psych final (ch 14)
biological influences on aggressive behavior
- genetic influences - biochemical influences, such as testosterone and alcohol - neural influences, such as a severe head injury
times when people are more likely to conform
- made to feel incompetent or insecure - are in a group with at least three people - in a group in which everyone else agrees (if just one other person disagrees, the odds of disagreeing greatly increase) - admire the groups status and attractiveness - have not made a prior commitment to any response - know that others in the group will observe our behavior - are from a culture that strongly encourages respect for social standards
causes of social loafing
- people acting as pert of a group feel less accountable, and therefore worry less about what others think - group members may view their individual contributions as dispensable - when group members share equally in the benefits, regardless of how much they contribute, some ay slack off (as you perhaps have observed on group assignments). Unless highly motivates and strongly identified with the gruel, people may free ride on others' efforts
Jamal's therapist has suggested that Jamal should "act as if" he is confident, even though he feels insecure and shy. Which social psychological theory would best support this suggestion, and what might the therapist be hoping to achieve?
Cognitive dissonance theory best supports this suggestion. If Jamal acts confident, his behavior will contradict his negative self-thoughts, creating cognitive dissonance. To relieve the tension, Jamal may realign his attitudes with his actions by viewing himself as more outgoing and confident.
How does the two-factor their of emotion help explain passionate love?
Emotions consist of (1) physical arousal and (2) our interpretation of that arousal. Researchers have found that any source of arousal (running, fear, laughter) may be interpreted as passion in the presence of a desirable person.
The most widely used test to measure implicit attitudes and preferences is the _____, developed by psychologist Anthony Greenwald and his colleagues.
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
How does romantic love typically change as time passes?
Intimate love relationships start with passionate love—an intensely aroused state. Over time, the strong affection of companionate love may develop, especially if enhanced by an equitable relationship and by intimate self-disclosure.
psychologist who proposed cognitive dissonance theory
Leon Festinger
warrior gene
MAOA gene
You are organizing a meeting of fiercely competitive political candidates. To add to the fun, friends have suggested handing out masks of the candidates' faces for supporters to wear. What phenomenon might these masks engage?
The anonymity provided by the masks, combined with the arousal of the contentious setting, might create deindividuation (lessened self-awareness and self-restraint).
How do social exchange theory and social norms explain helping behavior?
Social exchange theory is the view that we help others because it is in our own self-interest; in this view, the goal of social behavior is maximizing personal benefits and minimizing costs. Others believe that helping results from socialization, in which we are taught guidelines for expected behaviors in social situations, such as the reciprocity norm and the social-responsibility norm.
genetic markers for violence
Y chromosome and monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene
Which of the following strengthens conformity in a group? a) finding the group attractive b) feeling secure c) coming from an individualist culture d) having made a prior commitment
a) finding the group attractive
If we encounter a person who appears to be high on drugs, and we make the fundamental attribution error, we will probably attribute the person's behavior to a) moral weakness or an addictive personality b) peer pressure c) the easy availability of drugs on city streets d) society's acceptance of drug use
a) moral weakness or an addictive personality
The fundamental attribution error best illustrates that we may often underestimate the importance of: a) social control b) hindsight bias c) personality traits d) cognitive dissonance
a) social control
In Milgram's experiments, the rate of compliance was highest when a) the "learner" was at a distance from the "teacher" b) the "learner" was close at hand c) other "teachers" refused to go along with the experimenter d) the "teacher" disliked the "learner"
a) the "learner" was at a distance from the "teacher"
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
attitude
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
attitude
Persuaders try to influence our behavior by changing our ________. But other factors, including the situation, also influence our behavior.
attitudes
According to ________ theory, people explain behavior by crediting either the situation of the person's disposition
attribution
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition
attribution
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation of the person's disposition
attribution theory
Your friend yells at you for being five minutes late for lunch. Rather than believe your friend is a rude jerk, you decide that she may be having difficulties with her partner. Thus, her behavior is the result of: a) your personality traits b) a situational attribution c) a dispositional attribution d) none of these would be an explanation for why your friend yelled at you
b) a situational attribution
Which of the following is a social-cultural influence on the expression of aggressive behavior? a) rewards for aggressive behavior b) minimal paternal involvement in the lives of children c) lower than normal levels of serotonin in the brain d) frustrating situations
b) minimal paternal involvement i the lives of children
Discrimination is a negative ___________, whereas prejudice is a negative ___________.
behavior; attitude
Research reveals ________, ________, and ________ influences on aggressive behavior
biologica, psychological, and social-cultural
Aggressive behavior emerges from the interaction of ________ and ________.
biology and experience
National crime data demonstrate that the majority of violent crimes are alcohol influenced. Why might this be the case?
both aggressive-prone people are more likely to drink alcohol and
Mary and Bill are in a romantic relationship and met each other through an online dating service. Their relationship is likely to be:
both long lasting and satisfying
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
bystander effect
When we adjust our own behavior or thinking so that it coincides with a group standard, we are exhibiting a) the mere exposure effect b) reciprocal determinism c) conformity d) the self-serving bias
c) conformity
The aspect of pornographic films that most directly influences men's aggression toward women seems to be the a) length of the film b) eroticism portrayed c) depictions of sexual violence d) attractiveness of the actors
c) depictions of sexual violence
The bystander effect states that a particular bystander is less likely to give aid if a) the victim is similar to the bystander in appearance b) no one else is present c) other people are present d) the incident occurs in a deserted or rural area
c) other people are present
Researchers have found that a person is most likely to conform to a group if a) the group members have diverse opinions b) the person feels competent and secure c) the person admires the group's status d) no one else will observe the person's behavior
c) the person admires the group's status
Another vital ingredient of loving relationships is __________, the revealing of intimate details about ourselves - like our likes and dislikes, our dreams and worries, our proud and shameful moments.
self-disclosure
the act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
self-disclosure
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
self-fulfilling prophecy
The fundamental attribute error involves underestimating ____________
situ rational influences on another's behavior
(attribution theory) "We can attribute the the behavior to the the situation"
situational attribution
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs (accountants call it cost-benefit analysis; philosophers call it utilitarianism)
social change theory
Our social behavior arises from our __________.
social cognition
the power of the situation
social control
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
social exchange theory
__________ experiments test the effects of others' presence on performance of an individual task, such as shooting pool.
social facilitation
improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
social facilitation
strengthened perfomance in others' presence (simple tasks)
social facilitation
People tend to exert less effort when working with a group than they would alone, which is called __________.
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts towards attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
social loafing
We are sensitive to __________ because the price we pay for being different can be severe.
social norms
understood rules for accepted and expected behavior
social norms
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
social psychology
culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
social script
Thomas enjoys watching violent pornography. When he goes out with a woman, he expects her to be submissive to his sexual demands; when he is turned down he becomes violent. Research done by social psychologists suggests that his beliefs are caused by _____, which are mental files for how to act.
social scripts
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-intreat rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior "It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest."
social traps
an expectation that people will help those needing their help
social-responsibility norm
Prejudice toward a group involves negative feelings, a tendency to discriminate, and overly generalized beliefs referred to as ________.
stereotypes
a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people
sterotype
One way of resolving conflicts and fostering cooperation is by giving rival groups shared goals that help them override their differences. These are called __________ goals.
superordinate
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
superordinate goals
Peripheral route persuasion doesn't engage in ________ thinking, but does produce fast results as people respond to uninformative cues (such as celebrity endorsements) and make snap judgements.
systematic
Prejudice springs from a culture's divisions, the heart's passions, and also from __________
the mind's natural workings
In the Milgram experiments, the level of obedience was highest when the "teacher" was __________ the experimenter and __________ the "learner."
close to; far from
Actions can affect attitudes, sometimes turning prisoners into collaborators, doubters into believers, and complaint guards into abusers. (Why?) One explanation is that when we become aware that our attitudes and actions don't coincide, we experience tension or ____________.
cognitive dissonance
When people act in a way that is not in keeping with their attitudes, and then change their attitudes to match those actions ____________.
cognitive dissonance
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) when two of our thought (cognitions) are inconsistent
cognitive dissonance theory
Stereotyped beliefs are a by-product of how we ___________
cognitively simplify the world (ex: One way we simplify our world is to categorize.)
If love endures, temporary passionate love will mellow into a lingering __________.
companionate love
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
companionate love
A happy couple celebrating their 50th wedding anniversary is likely to experience deep ________ love even though their ________ love has probably decreased over the years.
companionate; passionate
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
conflict
Suggestibility and mimicry are subtle types of ________ - adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group standard.
conformity
adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
conformity
What you normally find ________ may seem all but impossible when you are being watched
difficult
When more people share responsibility for helping - when there was a __________ - any single listener was less likely to help.
diffusion of responsibility
(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an on condition stimulus. (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
discrimination
(attribution theory) "We can attribute the behavior to the person's stable, enduring traits"
dispositional attribution
Automatic mimicry helps us to ________ - feel what others are feeling. This explains why we feel happier around happy people than around depressed people.
empathize
The more alike people are, the more their liking ________.
endures
In class, Juliette seldom talks. Over coffee, Jack talks nonstop. Juliette must be shy and Jack outgoing. Such attributions - to their dispositions - can be valid, because people do have ________ personality traits.
enduring
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give it
equity
Two vial components for maintaining companionate love are __________ and __________
equity and self disclosure
Central route persuasion offeres ________ and ________ that aim to trigger favorable thoughts. It occurs mostly when people are naturally analytical or involved in the issue.
evidence and arguments
We've seen that the presence of others can arouse people (social facilitation), or it can diminish their feelings of responsibility (social loafing). But sometimes the pressure of others does both. The uninhibited behavior that results can range from a __________ to ____________.
food right to vandalism or rioting
We tend to agree to a larger request more readily if we have already agreed to a small request. This tendency is called the __________ phenomenon
foot-in-the-door
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
foot-in-the-door phenomenon (ex section 42.2 Chinese communist war camp)
the principle that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can generate aggression
frustration-aggression principle
the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to overestimate the impact of persona disposition
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
fundamental attribution error
biological influences on aggression
genetic, neural, biochemical
Sharing our opinions with like-minded others tends to strengthen our views, a phenomenon referred to as __________.
group polarization
The beliefs and attitudes we bring to a group grow stronger as we discuss them with like-midid others. The process, called __________, can have beneficial results, as when it amplifies a sought-after spiritual awareness or reinforces the resolve on those in a self-help group.
group polarization
When like-minded groups discuss a topic, and the result is the strengthening of the prevailing opinion, this is called __________.
group polarization
the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group
group polarization
social context of social loading
group projects
social context of deindividuation
group settings that fosters arousal and anonymity
Studies have show that ________ - fed by overconfidence, conformity, self-justification, and group polarization - contributed to other fiascos as well. (ex: Bay of Pigs fiasco - JFK)
groupthink
The tragic decision to launch the space shuttle Challenger resulted in part from the minimal expression of dissenting views among NASA personnel and advisors. This best illustrates the dangers of __________.
groupthink
When a group's desire for harmony overrides its realistic analysis of other options, ________ has occurred.
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
groupthink
Adrenaline makes the heart ____________
grow fonder
The last result, that ________ people are helpful people, is one of the most consistent findings in all of psychology
happy
Hugenberg and Bodenhausen found that people who were more quickly to associate good things with White names or faces also were the quickest to perceive anger and apparent threat in Black faces. Their findings demonstrate ________ prejudice
implicit
What you do well, you are likely to do better when?
in front of an audience, especially a friendly one
social context of social facilitation
individual being observed
Genes ________ aggression
influence (we know this because animals have been bred for aggressiveness)
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
informational social influence
"us" - people with whom we share a common identity
ingroup
the tendency to favor our won group
ingroup bias
The jury deliberated on the rape case for more than eight hours. Some of the jurors commented that the rape victim had a history of going out to various bars and had been dressed too provocatively. These jurors said that by looking like that, she had been asking to be assaulted. Their opinion is best explained in terms of the ________ phenomenon
just-world
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
just-world phenomenon
Participants in Stanley Milgram's obedience experiments were informed that they were involved in a study of:
learning
Historical trends suggest that the world is becoming ________ violent over time.
less
Sometimes called the "warrior gene," people who have ____ MAOA gene expression tend to behave aggressively when provoked.
low
Social scripts are culturally provided __________ for how to act
mental files
The more familiar a stimulus becomes, the more we tend to like it. This exemplifies the __________ effect
mere exposure
People tend to marry someone who lives or works nearby. The is an example of the __________ in action
mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposed to novel stimuli increases liking of them
mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
mere exposure effect
When a police officer pulls over a car because the driver is an African-American male in an expensive car, the police officer has committed a __________
microaggression
the power of one or two individuals to sway majorities
minority influence
Our enemies often have many of the same negative impressions of us as we have of them. This exemplifies the concept of ____________ perceptions.
mirror-image
mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive
mirror-image perceptions
The other-race effect occurs when we assume that other groups are ________ homogeneous than our own group.
more
________ emotions nourish prejudice
negative
Frequently, we conform to avoid rejection or to gain social approval. In such cases, we are spending to ____________.
normative social influence
While Wendy disagrees with her boss, she laughs at her joke anyway to gain her approval. Wendy's behavior illustrates:
normative social influence
influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
normative social influence
the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races
other-race effect (cross-race effect or own-race bias)
Group interaction can influence ____________
our personal decisions
"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
outgroup
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
passionate love
Celebrity endorsements in advertising often lead consumers to purchase products through ________ route persuasion
peripheral
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness
peripheral route persuasion
Knowing that public attitudes affect public policies, activists on both sides are aiming to persuade. Persuasion efforts generally take two forms:
peripheral route persuasion and central route persuasion
the power of the individual
personal control
(fundamental attribution error) We overestimate the influence of ________ and underestimate the influence of situations (In class, Jack may be as quiet as Juliette. Catch Juliette at a part and you may hardly recognize your quiet classmate)
personality
(two factor theory) emotions have two ingredients (name the two)
physical arousal and cognitive appraisal
Clarissa and Julio are in English class together and have been assigned to sit next to each other. What will affect their first impression of each other?
physical attractiveness
In addition to equity and self-disclosure, a third key to enduring love is __________.
positive support
The urge to distinguish enemies from friends predisposes ________ against strangers.
prejudice
an injustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members (usually involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action)
prejudice
an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action
prejudice
an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group.
prejudice
behavior that intends to help of benefit someone
prosocial
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
reciprocity norm
(theory) we will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us, including those who are both able and willing to help us achieve our goals
reward theory of attraction
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
role
After the events of 9/11, some Americans began boycotting Arab-American stores and lashing out at any person they perceived as Middle Eastern. This behavior is best explained in terms of the __________ theory.
scapegoat
When prejudiced judgement causes us to blame an undeserving person or problem, that person is called a ________.
scapegoat
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
scapegoat theory
the theory the prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
scapegoat theory
Personality psychologists focus on __________
the person (They study the person traits and dynamics that explain why different people may act differently in a given situation.)
psychological influences on aggressive behavior
- dominating behavior (which boosts testosterone levels in the blood) - believing that alcohol has been ingested (whether it has or not) - frustration - aggressive role models - rewards for agressive behavior - low self-control
social-cultural influence on aggressive behavior
- deindividuation, or lose of self-awareness and self-restraint - challenging environmental factors, such as crowding, heat, and direct provocations - parental models of aggression - minimal father involvement - rejection from a group - exposure to violent media
How do social traps and mirror image perceptions fuel social conflicts?
A conflict is a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. Social traps are situations in which people in conflict pursue their own individual self-interest, harming the collective well-being. Individuals and cultures in conflict also tend to form mirror-image perceptions: Each party views the opponent as untrustworthy and evil-intentioned, and itself as an ethical, peaceful victim. Perceptions can become self-fulfilling prophecies.
When are people most - and least - likely to help?
Altruism is unselfish regard for the well-being of others. We are most likely to help when we (a) notice an incident, (b) interpret it as an emergency, and (c) assume responsibility for helping. Other factors, including our mood and our similarity to the victim, also affect our willingness to help. We are least likely to help if other bystanders are present (the bystander effect).
How do attitudes and actions interact?
Attitudes are feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in certain ways. Peripheral route persuasion uses incidental cues (such as celebrity endorsement) to try to produce fast but relatively thoughtless changes in attitudes. Central route persuasion offers evidence and arguments to trigger thoughtful responses. When other influences are minimal, attitudes that are stable, specific, and easily recalled can affect our actions. Actions can modify attitudes, as in the foot-in-the-door phenomenon (complying with a large request after having agreed to a small request) and role playing (acting a social part by following guidelines for expected behavior). When our attitudes don't fit with our actions, cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we will reduce tension by changing our attitudes to match our actions.
What is automatic mimicry, and how do conformity experiments reveal the power of social influence?
Automatic mimicry (the chameleon effect)—our tendency to unconsciously imitate others' expressions, postures, and voice tones—is a form of conformity. Solomon Asch and others have found that we are most likely to adjust our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard when (a) we feel incompetent or insecure, (b) our group has at least three people, (c) everyone else agrees, (d) we admire the group's status and attractiveness, (e) we have not already committed to another response, (f) we know we are being observed, and (g) our culture encourages respect for social standards. We may conform to gain approval (normative social influence) or because we are willing to accept others' opinions as new information (informational social influence).
How does being physically attractive influence others' perceptions?
Being physically attractive tends to elicit positive first impressions. People tend to assume that attractive people are healthier, happier, and more socially skilled than others are.
Driving to school one snowy day, Marco narrowly misses a car that slides through a red light. "Slow down! What a terrible driver," he thinks to himself. Moments later, Marco himself slips through an intersection and yelps, "Wow! These roads are awful. The city plows need to get out here." What social psychology principle has Marco just demonstrated? Explain.
By attributing the other person's behavior to the person ("he's a terrible drive") and his own to the situation ("these roads are awful"), Marco has exhibited the fundamental attribution error
proposed the attribution theory in 1958
Fritz Heider
What psychological and social-cultural factors may trigger aggressive behavior?
Frustration (frustration-aggression principle), previous reinforcement for aggressive behavior, observing an aggressive role model, and poor self-control can all contribute to aggression. Media portrayals of violence provide social scripts that children learn to follow. Viewing sexual violence contributes to greater aggression toward women. Playing violent video games increases aggressive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
a strategy designed to decrease international tensions
GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction)
What are group polarization and groupthink, and how much power do we have as individuals?
In group polarization, group discussions with like-minded others strengthen members' prevailing beliefs and attitudes. Internet communication magnifies this effect, for better and for worse. Groupthink is driven by a desire for harmony within a decision-making group, overriding realistic appraisal of alternatives. The power of the individual and the power of the situation interact. A small minority that consistently expresses its views may sway the majority.
How does psychology's definition of aggression differ from everyday usage? What biological factors make us more prone to hurt one another?
In psychology's more specific meaning, aggression is any act intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. Biology influences our threshold for aggressive behaviors at three levels: genetic (inherited traits), neural (activity in key brain areas), and biochemical (such as alcohol or excess testosterone in the bloodstream). Aggression is a complex behavior resulting from the interaction of biology and experience.
How is our behavior affected by the presence of others?
In social facilitation, the mere presence of others arouses us, improving our performance on easy or well-learned tasks but decreasing it on difficult ones. In social loafing, participating in a group project makes us feel less responsible, and we may free ride on others' efforts. When the presence of others both arouses us and makes us feel anonymous, we may experience deindividuation—loss of self-awareness and self-restraint.
Why didn't anybody help Kitty Genovese? What social psychology principle did this incident illustrate?
In the presence of others, an individual is less likely to notice a situation, correctly interpret it as an emergency, and take responsibility for offering help. The Kitty Genovese case demonstrated this bystander effect, as each witness assumed many others were also aware of the event.
How do our attitudes and actions affect each other?
Our attitudes often influence our actions as we behave in ways consistent with our beliefs. However, our attitudes also follow our actions: we come to believe in what we have done
What biological, psychological, and social-cultural influence interact to produce aggressive behaviors?
Our biology (our genes, neural systems, and biochemistry—including testosterone and alcohol levels) influences our aggressive tendencies. Psychological factors (such as frustration, previous rewards for aggressive acts, and observation of others' aggression) can trigger any aggressive tendencies we may have. Social influences, such as exposure to violent media or being ostracized from a group, and cultural influences, such as whether we've grown up in a "culture of honor" or a father-absent home, can also affect our aggressive responses.
How can we transform feelings of prejudice, aggression, and conflict into attitudes that promote peace?
Peace can result when individuals or groups work together to achieve superordinate (shared) goals. Research indicates that four processes—contact, cooperation, communication, and conciliation—help promote peace.
Why are some ways to reconcile conflicts and promote peace?
Peacemakers should encourage equal-status contact, cooperation to achieve superordinate goals (shared goals that override differences), understanding through communication, and reciprocated conciliatory gestures (each side gives a little).
role playing affects attitudes example
Philip Zimabardo prison simulation study (42.2) ** every time we act like the people around around us we slightly change ourselves to be more like them, and less like who we used to be
What is prejudice? What are its social and emotional roots?
Prejudice is an unjustifiable, usually negative, attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice's three components are beliefs (often stereotypes), emotions, and predispositions to action (discrimination). Overt prejudice in North America has decreased over time, but implicit prejudice—an automatic, unthinking attitude—continues. The social roots of prejudice include social inequalities and divisions. Higher-status groups often justify their privileged position with the just-world phenomenon. We tend to favor our own group (ingroup bias) as we divide ourselves into "us" (the ingroup) and "them" (the outgroup). Prejudice can also be a tool for protecting our emotional well-being, as when we focus our anger by blaming events on a scapegoat.
Why do we befriend or fall in love with some people but not others?
Proximity (geographical nearness) increases liking, in part because of the mere exposure effect—exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of those stimuli. Physical attractiveness increases social opportunities and improves the way we are perceived. Similarity of attitudes and interests greatly increases liking, especially as relationships develop. We also like those who like us.
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
altruism
What do social psychologist study? How do we tend to explain others' behavior and our own?
Social psychologists use scientific methods to study how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. They study the social influences that explain why the same person will act differently in different situations. When explaining others' behavior, we may—especially if we come from an individualist Western culture—commit the fundamental attribution error, by underestimating the influence of the situation and overestimating the effects of stable, enduring traits. When explaining our own behavior, we more readily attribute it to the influence of the situation.
What did Milligram's obedience experiments teach us about the power of social influence?
Stanley Milgram's experiments—in which people obeyed orders even when they thought they were harming another person—demonstrated that strong social influences can make ordinary people conform to falsehoods or give in to cruelty. Obedience was highest when (a) the person giving orders was nearby and was perceived as a legitimate authority figure; (b) the research was supported by a prestigious institution; (c) the victim was depersonalized or at a distance; and (d) there were no role models for defiance.
What are the cognitive roots of prejudice?
The cognitive roots of prejudice grow from our natural ways of processing information: forming categories, remembering vivid cases, and believing that the world is just and that our own and our culture's ways of doing things are the right ways.
Dr. Huang, a popular music professor, delivers fascinating lectures on music history but gets nervous and makes mistakes when describing exam statistics in front of the class. Why does his performance vary by task?
The presence of a large audience generates arousal and strengthens Dr. Huang's most likely response: enhanced performance on a task he has mastered (teaching music history) and impaired performance on a task he finds difficult (statistics).
What is social facilitation and why is it more likely to occur with a well-learned task?
This improved performance in the presence of others is most likely to occur with a well-learned task, because the added arousal caused by an audience tends to strengthen the most likely response. This also predicts poorer performance on a difficult task in others' presence.
If several well-publicized murders are committed by members of a particular group, we may tend to react with fear and suspicion toward all members of that group. What psychological principle can help explain this reaction?
This reaction could occur because we tend to overgeneralize from vivid memorable cases
The attitudes-follow-behavoir principle has a heartening implication: We cannot directly control ____________, but we can influence them by altering our behavior.
all our feelings
A conference of social scientists studying the effects of pornography unanimously agreed that violent pornography leads views to me ____________.
accepting of coercion in sexual relations
In psychology, ________ is any unwanted behavior intended to harm someone, whether done out of hostility or as a calculated means to an end.
aggression
There is no one spot in the brain that controls ________.
aggression
an physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
aggression
Agression varies too widely from culture to culture, era to era, and person to person to be considered ____________.
an unlearned instinct
The key ingredient of passionate love is ________
arousal
We've seen that the presence of others can arouse people (___________), or it can diminish their feelings of responsibility (__________). But sometimes the pressure of others does both.
arouse = social facilitation dimes responsibility = social loafing
Using Asch's procedure, conformity to group judgments would be LEAST likely when a) participants announce their own answers only after the other group members have done so b) participants are not observed by other group members when giving their answers c) it is ver difficulty for anyone to make correct perceptual judgments d) judgments are made in a group that has more than three people
b) participants are not observed by other group members when giving their answers
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
central route persuasion
(cognitive dissonance theory ex) When we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by ____________.
changing our attitudes
Evidence of a biochemical influence on aggression is the finding that a) aggressive behavior varies widely from culture to culture b) animals can be bred for aggressiveness c) stimulation of an area of the brain's limbic system produces aggressive behavior d) a higher-than-average level of the hormone testosterone is associated with violent behavior in males
d) a higher-than-average level of the hormone testosterone is associated with violent behavior in males
After vigorous exercise, you meet an attractive person, and you are suddenly seized by romantic feelings for that person. This response supports the two-factor theory of emotion, which assumes that emotions, such as passionate love, consist of physical arousal plus a) a reward b) proximity c) companionate love d) our interpretation of that arousal
d) or interpretation of that arousal
People often commit the fundamental attribution error, especially when they explain a) why someone's attitude is ever-changing b) animal pack behavior c) the behavior of close friends d) the behavior of strangers who have been observed in only one time of situation
d) the behavior of strangers who have been observed in only one time of situation
In a group situation that fosters arousal and anonymity, a person sometimes loses self-consciousness and self-control. This phenomenon is called __________.
deindividuation
The process of losing self-awareness and self-restraint, called __________, often occurs when group participation makes people both aroused and anonymous.
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that voter arousal and anonymity
deindividuation
Maria has been invited to a new church by one of her closest friends. When she first attends, everyone seems so nice and friendly. She begins attending regularly. After a few weeks, sexual activity is discussed during one of the lectures where the women are told that they are forbidden to resist the sexual advances of any of the men associated with the church. Maria looks around and sees several women nodding their head in agreement but Maria feels extremely uncomfortable. At what point is Maria most likely to resist this teaching?
now, since it was first brought up
Studies show that parents of delinquent young people tend to use beating to enforce discipline. This suggests that aggression can be learned though __________.
observation of aggressive models
Triplett's claim - of strengthened performance in others' presence - is called social facilitation. But on tougher tasks (learning nonsense syllables or solving complex multiplication problems), people perform worse when ____________.
observers or others working on the task are present
After Mrs. Chanski and her children had helped themselves to free samples of the cookies promoted in the grocery store, she felt obligated to buy some even though they seemed unreasonably expensive. Her reaction best illustrates the significance of:
the reciprocity norm
Beth and Marsha have worked together for about a year. They work well together and both are advancing in the career. What can best explain why Beth and Marsha like each other?
the reward theory of attraction
Social psychologists study __________ that explain why the same person will act different in different situations.
the social influences
theory of emotion that helps us understand the intense positive absorption in another assumes that emotions have two ingredients (physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal) and that arousal from any source can enhance one emotion or another, depending on how we interpret and label the arousal
two factor-theory