comments

psychological factors of schizophrenia

Family enviornment plays a role in the development of and recovery from the condition Disturbed family enviornment increased likelihood of deeloping schizophrenia

heuristics

Fast and efficient strategies that may faciliate decision making but do not guarantee that a solution will be reached Shortcuts such as availability bias

stereotype threat

Fear of confirming the negative beliefs that others may hold May cause them to behave in ways that confirm very stereotype that threatened them asking to write race on exam

family resemblance theory

Features that appear to be characteristic of category member but may not be possessed by every member Birds have feathers and wings so anything with these is likely to be a bird

female response to stress

Female response to stress is to tend-and-befriend by taking care of people and bringing them together Respond to stressors with sympathetic NS and rlease of epinephrine and norepinephrine Also release oxytocin Tendency to seek out social contacts, nurture others, and create and maintain cooperative groups Fight or flight response to stress may be largely a male reaction

male and female preferences across countries

Females and males: Kindness and intelligence Females Greater focus on power and status Interest in investing in children Men More focus on ability to have children (features of a woman), young Differences diminish in countries with greater gender equality

intersexual selection

Females consistently select those males who are more colorful, more conspicuous, louder, more daring and aggressive Want to choose male with best genes who will give kids best chance of surviving Peacock has so many resources that it can afford to have a huge display that might hinder ability to survive

zygote

Fertilized egg that contains chromosomes from both an egg and a sperm Egg 23 chromosome is X Sperm 23 chromosome is X or Y

practical reasoning

Figuring out what to do, or reasoning directed toward action Means-end analysis How to get to concert across town if don't have a car

Formal operational stage

Final stage of cognitive development that begins around age 11 Children learn to reason about abstract concepts Childhood ends when formal operations begin Ability to generate, consider, reason about abstract objects

evolution of cliques

First form groups of same-sexed peers Many of whom were friends during childhood Next male and female cliques begin to meet in public places and interact Only in groups and only in public Older members of same-sex cliques peel off and form smaller, mixed-sex cliques May assemble in private as well as public but usually assemble as a group Couples peel off from small clique and begin romantic relationships

physical attraction

First quality they learn about is other person's appearance Man's height and woman's weight were among best predictors of how many responses a personal ad received Most people approach, date, and marry someone who is about as attractive as they are

existentionalist psychology

Focused on invidiual as a responsible agent who is free to create and live his or her life while regotiating the issue of meaning and reality of death

psychologicl explanations for GAD

GAD especially prevalent in people with low incomes, live in large cities, and/or are in environments rendered unpredictable by political and economic strife More women have it More likely to live in poverty, experience discrimination, or be subjected to physical or sexual abuse Unpredictable traumatic experiences in childhood increase risk for developing GAD

bias in choosing cities, streets, and occupations

Georges more likely to move to georgia florences/florida louises/louisiana People who's last name is Street biased to addresses ending in street Dennis and denise choose dentistry Lauras and lawrences chose law

goals

Goals often reflect the tasks that are appropriate to the person's situation and fit the person's role and stage in life Teens: be popular, independence, good college Adults: finding mate, meaningful career, family

judging frequencies and probabilities

Good at estimating frequncy Number of times something will happen Bad at tasks that require us to think in terms of probabilities Liklihood that something will happen Performance varies depending on how problem described

atherosclerosis

Gradual narrowing of arteries that occurs as fatty deposits (plaque) build up on inner walls of arteries Result in reduced blood supply When artery is blocked by blood clot or detached plaque: heart attack

narcissism

Grandiose view of the self comined with a tendency to seek admiration from and exploit others Extreme is considered personality disorde Seeing yourself as way way better than average

neural correlations of PTSD

Heightened activity in amygdala Decreased activity in medial prefronatl cortex Smaller sized hippocampus Are these causes or effects of PTSD? Effects existed before and made them susceptible to developing PTSD later

stereotypes can be automatic

Happens automatically and unconsciously Experiment Earned money for shooting people with guns Lost money for shooting people with cameras Pictures appeared very quickly Results Shot black men holding cameras Didn't shoot white men olding guns Black people made the same mistakes as whites Make associations in mind Black people holding guns in rap videso Trying not to use stereotypes can make situation worse Thought suppression Can learn to keep stereotypes from influencing behavior

spirituality

Having a belief in and engagement with some hgiher power, not necessarily linked to any particular religion

dopamine hypothesis

Idea that schizophrenia involves an excess of dopamine activity Why amphetamines which increase dopamine levels often exacerbate symptoms of schizophrenia Hypothesis is inadequate Many do not respond to dopamine-blocking drugs Those who do seldom show complete remission May have complex interaction among a host of different biochemicals

collectivist and individualistic differences on emotion

Ideal emotion for westerners: excitement Eastern: negative emotions are just as important

genes and personality similarities

Identical twins more similar to each other than fraternal twins Not due to shared environmental factors More genes you have in common with someone, more similar you are personality wise Roughly half the variability among individuals results from genetic factors

Medication-induced movement disorders

Identifies motor disturbances arising from use of medications of the sort commonly used to treat schizophrenia

exhaustion phase

If GAS continues long enough Resistance collapses Create gradual damage leading to costs that include susceptibility to infection, tmor growth, aging, irreversible organ damage, death

Deindividuation

Immersion in a group causes people to become less concerned with their personal values

positive psychological effects of meditation

Improve control over attention Deactivation in default mode network Mind-wandering Improve connectivity between partsof brain involve in conflict monitoring and cognitive and emotional control Increased myelination or increased neuron firing Better able to regulate thoughts and emotions Better ability to manage interpresonal relations, anxiety, ...

broca's area and wernicke's area

In eraly infancy, language processing distributed across many areas of brain Gradually becomes more and more concentrated in these two areas "Language centers of teh brain"

anger and the culture of honor

In response to insult, southerners displayed more anger, were more physiologically aroused, and gave stronger shocks to a confederate On the way in another person is walking out and they bump into you They mutter under their breath "asshle" Don't take kindly to insults Seek revenge for personal slights Care about honor of name and family Regulate personally rather than calling police

timing of infant skills influenced by factors

Incentive for reaching, weight, muscular development, general level of ability Stimulating mobiles reach earlier

positive symptoms of schizophrenia

Include thoughts and behaviors not seen in those without the disorder hallucinations delusions disorganized speech associated ideas Grossly disorganized behavior

stress and cardiovascular health

Increase chance of heart attack and creates changes in body that increase vulnerability for a later heart attack Main cause of coronary heart disease is atherosclerosis Stress-activated arousal of sympathetic NS increases BP BP stays up Gradually damages blood vessels Accumulate plaque Greater likelod of cornoary heart disease Hostility predicts heart disease better than any other major causal factor

intelligence increases over time

Increased between adolescence and middle age Declines thereafter Sharpest decline in old age Due to general slowing of brains processeing speed

morphological rules

Indicate how morphemes can be combined to form words content morphemes and function morphemes

phonological rules

Indicate how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds Initial sound ts is ok in german not english When rules are violated: accent

personality and brain size

Individal differences in personality traits may arise from volume of the different brain regions associated with each trait Neuroticism correlated with volume of brain regions involved in sensitivity to threat

personality

Individual's characteristic style of behaving, thinking, and feeling

synaptic proliferation

Infant's brain forms many more new synapses than it actually need and puberty

assimilation

Infants apply their schemas in novel situations Pulling things brings them closer so pull more things to bring them closer

accomodation

Infants revise their schemas in light of new info Pulling cats tail does not bring it closer

object permanance study drawbridge

Infants shwon mini drawbridge that flipped up and down One got used to this, watched a box get placed behind drawbridge but out of their sight Some infants then saw a possible event: Drawbridge began to flip and then suddenly stopped as if impeded Others saw impossible event: Began to flip and then continued, unimpeded by box Four month olds stared longer at impossible event than possible

phobic disorder and temperament

Infants who display excessive shyness are at an increased risk for developing a phobic behavior later in life

specific phobia

Irrational fear of a particular object of situation that markedly interferes with an individua'ls ability to function 5 categories Animals Natural enviornments Heights, darkenss, water, storms Situations Bridges, tunnels, enclosed places Blood, injections, and injury Other phobias Choking, vomiting, loud noises 12% will develop a specific phobia

availability bias

Items that are more readily availablein memory are judged as having occurred more frequently List of girl/boy names but girls all famous Affects estimates because Memory strength and frequency of occurrence are directly related Frequently occurring items remembered more easily Conclude items for which you have better memory must also have been more frequent

disease

Known pathoogical process affecting the body

mood disorders

Mental disorders that have mood disturbance as their predominant feature and take two main forms: depression/unipolar depression and bipolar disorder

exemplars vs prototypes

LH primarily involved in forming prototypes RH mainly active in recognizing exemplars Use both prototypes and exemplars when forming concepts and categories Visual cortex involved in forming prototypes More listic process involving image processing Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia for exemplars Involves analysis and deision making

nativist theory

Language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity

nativist explanation of language

Language leraning capacities are built into the brain Specialized o qcqurie language rapidly through simple exposure to speech brain equipped with language acquisistion device (LAD) :Collection of processes that facilitae language laerning Language capacity distinct from intelligence Explains why deaf infants babble speech sounds they have never heard Explains why pattern of language development is similar in children everywhere Evidence that language can be acquired only during a restricted period of development Does not explain how language develops

age and beauty

Large eyes, high eyebrows, small chin make people look immature Female faces more attractive when have immature features Male faces more attractive when have mature features Women prefer older men and men prefer younger women Younger women more fertile than older women Older men have more resources than younger men

broca's area

Left frontal cortex Invovled in production of sequential patterns in vocal and sign languages

wernicke's area

Left temporal cotex Involved in language comprehension (spoken or signed)

dangers of labeling

Many labels baggage of negative stereotypes and stigma "Mental order sign of personal weakness" Why most people do not seek treatment Educating people about mental disorders does not dispel the stigma Those with a mental disorder are no more likely to be violent than those without one May affect how labeled individuals view themselves Think they are not just mentally disorded, but hopeless or worthless Develop attitude of defeat and fail to work toward recovery Say "person with schizophrenia" not "schizophrenic"

catatonic behavior

Marked decrease in all moevement or an increase in muscular rigidity and overactivity May actively resist movement or become completely unresponseive and unaware of their surroundings in a catatonic stupor

puberty changes in brain

Marked increase in growth rate of tissue connecting different regions of brain just before puberty Critical period for learning language ends prefrontal cortex Brain undergoes second wave of synaptic proliferation just before puberty and second round of synaptic pruning during adolscence

marriage

Married people live longer, have more frequent se, and earn several times as much money as unmarried people do Report being happier than unmarried Other studies report that married people may be happier because happy people may be more likely to get married

socioeconomic status on intelligence

Material wealth of family in which raised Influences barin itself Low SES have poorer nutrition and medical care Experience greater daily stress More likely o be exposed to environmental toxins Can all impair brain development Influences environment Intellectual stimulation increases intelligence High SES more likely to provide it More likely to read to kidsand to connect what tey are reading to outside world Ask stimulating questions Low SES tend to give instructions

expressed emotion

Measure of how much hostility, criticism, and emotional overinvolvement are used when speaking about a family member with a mental disorder

testing factor analysis theory

Measured how well school-age kids could discriminate small differences in color, pitch, weight Corrleated scores with grades in different subjects and with teacher's estimates of intellectual avility Reveald: mos t of these measures were positively corrleated Score high on one usually scored well on all Not perfectly corrleatd Kid with highest score didn't have highest score on everything

validity

Measurement assessing what it is supposed to assess Accuracy of measurement Smile good way of measuring happiness Age not good way of measuring height

relatives vs intelligence

Members of family may have similar levels of intelligence bc sharegenes, environment, or both IQ of identical twins strongly correlated when raised in same household but also strongly correlated when twins separated at birth and raised separately People who share genes have similar IQs regardless of environment IQ of unrelated people in same household only correlated modestly Genes play important rule in determining intelligence

collectivist and individualistic differences on attention and perception

Memory of picture scenes Japanese students recalled background better took context into account Recalled focal just as well Wrote background first American students recalled foreground (big fish)

reasoning

Mental activity that consists of organizing info or beliefs into a series of steps in order to reach conclusions

concept

Mental representation that groups or categorizes shared featrures of related objects, events, or other stimuli Abstract representatio, description, or definition that serves to designate a class or category of things Brain organizes concepts into categories Categgory for dog: small four ooted animal with fur that barks Form cateogries by noticing similarities among objects and events Concept of chair may include feature like sturdiness, relative flatness, and an object that you can sit on

superego

Mental system that reflects the internalization of cultural rules, mainly learned as parents exercise their authority Contains set of guidelines, internal standards, and other codes of conduct that reglate and control our behaviors, thoughts, and fantasies "Conscience" Puishes us when it finds we are doing or thinking something wrong adn rewarding us for living p to ideal standards guilt and pride Internalization of society's moral standards

frequency format hypothesis

Minds evolved to notice how frequently things occur, not how likely they are to occur Because thats they way quantitatie info usually occurs in ntural circumstances Good at recognizing how often two events occur together Frequency monitoring is basica biological capacity not slearned skill Evolutionary strength

double depression

Moderately depressed mood that persists for at least 2 years and is puncutated by periods of major depression

moral intuitionist perspective

Moral judgments are the consequences and not the causes of emotional reactions Have evolved to react emotionally to a small family of events that are particularly relevant to reproduction and survival adn we have developed the distinction between right and wrong as a way of labeling and expplaining these emotional reactions Incest is wrong because it disgusts us not other way around Immoral to push somebody off the tracks because if would make us feel bad

motivated reasoning and confirmation bias

More likely to pay attention to and remember info that is consistent with our bliefs Stereotypes abou driving If see old person driving badly, add to stereotype Ignore all other instnaces of other people who are bad drivers or when old people are good drivres Confirmation bias

preconvential stage

Most childrne Stage in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor Immoral actions are simply those for which one is punished Most moral=least punishment

conservation

Notion that the quantitative properites of an object are invariant despite changes in the object's appearance

age one develops theory of mind depends on

Number of siblings Frequency with which child engages in pretend play Whether child has imaginary companion Socioeconomic status Language Most important Language skills is an excellent predictor of how well they perform on false-belief tasks How caregivers talk to children Kids whos parents talk about thoughts and feelings tend to be good at understanding belies and belief-based emotions

Big 5

OCEAN Openness to experience Imaginative vs. down to earth Likes variety vs. likes routine Independent vs conforming Conscientiousness Organized vs. disorganized Careful vs. careless Self-disciplined vs. weak willed Extraversion Social vs. retiring Fun-loving vs. sober Affectionate vs. reserved Agreeableness Softhearted vs. ruthless Trusting vs. suspicious Helpful vs. uncooperative Neuroticism worried vs. calm Insecure vs. secure Self-pitying vs. self-satisfied Self-Reports on Big 5 associated with predictable patterns of behavior and social outcomes

observation to measure personality

Observation of dorm rooms, bedrooms, offices, facebook profiles Reliably correlated with big 5 personality characteristics Especially extraversion and openness Have to validate with questionnaire to make sure they're right

framing effects

Occur when people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phrased 70% effectiveness rate vs 30% failure rate

persuasion

Occurs when a person's attitudes or beliefs are influenced by a communication from another person

normative influence

Occurs when another person's behavior provides info about what is appropriate

informational influence

Occurs when another person's behavior provides information about what is true Example Everybody in mall screaming and running toward exit Don't run because think they would disapprove of you if you didn't Run because their behavior would suggest there's something worth runniing from If you look up in city, others will join you

sunk-cost fallacy

Occurs when people make decisions about a current situtation based on what theyave previously invested in the situation Waiting in line for 3 hours, paying $100 for ticket to see band, and its cold and rainy outside Go anyway bc will have been wasted if stay home Spend $100 and stay home warm or spend $100 and go sit in rain Feel obligated to follow through

who gets PTSD

Often soldiers returning from war 12% of US veterans in Iraq met critereia for PTSD Observed rates of PTSD even higher in non-western and developing countries Ordinary people traumatized by terribel events in civilian life 7% of americans suffer PTSD

length of relationship

Once people have poured resources into a relationship they are willing to settle for less favorable cost-benefit ratios Much more likely to end new marriages than old ones

pleiotropic effects

One gene influences one's susceptibility to multiple disorders A shared genetic vulnerability for bipolar disorder and schizophrenia Genes linked to both disorders associated with compromised abilities in filtering unneccessary info and memory, problems with dopamine and serotonin transmission

possible ocd causes

One hypothessis implicates heightened neural activity in caudate nucleus of brain in basil ganglia Drugs that increase serotonin can inhibit the activity of the caudate nucleus and relieve some symptoms Doesn't mean caudate nucleus is cause, could just be an effec

group memberships

One of best predictors of a person's genereal well-being is quality and extent of their group memberships Excluded: anxious, lonely, depressed, illness, death Sense of belonging and identity

biological factors of bipolar disorder

One of highest rates of heritability Likely that it is polygenic Evidence of pleiotropic effects

How do particular brain regions develop category preferences for objects?

One possiblity Develop from specific visual experiences that individuals have during course of life Another possibility Brain may be prewired such that partiuclar regions respond more strongly to some categories

ill defined problem

One that does not have a clear goal or solution path Study block (how to get focused) Most everyday problems

well defined problem

One with clearly specified goals and clearly defined solution paths Follwoing clear set of direcions

optimism and cardiovascular health

Optimistic people tend to engage inhealthier behaviors Balanced diet adn exercise Healthier lipid profile Higher levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol that help to prevent buildup in arteries and lower triglycerides Decreases risk of heart disease

placenta

Organ that physically links bloodstreams of mother with embryo/fetus and permits exchange of certain chemicals Children of mothers without proper nutrition have physicl problems and psychological problems Foods mom eats affects child's food preferences Tend to like foods and spices their mothers ate Anything mom eats, drinks, inhales, injects, snorts, rubs on skin can pass through pacenta

external locus of control

Outcomes are random or controlled by other people Others feel that the world does out rewards and punishments to them irrespective of their actions

reality principle

Regulating mechanism that enables the individual to delay gratifying immediate needs and fnction effectiely in the real world wait for bathroom to pee

what determines sexuality

Parenting has no significant impact on orientation Kids raised by gay and straight couple same chance of being gay Biology may play major role Gay people have larger proportion of gay siblings than straights Identical twin has 50% of being gay while fraternal only 15% Fetal Environment High levels of androgens in womb may predispose a person to develop a sexual preference for women Brain equally sized for striaght women and gay mend

id

Part of the mind containeing the drives present at birth Source of our bodily needs, wants, desires, and impulses Particularly sexual and aggressive dries Oeprates according to pleasure principle Dumb, driven by instinct, Does not distinguish between reality and fantasy

delusions

Patently false beliefs, often bizarre and grandiose, that are maintained in spite of their irrationality May believe that he or she is Jesus Christ, Napolean, or Jaon orf Arc Delusions of persectution common Believe that CIA, demons, extraterrestrials, or other malevolent forces are conspiring to harm them or control their minds

fixation

Phenomenon in which a person's pleasure-seeking drives become psychologically stuck, or arrested, at a particular psychosexual stage Deprivation or overindulgence at any stage Never quite move along from the derivation of pleasure associated with that stage An attempt to achieve pleasure as an adult in ways that are equivalent to how it achieved way in these stages

discrimination

Positive or negative behavior toward another person based on their group membership

prejudice

Positive or negative evaluation of another person based on their group membership

meditation

Practice of intentional contemplation Clear mind of thought, ofocus on single thought, conventration of breathing or mantra Experience deeper or transfored consciousness

hedonic motive

Prefer pleasure to pain Situatoins in which others can acheive more pleasure y doing what we want them to than by doing something else Teachers can offer candy and threaten detention Rewards and punishments can backfire Children given award after playing wiht markers less likely to play with them No reason to do it without reward

women more selective than men

Pregnancy produces physical changes that increase nutritional requireents and put them at risk of illness and death Women produce small number of eggs Women approached more often Reputational costs of promiscuity are higher in women Biology makes sex riskier proposition for women but cultures can exaggerate equalie orreverse those risk

latency stage

Primary focus is on the further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal, and athletic skills 5-13 years More relaxed period in which children are no longer struggling with the poewr of their sexual and aggressive drives No fixation here because most personality develops before 6 years

love and marriage

Probability of marrying by age 40 is 81% in men and 86% in women Married for love 85% said they wouldn't marry without love Most list love as one of the two most importnat sources of happiness in life

systematic persuasion

Process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to reason Logic, evidence, reason

kin selection

Process by which evolution selects for individuals who cooperate with their relatives Any animal promoting survival of relatives is actually promoting survival of its own genes

social cognition

Process by which people come to understand others Constantly making inferences about people's thoughts, feelings, beliefs, desires, abilities, aspirations, intentions, needs, and characters Base inferences on categories to which people belong and things they say

schizophrenia

Psychotic disorder characterized by the profound disruption of basic psychological processes; a distoreted perception of reality; altered or blunted emotion; and disturvances in thought, motivation, and behavior Occurs in 1% of population and is slightly more ocmmon in men than women Rarely develops before early adolescenece Primary diagnosis for nearly 40% of all admissions to state and county mental hospitals

person-situation controversy

Question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational fators Info about both personality and situation are nevessary to predict behavior accurately situation can often trump personality

zimbardo prison experiment

Randomly assign people to be prisoners or guards Behaviors changes significantly in response to social role Situation can overwhelm our plans and intentions and our stable personality traits

why depression rate is higher in women

Rate much higher in women Incomes are lower Sex differences in hormones Estrogen, androgen, and progesterone influence depression postpartum depression Or greater willingness to face depression and seek out help

Age at which puberty begins varies across individuals and across cultures and generations

Reach same age often as same sex parents African american faster than european girls Developing earlier in newer generaations Puberty accelerated by body fat Improved diet and health

rationalization

Reasoning away anxiety-producing thoughts defense mech

seasonal affective disorder

Recurrent depressive episodes in a seasonal pattern Mostly begin in fall or winter and remit in spring Reduced levels of light in colder seasons

content morphemes

Refer to things and events Cat Can stand alone as words

disorder

Refers to a common set of signs and symptoms

Stress inoculation training

Reframing technique that helps people to cope with stressful situations by developing positive ways to think about the situation "The good in the bad" RIP BOb "I'm not going to let him get to me" Anger prone people less likely to become physiologically aroused Useful for helping people who have sufferd prior traumatic events to become more comfortable living with them

trait

Relatively stable disposition to behve in a particular and consistent way Orderliness: organizes books from a to z, knows schedule of local bus, agenda Describes a person but doesn't explain behaior

reliability

Repeated measurements yield similar answer Consistency of measurement

obsessive compulsive disorder

Repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and ritualistic behaviors (compulsions) designed to fend off those thoughts interfere significantly with an individual's functioning Obsessive thoughts typcally produce anxity Compulsive behaviors typically reduce it Attempts to cope with obbsessibe thoughts by trying to suppress them or ignore them are useless More women have it than men Typically derive from conerns that could pose a eral threat but just go hella far Supports prepardness theory Same evolutionary context as phobias Moderate genetic heridability Relatives of individuals with OCD are at greater risk for other types of anxiety disorders than normal people

reaction formation

Replacing threatening wishes and fantasies with their opposites Being extra not-gay to deal with your gay desires Men high in homophobia significantly more aroused defense mech

hardiness

Resilience and oprotection from stress-induced illness Hardy people have sense of commitment, belief in control, and willing to accept challenge Can be trained in hardiness

accuracy motive

Right is better than Wrong

dysthymia

Same cognitive and bodily problems as in depression are present but they are less severe and last longer At least 2 years

existential approach

School of thought that regard personality as governed by as individual's ongoing choices and decisions in the context of the realities of life and death Difficulties we face in finding meaning in life and in accepting responsibility of making free choices provoke type of anxiety called angst

hand sanitizer and political ideology experiment

Seeing a hand sanitizer might change way you think about social world Disease avoidance system kicks in Asked people about set of beliefs in political realm (questionnaire) Conservative: threats Liberals: more open to experiences Can shift political judgments temporarily "Fill out questionnaire over by hand sanitizer" "Fill out questionnaire over there" "All cornell students are communists" Results Hand sanitizing reminder more likely to be conservative

four stages in discovering the world

Sensorimotor stage preoperational stage concrete operational stage Formal operational stage

deep vs surface structure

Sentence can be constructed that obeys syntactical rules but lacking in meaning (semantics) Errors result from differences between the deep structure of sentences and their surface structure meaning of sentence vs how its structured

function morphemes

Serve grammatical functions And, or but, when Half morphemes in language are function Make human language grammatically complex enough to permit us to express abstract ideas

internal working model of relationship

Set of beliefs about the self, the primary caregiver, and the relationship between them Different working models: different attachment styles

grammar

Set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages

disorganized speech

Severe disruption of verbal communication in which ideas shift rapidly and incoherently among unrealated topics Reflect difficulties in organizing thoughts and focusing attention Responses to questions often irrelevant, loosely associated ideas

biological factors of general depression

Severe major depression has higher concordance rates than less severe major depression Heritability rates for dysthymia are low and inconsistent Reduced availability of norepinephrine and serotonin Diathsis-stress framework Stressful life events are much more likely to lead to depression among those with a certain genetic trait related to the activity of serotonoin Nature and nurture interact to inflence brain depression

adolescence and parents vs peers

Shift in emphasis from family relations to peer relations Two difficulties: Children cannot choose their parents but adolescents can choose their peers Have power to shape themselves by joining grouds that will lead them to develop new values, attitudes, beliefs, and persepectives huge responsibility As adolescents strive for greater autonomy, parents rebel Tend to disagree about age that some behaviors are acceptable Often have different ideas about who should control teen's behavior As they age, teens show an increasing tendency to resist peer pressure

how can we tell what infants see

Shown circle with stripes over and over Eventually lost interest Habiutation Turned circle 90 degrees Stared intently again Can only see like 8-12 inches in front of them

genes and political ideology

Similar genes have similar ideologies Set of genes may produce specific characteristics or tendencies to think in a more conservative or liberal manner

people attracted to similar people

Similar levels of education, religious backgrounds, ethnicities, socioeconomic statuses, and personalities Easy to interact with them becaus we can instantly agree on wide range of issues Feel more confident that those attiutdes and beliefs are correct If like people who share attitudes and beliefs, can expect them to like us for same reason Being liked is powerful source of attraction Especially like people who like us and don't like anyone else Attracted to people of similarly skilled people

causes of correspondence bias

Situational causes of behavior are often invisible Professors cannot see students sucking up to them but can only see them laughing at bad jokes Situational attributions tend to be more complex than dispositional attributions and requre more time and attention Info about situations is hard to get and hard to use so we tend to believe that other peoples' actions are caused by their dispoitions

sex differences in humans

Size Males somewhat larger than females Aggression Males more physically violent females more choosy

limitations of apes learning languages

Size of vocab Type of words they can master Concrete objects and simple actions Complexity of grammar Rarely exeed three or four words

morphemes

Smallest meaningful units of lanugage Recognizes pe at beginning of "pat" as sound but no meaning 'Pat" is recognized as element of speech with meaning

phonemes

Smallest units of sound that arerecognizable as speech rather than as random noise Ba and pa are different phonemes because of they way they differ when they are produced

type a personality

Tendency toward easily aroused hostility, impatience, a sense of time urgency, and competitive achievement strivings ⅔ of people who had heart attacks were type A personality

analogical problem solving

Solving a problem by finding a similar problem with a known solution and applying hta solution to the current problem Taking down fortress by dividing and conquering Compare to removing tumor by sending weaker doses that converge on the tumor Combined strength strong individual weak Adding multiple analogous problems helps people solve problem

parental investment

Some males have sex with many females and don't have to invest own resources into rearing offspring More kids might die but have many more chances Some males focus on one female and invest heavily in rearing those offspring One kid has a better chance of surviving Differences in parental investment even out a bit because females possess a powerful weapon: paternal uncertainty Males motivated to avoid being cuckolded Maternal certainty is 100% If male sticks around can be more certain the offspring is yours

criticisms on education and intelligence

Some studies say education enhances test-taking ability more than general cognitive ability Effects vanish within a few years Education produes increases in intelligence that are smaller, noarrower, and shorter-lied than ideal Either education chant change intelligene a lot or modern schools aren't good at providing education Lean towards latter

necessary conditions

Something that must be true of the object in order for it to belong to the category Is animal a dog? Animal must be mammal or else not dog

sufficient condition

Something that, if true, proves that it belongs to the cateogry Someone told you animal is german shepherd so must be a dog

conventional stage

Somewhere around getting to adolesence Stage in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by the extent to which it conforms to social rules Believe that everyone should uphold the generally accepted norms of their cuultures, obey lws of society, and fulfil civic duty Concerned about approval of others immoral=actions where you are condemned

security and self esteem

Source of distress is fear of death Anxiety provoking to contemplate their own mortaliy Defend against this by immersing themselves in activies that culture defines as meaningful and valuable Higher self=esteem, the less anxious we feel with the knowledge that somebody we will no longer exist

chronic stressors

Sources of stress that occur continuously or repeatedly Can accumulate to produce distress and illness Many chronic stressors linked to social relationships Being outside the in-group can be stressful Also linked to environments City life Noise, pollution, crowds, traffic, violence Rural Lack of acess to amenities, isolation

culture and aggression

South More aggressive Taught to react aggressively when they feel their status has been challenged When not insulted, more polite than northerners

stressors

Specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person's well-being

etiology

Specific pattern of causes

Agoraphobia

Specific phobia involving a fear of public places Many not frightened of public places in themselves, but they are afraid of having a panic attack in a public place or around strangers who might look down upon them or refuse to help

genius and insight

Spontaneous insights reflect a spontaneous restructuring aof a problem "Sudden flash of insight" instead of incremental problem solving Insight is rare because problem solving suffers from framing effects May result from unconscious incremental processes Pattern of clues that constitute problem unconsciously activates relevant info in memory Activation spreads through memory network, recruiting additional relevant info When sufficient info activated, crosses threshold of awareness adn experience flash of insight

If we are forced to confront inconsistet info then we work hard

Ss Given an unfavorable medical test result took longer to decide their test result was compelte Were more likely to retest the validity of thei result Cited more life irregularities that might have affected test accuracy Rated test accuracy as lower than did Ss receiving more favorable diagnosis

illusion of unique invulnerability

Sstematic bias toward believing that they are less likely to fall victim to the problem than are others unprotected sex

postconventional stage

Stage in which the morality of an action is detrmined by a set of general principles that reflect core values Some adults move here (not all) When behavior violates principles it is immoral If law requires principles to be violated, it shouldn't be obeyedd

sucking reflex

Tendeny to suck any object that enters their mouths

data based approach

Starting with people's reaposnses on intelligence tests and thenlooking to see what kinds of independent clusters these form Start with the data and go where they lead us 8 different iddle level abilities Memory and learning Visual perception Auditry perception Retrieval ability Cognitive seediness Processing speed Crystallized intelligence Fluid intelligence Good because based on hard evidence Bad because incapable of discovering any middle-level bility that intelligence tests it uses didn't already measure

equity

State of affairs in which the cost-benefit ratios of two partners are roughly equal Peopel who give too much are sometimes just as much as those who give too little

ratio iq

Statisic obtained by dividing person's mental age by the person's physical age then multiplying by 100 10 year old with mental age of ten has IQ of 100 Problem 7 yearold with mental age of 14 has IQ of 200 but so does 20 year old with mental age of 40

deviation iq

Statistic obtained by dividing perosn's test score by average test score of people in same age group and then multiplying by 100 Person who scored same as average person of their age would have 100 PRoblem Does not allow us to compare people of different ages Could have same IQ but different intelligneces

factor analysis

Statistical technique that explains a large number of correlations in terms of a small number of underlying factors If there really is a general ability called intelligence, then those who are intellligent should do well at everything and those who don't have it suck at everything

neurotransmitter imbalances and GAD

Stimulation of GABA redues symptoms of GAD Other drugs that don't stimulate GABA can also be helpful Different prescription drugs do not work for all individuals and can produc serious side effects an ddependency

Stress Effects on Health and Aging

Stress significantly accelerates aging process People exposed to chronic stress have shorter telomere length and lower telomerase activity Cortisol can reduce activity of telomerase Exercise and meditation seem to prevent chronic stress from shortening telomere length

Diathsis-stress framework

Stressful life events are much more likely to lead to depression among those with a certain genetic trait related to the activity of serotonoin Nature and nurture interact to inflence brain depression

psychological factors of bipolar disorder

Stressful life experiences often precede manic and depressive episodes Stress has less impact on people with extraverted personalities than introverted People living with family members high on expressed emotion are more likely to relapse than people with supportive families

why big 5 is preffered

Strikes the right balance between accounting for as much variation in personality as posible while avoiding overlapping traits In studies, other people's descriptions of their own personalities, interview checklists, and behavioral observation same 5 factors emerged Seems to show up across wide range of participants Children, adults, other cltures, other languages

psychoneuroimmunology

Study of how the immune system responds to psychological variables such as presence of stressors Stressors can cause hormones known as glucorticoids to flood brain, wearing down immune system and making it less able to fight invaders Wounds heal more slowly Easier to catch a cold Only major stressors a month or longer

social psychology

Study of the courses and consequences of sociality

4 ways to improve child's intelligence

Supplementing diets of pregnant women and neonates with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (in breast milk) Raises IQ 4 points Enrolling low-SES infants in early educational interventions Raises IQ 6 points Reading to hildren in an interactive manner Raises IQ 6 points Sending children to preschool Raises IQ 6 points

genetic dysphasia

Syndrome characterized by an inability to learn the grammatical structure of language despite having otherwise normal intelligence Tends to run in families Cannot generalize rules Normal children can learn rules with ease because "wired to do so"

language

System for communicating with others using signals that are combined according to rules of grammar and convey meaning Allows individuals to exchange info about world, coordinate group action, and form strong social bonds

logic

System of rules that specifies which consclusions follow from a set of statemets Tool for evaluating reasoning Not to be cofused with reasoning itself

culture

Systems of meaning to help interpret the world around us Shared set of concepts transmitted socially/intergenerationally attitudes/values Not race/ethnicity

projective tests

Tests designed to reveal inner aspects of individuals personalities by analysis of their responses to a standard series of ambiguous stimuli Assume people will project personality factors that are below awareness onto ambiguous stimuli and will not censor the responses Rorschach Inkblot TEst Thematic Aperception Test Argue that tests are open to biases of te examiner Must always add an interpretation Should be used primarily as a way to get to know somebody personally and intuitiely

apes learning languages

Teaching them to use ASL and computer-monitored keyboards that display geometic signas that represent words Molding Signing chimp adopted infant chimp who learned signs by simply watching mom Apes can acquire sizable vocab, string words together to form short sentenes an process sentences that are grammatically complex Neurological wiring that allows us to learn language overlaps to some degree with theirs

relaxation therapy

Technique for reducing tension by consciuosly relaxing muscles of the body Relax specific muscle groups at a time or imaging warmth spreading over Draws on a relaxation response Relaxation can reduce symptoms of stress, reduce blood levels of cortisol

Electromyography (EMG)

Technique used to measure the subtle activity of muscles Study Asked to imagine rowing a boat orplucking a flower from a bush Would produce slight levels of tension in the muscles involved in erforming the act

chinese vs american counting experiment

Teens: twelve vs "ten-two" in chinese Not obvious to english kids that 12 composed of 10 and 2 Children asked to hand experimenter a certain number of bricks Some of the bricks were single Some glued together in strips of 10 Asian children: 2 rows of 10 and 6 singles Non-Asian children Counting out 26 single blocks

Blushing is Likely an Adaptive Signal

Tells other people our mental state (genuine report) If you blush in public people trust you more You realize yourself that you did something audience thinks you shouldn't have done Know the norms and know you violated them

common knowledge effect

Tendency for group discussions to focus on info that all members share Shared info is unimportant Important info known to just a few

group polarization

Tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than any member would have made alone Moderate opinion can turn extreme

groupthink

Tendency for groups to reach consensus in order to facilitate interpersonal harmony Often sacrifice goodness of their decision in order to achieve it

Diffusion of responsibility

Tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way Main culprit behind self loafing bystander intervention

rooting reflex

Tendency for infants to move their mouths toward any object that touches their cheek

mere exposure effect

Tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure Explain why college students who were randomly assigned to seats during psych experiement were likely to be friends with the person they sat next to a year later

self-fulfilling prophecy

Tendency for people to behave as they are expected to behave

self loafing

Tendency for people to expend less effort when in a group than alone Less likely to clap loudly after performance, leave good tips, say hello to passerby

perceptual confirmation

Tendency for people to see what they expect to see Helps perpetuate stereotypes Experiment Listend to radio broadcast of college basketball One gruop told player was african american, others thought white Those who thought he was black thought he had demonstrated greater athletic ability but less intelligence than did those who thought he was white

subtyping

Tendency for people who receive disconfirming evidence to modify their stereotypes rather than abandon them If person only slightly violates stereotype, will shift stereotpye a bit to accommodate But if extremely violates stereotypes, considered just an exception

imitation

Tendency to do what an adult does or means to do If hand slips, preform intended action Overimitation By age of 3, children will copy parts of actions they know to be pointless

conformity

Tendency to do what others do simply because others do it Behavior of others can tell us what is proper, appropriate, expected, and accepted

obedience

Tendency to do wht powerful people tell us to do

correspondence bias

Tendency to make a dispositional attribution when we should instaead make a situational attribution So common and so basic that it is often called the "fundamental attribution error" quizmaster example

actor observer effect

Tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviors while making dispositional attributions

functional fixedness

Tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed Attatching candle to wall using max box thumbtacks Tend to think of the objecs in terms of their normal functions Usually don't think of a matchbox as a candleholder

self verification

Tendency to seek evidence to confirm the self-concept Major effect of self-concept is to promote consistency in behavior accross situations Sense of familiarity and stability in knowing who they are

lasting contribution of freud

The Unconscious Mind Could be motivated by part of psychology that we had no access to Basic, often hidden, motivations influence all aspects of psychology Importance of early childhood development Could have significant things occurring at early ages that could determine adult personality Willingness to discuss pleasure and sexuality Definition of sexuality that is much broader How human organism derives pleasure

joint attention

The ability to focus on what another person is focused on Prerequisite for learning what others have to teach Example Adult turns head to left 3 and 9 months follow Adult closes eyes and turns head 3 follow but 9 do not Follow her gaze not her head

dunning kruger effect

The less you know about a domain, the easier it is to be bad at estimating how good you are

health psychology

The subfield of psychology concerend with ways psychological factors influence the auses and treatment of physical illness and the maintenance of health

2 ways a trait might serve as an explanation

The trait may be a preexisting disposition of the person that causes the person's behavior Inner property that causes them to straighten things up Trait may be a motivation that guides the person's behavior Need for order explains organized calendar

theory of mind

The understanding that other people's mental representations guide their behavior

biofeedback

The use of an external monitoring device to obain info about a bodily function and possibly gain control over that functin Developed in order to automatically relax Might not be aware of temperature of fingers but with biofeedback machine can contrl telmperature at will Not a magic bullet that gives people control over stress induced healthy troubles Can increase relaxation and decrease chronic pain

schemas

Theories about the way the world works assimilation and accomodation

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Three-stage physiological stress response that appears regardless of the stressors that is encountered Nonspecific Response doesn't vary, no matter what the source of the repeated stress Three phases: Alarm phase Resistance phase exhaustion phase

genital stage

Time for the coming ogether of the mature adult personality with a capacity to love, work, and relate to others in a mutually satisfying and reciprocal manner Puberty and thereafter Sexual feelings re-emerge and are oriented toward others Healthy adults find pleasure in love and work Fixate adults have their energy tied up in earlier stages

approach system

Thing that motivates you to find motivating behaviors Associated with positive emotionality

how piaget was wrong

Thought that children graduated from one stage to another in the same way went from kindergarten to first-grade Ages at which these transitions occur They happen earlier than he realized Object permanence

Directing attention toward or awy from the body can influence the symptoms we perceive

When bored: More attention available to direct ot their bodies Focus more on their physical symptoms Cough more at boring parts of lecture

certainty effectf

When making decisions, people give greater weight to outcomes that are a sure thin

situational attributions

When we decide that a person's behavior was caused by some termporary aspect of the situation in which it happened He was lucky that the wind carried the ball into the stands

dispositional attributions

When we devide that a person's behavoir was caused by a relatively d=enduring tendency to think, feel, or act in a particular way He's got a great eye and a powerful swing Refer to things within people, such as abilities, moods, or efforts Tend to have a self-serving bias in making attributions about ourselves

stereotypes can be self-perceptuating

When we see exceptions why don't we abandon stereotypes? Self-perpetuating, resist efforts to eradicate them self-fulfillig prophecy stereotype threat perceptual confirmation subtyping

some involvement of RH in language comprehension

When words are presented to right hemisphere using divided visual field techniques, right hemisphere shows some capacity for processing meaning Individuals with damage to RH sometimes have subtle problems with language comprehension Number of neuroimaging studies have revealed evidence of RH activation during language tasks Some children who have had their entire LH removed during adolescence can recover many language abilities

Our social perception of other people is fundamentally different than our social perception of ourselves

You are special and go by different rules than others Not responding to texts vs. somebody not responding to your texts Across a variety of domains, we demonstrate positive illusions about ourselves and are harsher about other people Motivational Want to maintain a positive view of ourselves because it feels good Informational We have imperfect access to info about ourselves and about others When people do evil things, think they are doing good things

Socioemotional selectivity theory

Younger adults are largely oriented toward the acquisition of info that will be usefull to them in the future Older adults generally oriented toward info that brings emotional satisfaction in the present

Two groups develop theory of mind slower than normal

children with autism Deaf children whose parents do not know sign language

iq predicts wide variety of life outcomes

income: More patient Better at calculating risk Better at predicting how other people will act and how they should respond Get more education IQ Better predictor of amount of education they receive than social class Spend more time on school and perform better when they're there Perform much better at jobs Siblings with different IQ Less intelligent sibling earned half of what more intelligent sibling earned health: Less likely to smoke and drink More likely to exercise and eat ell Live longer

self-report for personality

method in which people provide subjective info about their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, typically via questionnaire or interview Asked to circle a number on a scale to see how much they endorse a statement as being self-descriptive How is Self-report scale Created? Collect sets of self-descriptive statements that indiciate different degrees of a personality characteristic

positive illusion of ourselves

mind/ego is like a dictator that controls information to benefit itself Idiosyncratic trait definitions We can selectively use definitions that make us look good How intelligent are you intelligence=street smarts How intelligent are your peers intelligence=test scores May be beneficial Confidence can help us do better

types of reasoning

practical theoretical syllogistic

Moral reasoning goes through three basic stages

preconventional stage conventional stage postconventional stage

stress interpretation

primary appraisal secondary appraisal

stress effects on the immune system

psychoneuroimmunology Helps explain why social status is realted to health Stress of living life at bottom levelsof society increases risk of infections by weakening immune system People who think they are low in status are more prone to suffer from respiratory infections

2 ways to compute iq

ratio iq deviation iq typically use ratio with children and deviatino with adults

types of defense mechanisms

rationalization regression reaction formation

Species in which parental investment is different

seahorses penguins elephant seals

3 factors of attraction

situational physical psychological

two most powerful factors of education

socioeconomic status education Genes may determine range in which our IQ is likely o fall, but our experiences determine the exact point in that range

Resources to survive are scarce

solve problem of allocation of resources by aggression or cooperation

symmetrical facy

symmetrical face Sign of genetic health Preference for symmetrical men even more pronounced when ovulating

centration

tendency to focus on just one property of an object to the exclusion of all others Focus on length of line without considering amount of space between eggs